THE DIVINE INSTITUTES and OF THE MANNER IN WHICH THE PERSECUTORS
DIED.(1)
by
Lactantius
THE DIVINE INSTITUTES
BOOK I.
OF THE FALSE WORSHIP OF THE GODS.
PREFACE.--OF WHAT GREAT VALUE THE KNOWLEDGE OF THE TRUTH IS AND ALWAYS
HAS BEEN.
MEN of great and distinguished talent, when they had
entirely devoted themselves to learning, holding in contempt all
actions both private and public, applied to the pursuit of
investigating the truth whatever labour could be bestowed upon it;
thinking it much more excellent to investigate and know the method of
human and divine things, than to be entirely occupied with the heaping
up of riches or the accumulation of honours. For no one can be made
better or more just by these things, since they are frail and earthly,
and pertain to the adorning of the body only. Those men were indeed
most deserving of the knowledge of the truth, which they so greatly
desired to know, that they even preferred it to all things. For it is
plain that some gave up their property, and altogether abandoned the
pursuit of pleasures, that, being disengaged and without impediment,
they might follow the simple truth, and it alone. And so greatly did
the name and authority of the truth prevail with them, that they
proclaimed that the reward of the greatest good was contained in it.
But they did not obtain the object of their wish, and at the same time
lost their labour and industry; because the truth, that is the secret
of the Most High God, who created all things, cannot be attained by our
own ability and perceptions. Otherwise there would be no difference
between God and man, if human thought. could reach to the counsels and
arrangements of that eternal majesty. And because it was impossible
that the divine method of procedure should become known to man by
his own efforts, God did not suffer man any longer to err in
search of the light of wisdom, and to wander through inextricable
darkness without any result of his labour, but at length opened
his eyes, and made the investigation of the truth His own gift,
so that He might show the nothingness of human wisdom, and point out to
man wandering in error the way of obtaining immortality.
But since few make use of this heavenly benefit and
gift, because the truth lies hidden veiled in obscurity; and it is
either an object of contempt to the learned because it has not suitable
defenders, or is hated by the unlearned on account of its natural
severity, which the nature of men inclined to vices cannot endure: for
because there is a bitterness mingled with virtues, while vices are
seasoned with pleasure, offended by the former and soothed by the
latter, they are borne headlong, and deceived by the appearance of good
things, they embrace evils for goods,--I have believed that these
errors should be encountered, that both the learned may be directed to
true wisdom, and the unlearned to true religion. And this profession is
to be thought much better, more useful and glorious, than that of
oratory, in which being long engaged, we trained young men not to
virtue, but altogether to cunning wickedness.(1) Certainly we shall now
much more rightly discuss respecting the heavenly precepts, by which we
may be able to instruct the minds of men to the worship of the true
majesty. Nor does he deserve so well respecting the affairs of men, who
imparts the knowledge of speaking well, as he who teaches men to live
in piety and innocence; on which account the philosophers were in
greater glory among the Greeks than the orators. For they, the
philosophers, were considered teachers of right living, which is far
more excellent, since to speak well belongs only to a few, but to live
well belongs to all. Yet that practice in fictitious suits has been of
great advantage to us, so that we are now able to plead the cause of
truth with greater copiousness and ability of speaking; for although
the truth may be defended without eloquence, as it often has
10
been defended by many, yet it needs to be explained, and in a measure
discussed, with distinctness and elegance of speech, in order that it
may flow with greater power into the minds of men, being both provided
with its own force, and adorned with the brilliancy of speech.
CHAP. I.--OF RELIGION AND WISDOM.
We undertake, therefore, to discuss religion and
divine things. For if some of the greatest orators, veterans as it were
of their profession, having completed the works of their pleadings, at
last gave themselves up to philosophy, and regarded that as a most just
rest from their labours, if they tortured their minds in the
investigation of those things which could not be found out, so that
they appear to have sought for themselves not so much leisure as
occupation, and that indeed with much greater trouble than in their
former pursuit; how much more justly shall I betake myself as to a most
safe harbour, to that pious, true, and divine wisdom, in which all
things are ready for utterance, pleasant to the hearing, easy to be
understood, honourable to be undertaken! And if some skilful men and
arbiters of justice composed and published Institutions of civil law,
by which they might lull the strifes and contentions of discordant
citizens, how much better and more rightly shall we follow up in
writing the divine Institutions, in which we shall not speak about
rain-droppings, or the turning of waters, or the preferring of claims,
but we shall speak of hope, of life, of salvation, of immortality, and
of God, that we may put an end to deadly superstitions and most
disgraceful errors.
And we now commence this work under the auspices of
your name, O mighty Emperor Constantine, who were the first of the
Roman princes to repudiate errors, and to acknowledge and honour the
majesty of the one and only true God.(1) For when that most happy day
had shone upon the world, in which the Most High God raised you to the
prosperous height of power, you entered upon a dominion which was
salutary and desirable for all, with an excellent beginning,
when, restoring justice which had been overthrown and taken away, you
expiated the most shameful deed of others. In return for which action
God will grant to you happiness, virtue, and length of days, that
even when old you may govern the state with the same justice with which
you began in youth, anti may hand down to your children the
guardianship of the Roman name, as you yourself received it from your
father. For to the wicked, who still rage against the righteous in
other parts of the world, the Omnipotent will also repay the reward of
their wickedness with a severity proportioned to its tardiness; for as
He is a most indulgent Father towards the godly, so is He a most
upright Judge against the ungodly. And in my desire to defend His
religion and divine worship, to whom can I rather appeal, whom can I
address, but him by whom justice and wisdom have been restored to the
affairs of
men?
Therefore, leaving the authors of this earthly
philosophy, who bring forward nothing certain. let us approach the
right path; for if I considered these to be sufficiently suitable
guides to a good life, I would both follow them myself, and exhort
others to follow them. But since they disagree among one another with
great contention, and are for the most part at variance with
themselves, it is evident that their path is by no means
straightforward: since they have severally marked out distinct ways for
themselves according to their own will, and have left great confusion
to those who are seeking for the truth. But since the truth is revealed
from heaven to us who have received the mystery of true religion, and
since we follow God, the teacher of wisdom and the guide to truth, we
call to ether all, without any distinction either of sex or of age, to
heavenly pasture. For there is no more pleasant food for the soul than
the knowledge of truth,(2) to the maintaining and explaining of which
we have destined seven books, although the subject is one of almost
boundless and immeasurable labour; so that if any one should wish to
dilate upon and follow up these things to their full extent, he would
have such an exuberant supply of subjects, that neither books would
find any limit, nor speech any end. But oil this account we will put
together all things briefly, because those things which we are about to
bring forward are so plain and lucid, that it seems to be more
wonderful that the truth appears so obscure to men, and to those
especially who are commonly esteemed wise, or because men will only
need to be trained by us,--that is, to be recalled from the error in
which they are entangled to a better course of life.
And if, as I hope, we shall attain to this, we will
send them to the very fountain of learning, which is most rich and
abundant, by copious draughts of which they may appease the thirst
conceived within, and quench their ardour. And all things will be easy,
ready of accomplishment, and clear to them, if only they are not
annoyed at applying patience in reading or hearing to the perception of
the discipline of wisdom.(3) For many, pertinaciously adhering to vain
superstitions, harden themselves against the manifest
11
truth, not so much deserving well of their religions, which they
wrongly maintain, as they deserve ill of themselves; who, when they
have a straight path, seek devious windings; who leave the level ground
that they may glide over a precipice; who leave the light, that, blind
and enfeebled, they may lie in darkness. We must provide for these,
that they may not fight against themselves, and that they may be
willing at length to be freed from inveterate errors. And this they
will assuredly do if they shall at any time see for what purpose they
were born; for this is the cause of their perverseness,--namely,
ignorance of themselves: and if any one, having gained the knowledge of
the truth, shall have shaken off this ignorance, he will know to what
object his life is to be directed, and how it is to be spent. And I
thus briefly define the sum of this knowledge, that neither is any
religion to be undertaken without wisdom, nor any wisdom to be approved
of without religion.
CHAP. II.--THAT THERE
IS A PROVIDENCE IN THE AFFAIRS OF MEN.
Having therefore undertaken the office of explaining
the truth, I did not think it so necessary to take my commencement from
that inquiry which naturally seems the first, whether there is a
providence which consults for all things, or all things were either
made or are governed by chance; which sentiment was introduced by
Democritus, and confirmed by Epicurus. But before them, what did
Protagoras effect, who raised doubts respecting the gods; or Diagoras
afterwards, who excluded them; and some others, who did not hold the
existence of gods, except that there was supposed to be no providence?
These, however, were most vigorously opposed by the other philosophers,
and especially by the Stoics, who taught that the universe could
neither have been made without divine intelligence, nor continue to
exist unless it were governed by the highest intelligence. But even
Marcus Tullius, although he was a defender of the Academic system,
discussed at length and on many occasions respecting the providence
which governs affairs, confirming the arguments of the Stoics, and
himself adducing many new ones; and this he does both in all the books
of his own philosophy, and especially in those which treat of the
nature of the gods.(1)
And it was no difficult task, indeed, to refute the
falsehoods of a few men who entertained perverse sentiments by the
testimony of communities and tribes, who on this one point had no
disagreement. For there is no one so uncivilized, and of such an
uncultivated disposition,
who, when he raises his eyes to heaven, although he knows not by the
providence of what God all this visible universe is governed, does not
understand from the very magnitude of the objects, from their motion,
arrangement, constancy, usefulness, beauty, and temperament, that there
is some providence, and that that which exists with wonderful method
must have been prepared by some greater intelligence. And for us,
assuredly, it is very easy to follow up this part as copiously as it
may please us. But because the subject has been much agitated among
philosophers, and they who take away providence appear to have been
sufficiently answered by men of sagacity and eloquence, and
because it is necessary to speak, in different places throughout
this work which we have undertaken, respecting the skill of the divine
providence, let us for the present omit this inquiry, which is so
closely connected with the other questions, that it seems possible for
us to discuss no subject, without at the same time discussing the
subject of providence.
CHAP. III.--WHETHER THE UNIVERSE IS GOVERNED BY THE POWER OF ONE GOD OR
OF MANY.
Let the commencement of our work therefore be that
inquiry which closely follows and is connected with the first: Whether
the universe is governed by the power of one God or of many. There is
no one, who possesses intelligence and uses reflection, who does not
understand that it is one Being who both created all things and governs
them with the same energy by which He created them. For what need is
there of many to sustain the government of the universe? unless we
should happen to think that, if there were more than one, each would
possess less might and strength. And they who hold that there are many
gods, do indeed effect this; for those gods must of necessity be weak,
since individually, without the aid of the others, they would be unable
to sustain the government of so vast a mass. But God, who is the
Eternal Mind, is undoubtedly of excellence, complete and perfect in
every part. And if this is true, He must of necessity be one. For power
or excellence, which is complete, retains its own peculiar stability.
But that is to be regarded as solid from which nothing can be taken
away, that as perfect to which nothing can be added.
Who can doubt that he would be a most powerful king
who should have the government of the whole world? And not without
reason, since all things which everywhere exist would belong to him,
since all resources from all quarters would be centred in him alone.
But if more than one divide the government of the world, undoubtedly
each will have less power and strength, since every one must confine
him-
12
self within his prescribed portion.(1) In the same manner also, if
there are more gods than one, they will be of less weight, others
having in themselves the same power. But the nature of excellence
admits of greater perfection in him in whom the whole is, than in him
in whom there is only a small part of the whole. But God, if He is
perfect, as He ought to be, cannot but be one, because He is perfect,
so that all things may be in Him. Therefore the excellences and powers
of the gods must necessarily be weaker, because so much will be wanting
to each as shall be in the others; and so the more there are, so much
the less powerful will they be. Why should I mention that this highest
power and divine energy is altogether incapable of division? For
whatever is capable of division must of necessity be liable to
destruction also. But if destruction is far removed from God, because
He is incorruptible and eternal, it follows that the divine power is
incapable of division. Therefore God is one, if that which admits of so
great power can be nothing else: and yet those who deem that there are
many gods, say that they have divided their functions among themselves;
but we will discuss all these matters at their proper places. In the
meantime, I affirm this, which belongs to the present subject. If they
have divided their functions among themselves, the matter comes back to
the same point, that any one of them is unable to supply the place of
all. He cannot, then, be perfect who is unable to govern all things
while the others are unemployed. And so is comes to pass, that for the
government of the universe there is more need of the perfect excellence
of one than of the imperfect powers of many. But he who imagines that
so great a magnitude as this cannot be governed by one Being, is
deceived. For he does not comprehend how great are the might and power
of the divine majesty, if he thinks that the one God, who had power to
create the universe, is also unable to govern that which He has
created. But if he conceives in his mind how great is the immensity of
that divine work, when before it was nothing, yet that by the power and
wisdom of God it was made out of nothing--a work which could only be
commenced and accomplished by one--he will now understand that that
which has been established by one is much more easily governed by one.
Some one may perhaps say that so immense a work as
that of the universe could not even have been fabricated except by
many. But however many and however great he may consider
them,--whatever magnitude, power, excellence, and majesty he may
attribute to the
many,--the whole of that I assign to one, and say that it exists in
one: so that there is in Him such an amount of these properties as can
neither be conceived nor expressed. And since we fail in this subject,
both in perception and in words--for neither does the human breast
admit the light of so great understanding, nor is the mortal tongue
capable of explaining such great subjects--it is right that we should
understand and say this very same thing. I see, again, what can be
alleged on the other hand, that those many gods are such as we hold the
one God to be. But this cannot possibly be so, because the power of
these gods individually will not be able to proceed further, the power
of the others meeting and hindering them. For either each must be
unable to pass beyond his own limits, or, if he shall have passed
beyond them, he must drive another from his boundaries. They who
believe that there are many gods, do not see that it may happen that
some may be opposed to others in their wishes, from which circumstance
disputing and contention would arise among them; as Homer represented
the gods at war among themselves, since some desired that Troy should
be taken, others opposed it. The universe, therefore, must be ruled by
the will of one. For unless the power over the separate parts be
referred to one and the same providence, the whole itself will not be
able to exist; since each takes care of nothing beyond that which
belongs peculiarly to him, just as warfare could not be carried on
without one general and commander. But if there were in one army
as many generals as there are legions, cohorts, divisions,(2) and
squadrons, first of all it would not be possible for the army to be
drawn out in battle array, since each would refuse the peril; nor could
it easily be governed or controlled, because all would use their own
peculiar counsels, by the diversity of which they would inflict more
injury than they would confer advantage. So, in this government of the
affairs of nature, unless there shall be one to whom the care of the
whole is referred, all things will be dissolved and fall to decay.
But to say that the universe is governed by the will
of many, is equivalent to a declaration that there are many minds in
one body, since there are many and various offices of the members, so
that separate minds may be supposed to govern separate senses; and also
the many affections, by which we are accustomed to be moved either to
anger, or to desire, or to joy, or to fear, or to pity, so that in all
these affections as many minds may be supposed to operate; and if any
one should say this, he would appear to be destitute even of that very
mind, which is one. But
13
if in one body one mind possesses the government of so many things, and
is at the same time occupied with the whole, why should any one suppose
that the universe cannot be governed by one, but that it can be
governed by more than one? And because those maintainers of many gods
are aware of this, they say that they so preside over separate offices
and parts, that there is still one chief ruler. The others, therefore,
on this principle, will not be gods, but attendants and ministers, whom
that one most mighty and omnipotent appointed to these offices, and
they themselves will be subservient to his authority and command. If,
therefore, all are not equal to one another, all are not gods; for that
which serves and that which rules cannot be the same. For if God is a
title of the highest power, He must be incorruptible, perfect,
incapable of suffering, and subject to no other being; therefore they
are not gods whom necessity compels to obey the one greatest God. But
because they who hold this opinion are not deceived without cause, we
will presently lay open the cause of this error. Now, let us prove by
testimonies the unity of the divine power.
CHAP. IV.--THAT THE ONE GOD WAS FORETOLD EVEN
BY THE PROPHETS.
The prophets, who were very many, proclaim and
declare the one God; for, being filled with the inspiration of the one
God, they predicted things to come, with agreeing and harmonious voice.
But those who are ignorant of the truth do not think that these
prophets are to be believed; for they say that those voices are not
divine, but human. Forsooth, because they proclaim one God, they were
either madmen or deceivers. But truly we see that their predictions
have been fulfilled, and are in course of fulfilment daily; and their
foresight, agreeing as it does to one opinion, teaches that they were
not under the impulse of madness. For who possessed of a frenzied mind
would be able, I do not say to predict the future, but even to speak
coherently? Were they, therefore, who spoke such things deceitful? What
was so utterly foreign to their nature as a system of deceit, when they
themselves restrained others from all fraud? For to this end were they
sent by God, that they should both be heralds of His majesty, and
correctors of the wickedness of man.
Moreover, the inclination to feign and speak falsely
belongs to those who covet riches, and eagerly desire gains,--a
disposition which was far removed from those holy men. For they so
discharged the office entrusted to them, that, disregarding all things
necessary for the maintenance of life, they were so far from laying up
store for the future, that they did not even labour for the day,
content with the unstored food which God had supplied; and these not
only had no gains, but even endured torments and death. For the
precepts of righteousness are distasteful to the wicked, and to those
who lead an unholy life. Wherefore they, whose sins were brought to
light and forbidden, most cruelly tortured and slew them. They,
therefore, who had no desire for gain, had neither the inclination nor
the motive for deceit. Why should I say that some of them were princes,
or even kings,(1) upon whom the suspicion of covetousness and fraud
could not possibly fall, and yet they proclaimed the one God with the
same prophetic foresight as the others?
CHAP, V.--OF THE
TESTIMONIES OF POETS AND PHILOSOPHERS.
But let us leave the testimony of prophets, lest a
proof derived from those who are universally disbelieved should appear
insufficient. Let us come to authors, and for the demonstration of the
truth let us cite as witnesses those very persons whom they are
accustomed to make use of against us,--I mean poets and philosophers.
From these we cannot fail in proving the unity of God; not that they
had ascertained the truth, but that the force of the truth itself is so
great, that no one can be so blind as not to see the divine brightness
presenting itself to his eyes. The poets, therefore, however much they
adorned the gods in their poems, and amplified their exploits with the
highest praises, yet very frequently confess that all things are held
together and governed by one spirit or mind. Orpheus, who is the most
ancient of the poets, and coeval with the gods themselves,--since it is
reported that he sailed among the Argonauts together with the sons of
Tyndarus and Hercules,--speaks of the true and great God as the
first-born(2) because nothing was produced before Him, but all things
sprung from Him. He also calls Him Phanes(3) because when as yet there
was nothing He first appeared and came forth from the infinite. And
since he was unable to conceive in his mind the origin and nature of
this Being, he said that He was born from the boundless air: "The
first-born, Phaethon, son of the extended air;" for he had nothing more
to say. He affirms that this Being is the Parent of all the gods, on
whose account He framed the heaven, and provided for His children that
they might have a habitation and place of abode in common: "He built
for immortals an imperishable home." Thus, under the guidance of nature
and reason, he understood that there was a power of surpassing
14
greatness which framed heaven and earth. For he could not say that
Jupiter was the author of all things, since he was born from Saturn;
nor could he say that Saturn himself was their author, since it was
reported that he was produced from the heaven; but he did not venture
to set up the heaven as the primeval god, because he saw that it was an
element of the universe, and must itself have had an author. This
consideration led him to that first-born god, to whom he assigns and
gives the first place.
Homer was able to give us no information relating to
the truth, for he wrote of human rather than divine things. Hesiod was
able, for he comprised in the work of one book the generation of the
gods; but yet he gave us no information, for he took his commencement
not from God the Creator, but from chaos, which is a confused mass of
rude and unarranged matter; whereas he ought first to have explained
from what source, at what time, and in what manner, chaos itself had
begun to exist or to have consistency. Without doubt, as all things
were placed in order, arranged, and made by some artificer, so matter
itself must of necessity have been formed by some being. Who, then,
made it except God, to whose power all things are subject? But he
shrinks from admitting this, while he dreads the unknown truth. For, as
he wished it to appear, it was by the inspiration of the Muses that he
poured forth that song on Helicon; but he had come after previous
meditation and preparation.
Maro was the first of our poets to approach the
truth, who thus speaks respecting the highest God, whom he calls Mind
and Spirit:(1)--
"Know first, the heaven, the earth, the main,
The moon's pale orb, the starry train,
Are nourished by a Soul,
A Spirit, whose celestial flame
Glows in each member of the frame,
And stirs the mighty whole."
And lest any one should happen to be ignorant what that Spirit was
which had so much power, he has declared it in another place,
saying:(2) "For the Deity pervades all lands, the tracts of sea and
depth of heaven; the flocks, the herds, and men, and all the race of
beasts, each at its birth, derive their slender lives from Him."
Ovid also, in the beginning of his remarkable work,
without any disguising of the name, admits that the universe was
arranged by God, whom he calls the Framer of the world, the Artificer
of all things.(3) But if either Orpheus or these poets of our country
had always maintained what they perceived under the guidance of nature,
they would have comprehended the truth, and gained the same learning
which we follow.(4)
But thus far of the poets. Let us come to the
philosophers, whose authority is of greater weight, and their judgment
more to be relied on, because they are believed to have paid attention,
not to matters of fiction, but to the investigation of the truth.
Thales of Miletus, who was one of the number of the seven wise men, and
who is said to have been the first of all to inquire respecting natural
causes, said that water was the element from which all things were
produced, and that God was the mind which formed all things from water.
Thus he placed the material of all things in moisture; he fixed the
beginning and cause of their production in God. Pythagoras thus defined
the being of God, "as a soul passing to and fro, and diffused through
all parts of the universe, and through all nature, from which all
living creatures which are produced derive their life." Anaxagoras said
that God was an infinite mind, which moves by its own power.
Antisthenes maintained that the gods of the people were many, but that
the God of nature was one only; that is, the Fabricator of the whole
universe. Cleanthes and Anaximenes assert that the air is the chief
deity; and to this opinion our poet has assented:(5) "Then almighty
father Aether descends in fertile showers into the bosom of his joyous
spouse; and great himself, mingling with her great body, nourishes all
her offspring." Chrysippus speaks of God as a natural power endowed
with divine reason, and sometimes as a divine necessity. Zeno also
speaks of Him as a divine and natural law. The opinion of all these,
however uncertain it is, has reference to one point,--to their
agreement in the existence of one providence. For whether it be nature,
or aether, or reason, or mind, or a fatal necessity, or a divine law,
or if you term it anything else, it is the same which is called by us
God. Nor does the diversity of titles prove an obstacle, since by their
very signification they all refer to one object. Aristotle, although he
is at variance with himself, and both utters and holds sentiments
opposed to one another, yet upon the whole bears witness that one Mind
presides over the. universe. Plato, who is judged the wisest of all,
plainly and openly maintains the rule of one God; nor does he name Him
Aether, or Reason, or Nature, but, as He truly is, God, and that this
universe, so perfect and wonderful, was fabricated by Him. And Cicero,
following and imitating him in many instances, frequently acknowledges
God, and calls Him supreme, in those books which he wrote on the
15
subject of laws; and he adduces proof that the universe is governed by
Him, when he argues respecting the nature of the gods in this way:
"Nothing is superior to God: the world must therefore be governed by
Him. Therefore God is obedient or subject to no nature; consequently He
Himself governs all nature." But what God Himself is he defines in his
Consolation:(1) "Nor can God Himself, as He is comprehended by us, be
comprehended in any other way than as a mind free and unrestrained, far
removed from all mortal materiality, perceiving and moving all things."
How often, also, does Annaeus Seneca, who was the
keenest Stoic of the Romans, follow up with deserved praise the supreme
Deity! For when he was discussing the subject of premature death, he
said "You do not understand the authority and majesty of your Judge,
the Ruler of the world, and the God or heaven and of all gods, on whom
those deities which we separately worship and honour are dependent."
Also in his Exhortations: "This Being, when He was laying the first
foundations of the most beautiful fabric, and was commencing this work,
than which nature has known nothing greater or better, that all things
might serve their own rulers, although He had spread Himself out
through the whole body, yet He produced gods as ministers of His
kingdom." And how many other things like to our own writers did
he speak on the subject of God! But these things I put off for the
present, because they are more suited to other parts of the subject. At
present it is enough to demonstrate that men of the highest genius
touched upon the truth, and almost grasped it, had not custom,
infatuated by false opinions, carried them back; by which custom they
both deemed that there were other gods, and believed that those things
which God made for the use of man, as though they were endowed with
perception, were to be held and worshipped as gods.
CHAP. VI.--OF DIVINE TESTIMONIES, AND OF THE SIBYLS AND THEIR
PREDICTIONS.
Now let us pass to divine testimonies; but I will
previously bring forward one which resembles a divine testimony, both
on account of its very great antiquity, and because he whom I shall
name was taken from men and placed among the gods. According to Cicero,
Caius Cotta the pontiff, while disputing against the Stoics concerning
superstitions, and the variety of opinions which prevail respecting the
gods, in order that he might, after the custom of the Academics, make
everything uncertain, says that there were five Mercuries; and having
enumerated four in order, says that the fifth was he by whom Argus
was slain, and that on this account he fled into Egypt, and gave laws
and letters to the Egyptians. The Egyptians call him Thoth; and from
him the first month of their year, that is, September, received its
name among them. He also built a town, which is even now called in
Greek Hermopolis (the town of Mercury), and the inhabitants of Phenae
honour him with religious worship. And although he was a man, yet he
was of great antiquity, and most fully imbued with every kind of
learning, so that the knowledge of many subjects and arts acquired for
him the name of Trismegistus.(2) He wrote books, and those in great
numbers, relating to the knowledge of divine things, in which be
asserts the majesty of the supreme and only God, and makes mention of
Him by the same names which we use-God and Father. And that no one
might inquire His name, he said that He was without name, and that on
account of His very unity He does not require the peculiarity of a
name. These are his own words: "God is one, but He who is one only does
not need a name; for He who is self-existent is without a name." God,
therefore, has no name, because He is alone; nor is there any need of a
proper name, except in cases where a multitude of persons requires a
distinguishing mark, so that you may designate each person by his own
mark and appellation. But God, because He is always one, has no
peculiar name.
It remains for me to bring forward testimonies
respecting the sacred responses and predictions, which are much more to
be relied upon. For perhaps they against whom we are arguing may think
that no credence is to be given to poets, as though they invented
fictions, nor to philosophers, inasmuch as they were liable to err,
being themselves but men. Marcus Varro, than whom no man of greater
learning ever lived, even among the Greeks, much less among the Latins,
in those books respecting divine subjects which he addressed to Caius
Caesar the chief pontiff, when he was speaking of the Quindecemviri,(3)
says that the Sibylline books were not the production of one Sibyl
only, but that they were called by one name Sibylline, because all
prophetesses were called by the ancients Sibyls, either from the name
of one, the Delphian priestess, or from their proclaiming the counsels
of the gods. For in the Aeolic dialect they used to call the gods by
the word Sioi, not . Theoi; and for counsel they used the word bule,
not boule;--and so the Sibyl received her name as though Siobule.(4)
But he says that the Sibyls
16
were ten in number, and he enumerated them all under the writers, who
wrote an account of each: that the first was from the Persians, and of
her Nicanor made mention, who wrote the exploits of Alexander of
Macedon;--the second of Libya, and of her Euripides makes mention in
the prologue of the Lamia;--the third of Delphi, concerning whom
Chrysippus speaks in that book which he composed concerning
divination;--the fourth a Cimmerian in Italy, whom Naevius mentions in
his books of the Punic war, and Piso in his annals;--the fifth of
Erythraea, whom Apollodorus of Erythraea affirms to have been his own
country-woman, and that she foretold to the Greeks when they were
setting but for Ilium, both that Troy was doomed to destruction, and
that Homer would write falsehoods;--the sixth of Samos, respecting whom
Eratosthenes writes that he had found a written notice in the ancient
annals of the Samians. The seventh was of Cumae, by name Amalthaea, who
is termed by some Herophile, or Demophile and they say that she brought
nine books to the king Tarquinius Priscus, and asked for them three
hundred philippics, and that the king refused so great a price, and
derided the madness of the woman; that she, in the sight of the king,
burnt three of the books, and demanded the same price for those which
were left; that Tarquinias much more considered the woman to be mad;
and that when she again, having burnt three other books, persisted in
asking the same price, the king was moved, and bought the remaining
books for the three hundred pieces of gold: and the number of these
books was afterwards increased, after the rebuilding of the Capitol;
because they were collected from all cities of Italy and Greece, and
especially from those of Erythraea, and were brought to Rome, under the
name of whatever Sibyl they were. Further, that the eighth was from the
Hellespont, born in the Trojan territory, in the village of Marpessus,
about the town of Gergithus; and Heraclides of Pontus writes that she
lived in the times of Solon and Cyrus;--the ninth of Phrygia, who gave
oracles at Ancyra;--the tenth of Tibur, by name Albunea, who is
worshipped at Tibur as a goddess, near the banks of the river
Anio, in the depths of which her statue is said to have been
found, holding in her hand a book. The senate transferred her oracles
into the Capitol.
The predictions of all these Sibyls(1) are both
brought forward and esteemed as such, except those of the Cumaean
Sibyl, whose books are l concealed by the Romans; nor do they consider
it lawful for them to be inspected by any
one but the Quindecemviri. And them are separate books the production
of each, but because these are inscribed with the name of the Sibyl
they are believed to be the work of one; and they are confused, nor can
the productions of each be distinguished and assigned to their own
authors, except in the case of the Erythraean Sibyl, for she both
inserted her own true name in her verse, and predicted that she would
be called Erythraean, though she was born at Babylon. But we also shall
speak of the Sibyl without any distinction, wherever we shall have
occasion to use their testimonies. All these Sibyls, then, proclaim one
God, and especially the Erythraean, who is regarded among the others as
more celebrated and noble; since Fenestella, a most diligent writer,
speaking of the Quindecemviri, says that, after the rebuilding of the
Capitol, Caius Curio the consul proposed to the senate that ambassadors
should be sent to Erythrae to search out and bring to Rome the writings
of the Sibyl; and that, accordingly, Publius Gabinius, Marcus
Otacilius, and Lucius Valerius were sent, who conveyed to Rome about a
thousand verses written out by private persons. We have shown before
that Varro made the same statement. Now in these verses which the
ambassadors brought to Rome, are these testimonies respecting the one
God:--
1. "One God, who is alone, most mighty,
uncreated."
This is the only supreme God, who made the heaven, and decked it with
lights.
2. "But there is one only God of pre-eminent
power, who made the heaven, and sun, and stars, and moon, and fruitful
earth, and waves of the water of the sea."
And since He alone is the framer of the universe, and the artificer of
all things of which it consists or which are contained in it, it
testifies that He alone ought to be worshipped:--
3. "Worship Him who is alone the ruler of the
world, who alone was and is from age to age."
Also another Sibyl, whoever she is, when she said that she conveyed the
voice of God to men, thus spoke:--
4. "I am the one only God, and there is no
other God."
I would now follow up the testimonies of the others,
were it not that these are sufficient, and that I reserve others for
more befitting opportunities. But since we are defending the cause of
truth before those who err from the truth and serve false religions,
what kind of proof ought we to bring forward(2) against them, rather
than to refute them by the testimonies of their own gods?
17
CHAP. VII.--CONCERNING THE TESTIMONIES OF
APOLLO AND THE GODS.
Apollo, indeed, whom they think divine above all
others, and especially prophetic, giving responses at Colophon,--I
suppose because, induced by the pleasantness of Asia, he had removed
from Delphi,--to some one who asked who He was, or what God was at all,
replied in twenty-one verses, of which this is the beginning:--
"Self-produced, untaught, without a mother, unshaken,
A name not even to be comprised in word, dwelling in fire,
This is God; and we His messengers are a slight portion of
God."
Can any one suspect that this is spoken of Jupiter, who had both a
mother and a name? Why should I say that Mercury, that thrice greatest,
of whom I have made mention above, not only speaks of God as "without a
mother," as Apollo does, but also as "without a father," because He has
no origin from any other source but Himself? For He cannot be produced
from any one, who Himself produced all things. I have, as I think,
sufficiently taught by arguments, and confirmed by witnesses, that
which is sufficiently plain by itself, that there is one only King of
the universe, one Father, one God.
But perchance some one may ask of us the same
question which Hortensius asks in Cicero: If God is one only,(1) what
solitude can be happy? As though we, in asserting that He is one, say
that He is desolate and solitary. Undoubtedly He has ministers, whom we
call messengers. And that is true, which I have before related, that
Seneca said in his Exhortations that God produced ministers of His
kingdom. But these are neither gods, nor do they wish to be called gods
or to be worshipped, inasmuch as they do nothing but execute the
command and will of God. Nor, however, are they gods who are worshipped
in common, whose number is small and fixed. But if the worshippers of
the gods think that they worship those beings whom we call the
ministers of the Supreme God, there is no reason why they should envy
its who say that there is one God, and deny that there are many. If a
multitude of gods delights them, we do not speak of twelve, or three
hundred and sixty-five as Orpheus did; but we convict them of
innumerable errors on the other side, in thinking that they are so few,
Let them know, however, by what name they ought to be called, lest they
do injury to the true God, whose name they set forth, while they assign
it to more than one. Let them believe their own Apollo, who in that
same response took away from the other gods their name, as he took away
the dominion from Jupiter. For
the third verse shows that the ministers of God ought not to be called
gods, but angels. He spoke falsely respecting himself, indeed; for
though he was of the number of demons, he reckoned himself among the
angels of God, and then in other responses he confessed himself a
demon. For when he was asked how he wished to be supplicated, he thus
answered:--
"O all-wise, all-learned, versed in many pursuits, hear, O
demon."
And so, again, when at the entreaty of some one he uttered an
imprecation against the Sminthian Apollo, he began with this verse:--
"O harmony of the world, bearing light, all-wise demon."
What therefore remains, except that by his own confession he is subject
to the scourge of the true God and to everlasting punishment? For in
another response he also said:--
"The demons who go about the earth and about the sea
Without weariness, are subdued beneath the scourge
of God."
We speak on the subject of both in the second book. In the meantime it
is enough for us, that while he wishes to honour and place himself in
heaven. he has confessed, as the nature of the matter is, in what
manner they are to be named who always stand beside God.
Therefore let men withdraw themselves from errors;
and laying aside corrupt superstitions, let them acknowledge their
Father and Lord, whose excellence cannot be estimated, nor His
greatness perceived, nor His beginning comprehended. When the earnest
attention of the human mind and its acute sagacity and memory has
reached Him, all ways being, as it were, summed up and
exhausted,(2) it stops, it is at a loss, it fails; nor is there
anything beyond to which it can proceed. But because that which exists
must of necessity have had a beginning, it follows that since there was
nothing before Him, He was produced from Himself before all things.
Therefore He is called by Apollo "self-produced," by the Sibyl
"self-created," "uncreated," and "unmade." And Seneca, an acute man,
saw and expressed this in his Exhortations. "We," he said, "are
dependent upon another." Therefore we took to some one to whom we owe
that which is most excellent in us. Another brought us into being,
another formed us; but God of His own power made Himself.
CHAP. VIII.--THAT GOD IS WITHOUT A BODY, NOR DOES HE NEED DIFFERENCE OF
SEX FOR PROCREATION.
It is proved, therefore, by these witnesses, so
numerous and of such authority, that the universe
18
is governed by the power and providence of one God, whose energy and
majesty Plato in the Timoeus asserts to be so great, that no one can
either conceive it in his mind, or give utterance to it in words, on
account of His surpassing and incalculable power. And then can any one
doubt whether any thing can be difficult or impossible for God, who by
His providence designed, by His energy established, and by His judgment
completed those works so great and wonderful, and even now sustains
them by His spirit, and governs them by His power, being
incomprehensible and unspeakable, and fully known to no other than
Himself? Wherefore, as I often reflect on the subject of such great
majesty, they who worship the gods sometimes appear so blind, so
incapable of reflection, so senseless, so little removed from the mute
animals, as to believe that those who are born from the natural
intercourse of the sexes could have had anything of majesty and divine
influence; since the Erythraean Sibyl says: "It is impossible for a God
to be fashioned from the loins of a man and the womb of a woman." And
if this is true, as it really is, it is evident that Hercules, Apollo,
Bacchus, Mercury, and Jupiter, with the rest, were but men, since they
were born from the two sexes. But what is so far removed from the
nature of God as that operation which He Himself assigned to mortals
for the propagation of their race, and which cannot be affected without
corporeal substance?
Therefore, if the gods are immortal and eternal,
what need is there of the other sex, when they themselves do not
require succession, since they are always about to exist? For assuredly
in the case of mankind and the other animals, there is no other reason
for difference of sex and procreation and bringing forth, except that
all classes of living creatures, inasmuch as they are doomed to death
by the condition of their mortality, may be preserved by mutual
succession. But God, who is immortal, has no need of difference of sex,
nor of succession. Some one will say that this arrangement is
necessary, in order that He may have some to minister to Him, or over
whom He may bear rule. What need is there of the female sex, since God,
who is almighty, is able to produce sons without the agency of the
female? For if He has granted to certain minute creatures(1) that
they
"Should gather offspring for themselves with their mouth
from leaves and sweet herbs,"
why should any one think it impossible for God Himself to have
offspring except by union with the other sex? No one, therefore, is so
thoughtless as not to understand that those were mere
mortals, whom the ignorant and foolish regard and worship as gods. Why,
then, some one will say, were they believed to be gods? Doubtless
because they were very great and powerful kings; and since, on account
of the merits of their virtues, or offices, or the arts which they
discovered, they were beloved by those over whom they had ruled, they
were consecrated to lasting, memory. And if any one doubts this, let
him consider their exploits and deeds, the whole of which both ancient
poets and historians have handed down.
CHAP. IX.--OF HERCULES
AND HIS LIFE AND DEATH.(2)
Did not Hercules, who is most renowned for his
valour, and who is regarded as an Africanus among the gods, by his
debaucheries, lusts, and adulteries, pollute the world, which he is
related to have traversed and purified? And no wonder, since he was
born from an adulterous intercourse with Alcmena.
What divinity could there have been in him, who,
enslaved to his own vices, against all laws, treated with infamy,
disgrace, and outrage, both males and females? Nor, indeed, are those
great and wonderful actions which he performed to be judged such as to
be thought worthy of being attributed to divine excellence. For what!
is it so magnificent if he overcame a lion and a boar; if he shot down
birds with arrows; if he cleansed a royal stable; if he conquered a
virago, and deprived her of her belt; if he slew savage horses together
with their master? These are the deeds of a brave and heroic man, but
still a man; for those things which he overcame were frail and
mortal. For there is no power so great, as the orator says, which
cannot be weakened and broken by iron and strength. But to conquer the
mind, and to restrain anger, is the part of the bravest man; and these
things he never did or could do: for one who does these things I do not
compare with excellent men, but I judge him to be most like to a god.
I could wish that he had added something on the
subject of lust, luxury, desire, and arrogance, so as to complete the
excellence of him whom he judged to be like to a god. For he is not to
be thought braver who overcomes a lion, than he who overcomes the
violent wild beast shut up within himself, viz. anger; or he who has
brought down most rapacious birds, than he who restrains most covetous
desires; or he who subdues a warlike Amazon, than he who subdues lust,
the vanquisher(3) of modesty and fame; or he who cleanses a stable from
dung, than he who cleanses his heart from vices, which are more
destructive
19
evils because they are peculiarly his own, than those which might have
been avoided and guarded against. From this it comes to pass, that he
alone ought to be judged a brave man who is temperate, moderate, and
just. But if any one considers what the works of God are, he will at
once judge all these things, which most trifling men admire, to be
ridiculous. For they measure them not by the divine power of which they
are ignorant, but by the weakness of their own strength. For no one
will deny this, that Hercules was not only a servant to Eurystheus, a
king, which to a certain extent may appear honourable, but also to an
unchaste woman, Omphale, who used to order him to sit at her feet,
clothed with her garments, and executing an appointed task. Detestable
baseness! But such was the price at which pleasure was valued. What!
some one will say, do you think that the poets are to be believed? Why
should I not think so? For it is not Lucilius who relates these things,
or Lucian, who spared not men nor gods, but these especially who sting
the praises of the gods.
Whom, then, shall we believe, if we do not credit
those who praise them? Let him who thinks that these speak. falsely
produce other authors on whom we may rely, who may teach us who these
gods are, in what manner and from what source they had their origin,
what is their strength, what their number, what their power, what there
is in them which is admirable and worthy of adoration--what mystery, in
short, more to be relied on, and more true. He will produce no such
authorities. Let us, then, give credence to those who did not speak for
the purpose of censure, but to proclaim their praise. He sailed, then,
with the Argonauts, and sacked Troy, being enraged with Laomedon on
account of the reward refused to him, by Laomedon, for the preservation
of his daughter, from which circumstance it is evident at what time he
lived. He also, excited by rage and madness, slew his wife, together
with his children. Is this he whom men consider a god? But his heir
Philoctetes did not so regard him, who applied a torch to him when
about to be burnt, who witnessed the burning and wasting of his limbs
and sinews, who buried his bones and ashes on Mount OEta, in return for
which office he received his arrows.
CHAP. X.--OF THE LIFE AND ACTIONS AESCULAPIUS, APOLLO, NEPTUNE,
MARS,CASTOR AND POLLUX, MERCURY AND BACCHUS.
What other action worthy of divine honours, except
the healing of Hippolytus, did Aesculapius perform, whose birth also
was not without disgrace to Apollo? His death was certainly
more renowned, because he earned the distinction of being struck with
lightning by a god. Tarquitius, in a dissertation concerning
illustrious men, says that he was born of uncertain parents, exposed,
and found by some hunters; that he was nourished by a dog, and that,
being delivered to Chiron, he learned the art of medicine. He says,
moreover, that he was a Messenian, but that he spent some time at
Epidaurus. Tully also says that he was buried at Cynosurae. What was
the conduct of Apollo, his father? Did he not, on account of his
impassioned love, most disgracefully tend the flock of another, and
build walls for Laomedon, having been hired together with Neptune for a
reward, which could with impunity be withheld from him? And from him
first the perfidious king learned to refuse to carry out whatever
contract he had made with gods. And he also, while in love with a
beautiful boy, offered violence to him, and while engaged in play, slew
him.
Mars, when guilty of homicide, and set free from the
charge of murder by the Athenians through favour, lest he should appear
to be too fierce and savage, committed adultery with Venus.
Castor and Pollux, while they are engaged in carrying off the wives of
others, ceased to be twin-brothers. For Idas, being excited with
jealousy on account of the injury, transfixed one of the brothers with
his sword. And the poets relate that they live and die alternately: so
that they are now the most wretched not only of the gods, but also of
all mortals, inasmuch as they are not permitted to die once only. And
yet Homer, differing from the other poets, simply records that they
both died. For when he represented Helen as sitting by the side of
Priam on the walls of Troy, and recognising all the chieftains of
Greece, but as looking in vain for her brothers only, he added to his
speech a verse of this kind:--
"Thus she; unconscious that in Sparta they,
Their native land, beneath the sod were laid."
What did Mercury, a thief and spendthrift, leave to contribute to his
fame, except the memory of his frauds? Doubtless he was deserving of
heaven, because he taught the exercises of the palaestra, and was the
first who invented the lyre.(1) It is necessary that Father Liber
should be of chief authority, and of the first rank in the senate of
the gods, because he was the only one of them all, except Jupiter, who
triumphed, led an army, and subdued the Indians. But that very great
and unconquered Indian commander was most shamefully overpowered by
love and lust. For, being conveyed to Crete with his effeminate
retinue, lie met with an unchaste woman on the shore; and in the
confidence inspired by his
20
Indian victory, he wished to give proof of his manliness, lest he
should appear too effeminate. And so he took to himself in marriage
that woman, the betrayer of her father, and the murderer of her
brother, after that she had been deserted and repudiated by another
husband; and he made her Libera, and with her ascended into heaven.
What was the conduct of Jupiter, the father of all
these, who in the customary prayer is styled(1) Most Excellent and
Great? Is he not, from his earliest childhood, proved to be impious,
and almost a parricide, since he expelled his father from his kingdom,
and banished him, and did not await his death though he was aged and
worn out, such was his eagerness for rule? And when he had taken his
father's throne by violence and arms, he was attacked with war by the
Titans, which was the beginning of evils to the human race; and
when these had been overcome and lasting peace procured, he spent the
rest of his life in debaucheries and adulteries. I forbear to mention
the virgins whom he dishonoured. For that is wont to be judged
endurable. I cannot pass by the cases of Amphitryon and Tyndarus, whose
houses he filled to overflowing with disgrace and infamy. But he
reached the height of impiety and guilt in carrying off the royal boy.
For it did not appear enough to cover himself with infamy in offering
violence to women, unless he also outraged his own sex. This is true
adultery, which is done against nature. Whether he who committed these
crimes can be called Greatest is a matter of question, undoubtedly he
is not the Best; to which name corrupters, adulterers, and incestuous
persons have no claim; unless it happens that we men are mistaken in
terming those who do such things wicked and abandoned, and in judging
them most deserving of every kind of punishment. But Marcus Tullius was
foolish in upbraiding Caius Verres with adulteries, for Jupiter, whom
he worshipped, committed the same; and in upbraiding Publius Clodius
with incest with his sister, for he who was Best and Greatest had the
same person both as sister and wife.
CHAP. XI.--OF THE ORIGIN, LIFE, REIGN, NAME AND DEATH OF JUPITER, AND
OF SATURN AND URANUS.(2)
Who, then, is so senseless as to imagine that he
reigns in heaven who ought not even to have reigned on earth? It was
not without humour that a certain poet wrote of the triumph of Cupid:
in which book he not only represented Cupid as the most powerful of the
gods, but
also as their conqueror. For having enumerated the loves of each, by
which they had come into the power and dominion of Cupid, he sets in
array a procession, in which Jupiter, with the other gods, is led in
chains before the chariot of him, celebrating a triumph. This is
elegantly pictured by the poet, but it is not far removed from the
truth. For he who is without virtue, who is overpowered by desire and
wicked lusts, is not, as the poet feigned, in subjection to Cupid, but
to everlasting death. But let us cease to speak concerning morals; let
us examine the matter, in order that men may understand in what errors
they are miserably engaged. The common people imagine that Jupiter
reigns in heaven; both learned and unlearned are alike persuaded of
this. For both religion itself, and prayers, and hymns, and shrines,
and images demonstrate this. And yet they admit that he was also
descended from Saturn and Rhea. How can he appear a god, or be
believed, as the poet says, to be the author of men and all things,
when innumerable thousands of men existed before his birth--those, for
instance, who lived during the reign of Saturn, and enjoyed the light
sooner than Jupiter? I see that one god was king in the earliest times,
and another in the times that followed. It is therefore possible that
there may be another hereafter. For if the former kingdom was changed,
why should we not expect that the latter may possibly be changed,
unless by chance it was possible for Saturn to produce one more
powerful than himself, but impossible for Jupiter so to do? And yet the
divine government is always unchangeable; or if it is changeable, which
is an impossibility, it is undoubtedly changeable at all times.
Is it possible, then, for Jupiter to lose his
kingdom as his father lost it? It is so undoubtedly. For when that
deity had spared neither virgins nor married women, he abstained from
Thetis only in consequence of an oracle which foretold that whatever
son should be born from her would be greater than his father. And first
of all there was in him a want of foreknowledge not befitting a god;
for had not Themis related to him future events, he would not have
known them of his own accord. But if he is not divine, he is not indeed
a god; for the name of divinity is derived from god, as humanity is
from man. Then there was a consciousness of weakness; but he who has
feared, must plainly have feared one greater than himself. But he who
does this assuredly knows that he is not the greatest, since something
greater can exist. He also swears most solemnly by the Stygian marsh:
"Which is set forth the sole object of religious dread to the gods
above." What is this object of religious dread? Or by whom is it set
forth?
21
Is there, then, some mighty power which may punish the gods who commit
perjury? What is this great dread of the infernal marsh, if they are
immortal? Why should they fear that which none are about to see, except
those who are bound by the necessity of death? Why, then, do men raise
their eyes to the heaven? Why do they swear by the gods above, when the
gods above themselves have recourse to the infernal gods, and find
among them an object of veneration and worship? But what is the meaning
of that saying, that there are fates whom all the gods and Jupiter
himself obey? If the power of the Parcae is so great, that they are of
more avail than all the heavenly gods, and their ruler and lord
himself, why should not they be rather said to reign, since necessity
compels all the gods to obey their laws and ordinances? Now, who can
entertain a doubt that he who is subservient to anything cannot be
greatest? For if he were so, he would not receive fates, but would
appoint them. Now I return to another subject which I had omitted. In
the case of one goddess only he exercised self-restraint, though he was
deeply enamoured of her; but this was not from any virtue, but through
fear of a successor. But this fear plainly denotes one who is both
mortal and feeble, and of no weight: for at the very hour of his birth
he might have been put to death, as his elder brother had been put to
death; and if it had been possible for him to have lived, he would
never have given up the supreme power to a younger brother. But Jupiter
himself having been preserved by stealth, and stealthily nourished, was
called Zeus, or Zen,(1) not, as they imagine, from the fervor of
heavenly fire, or because he is the giver of life, or because he
breathes life into living creatures, which power belongs to God alone;
for how can he impart the breath of life who has himself received it
from another source? But he was so called because he was the first who
lived of the male children of Saturn. Men, therefore, might have had
another god as their ruler, if Saturn had not been deceived by his
wife. But it will be said the poets reigned these things. Whoever
entertains this opinion is in error. For they spoke respecting men; but
in order that they might embellish those whose memory they used to
celebrate with praises, they said that they were gods. Those things,
therefore, which they spoke concerning them as gods were feigned, and
not those which they spoke concerning them as men and this will be
manifest from an instance which we will bring forward. When about to
offer violence to Danae, he poured into her lap a great quantity of
golden coins. This was the price which he paid for her dishonour. But
the poets
who spoke about him as a god, that they might not weaken the authority
of his supposed majesty, feigned that he himself descended in a shower
of gold, making use of the same figure with which they speak of showers
of iron when they describe a multitude of darts and arrows. He is said
to have carried away Ganymede by an eagle; it is a picture of the
poets. But he either carried him off by a legion, which has an eagle
for its standard; or the ship on board of which he was placed had its
tutelary deity in the shape of an eagle, just as it had the effigy of a
bull when he seized Europa and conveyed her across the sea. In the same
manner, it is related that he changed Io, the daughter of Inachus, into
a heifer. And in order that she might escape the anger of Juno, just as
she was, now covered with bristly hair, and in the shape of a heifer,
she is said to have swam over the sea, and to have come into Egypt; and
there, having recovered her former appearance, she became the goddess
who is now called Isis. By what argument, then, can it be proved that
Europa did not sit on the bull, and that Io was not changed into a
heifer? Because there is a fixed day in the annals on which the voyage
of Isis is celebrated; from which fact we learn that she did not swim
across the sea, but sailed over. Therefore they who appear to
themselves to be wise because they understand that there cannot be a
living and earthly body in heaven, reject the whole story of Ganymede
as false, and perceive that the occurrence took place on earth,
inasmuch as the matter and the lust itself is earthly. The poets did
not therefore invent these transactions, for if they were to do so they
would be most worthless; but they added a certain colour to the
transactions.(2) For it was not for the purpose of detraction that they
said these things, but from a desire to embellish them. Hence men are
deceived; especially because, while they think that all these things
are feigned by the poets, they worship that of which they are ignorant.
For they do not know what is the limit of poetic licence, how far it is
allowable to proceed in fiction, since it is the business of the poet
with some gracefulness to change and transfer actual occurrences into
other representations by oblique transformations. But to feign the
whole of that which you relate, that is to be foolish and deceitful
rather than to be a poet.
But grant that they reigned those things which are
believed to be fabulous, did they also feign those things which are
related about the female deities and the marriages of the gods? Why,
then, are they so represented, and so worshipped? unless by chance not
the poets only, but painters also, and statuaries, speak falsehoods.
For if
22
this is the Jupiter who is called by you a god, if it is not he who was
born from Saturn and Ops, no other image but his alone ought to have
been placed in all the temples. What meaning have the effigies of
women? What the doubtful sex? in which, if this Jupiter is represented,
the very stones will confess that he is a man. They say that the poets
have spoken falsely, and yet they believe them: yes, truly they prove
by the fact itself that the poets did not speak falsely; for they so
frame the images of the gods, that, from the very diversity of sex, it
appears that these things which the poets say are true. For what other
conclusion does the image of Ganymede and the effigy of the eagle admit
of, when they are placed before the feet of Jupiter in the temples, and
are worshipped equally with himself, except that the memory of impious
guilt and debauchery remains for ever? Nothing, therefore, is wholly
invented by the poets: something perhaps is transferred and obscured by
oblique fashioning, under which the truth was enwrapped and concealed;
as that which was related about the dividing of the kingdoms by lot.
For they say that the heaven fell to the share of Jupiter, the sea to
Neptune, and the infernal regions to Pluto. Why was not the earth
rather taken as the third portion, except that the transaction took
place on the earth? Therefore it is true that they so divided and
portioned out the government of the world, that the empire of the east
fell to Jupiter, a part of the west was allotted to Pluto, who had the
surname of Agesilaus; because the region of the east, from which light
is given to mortals, seems to be higher, but the region of the west
lower. Thus they so veiled the truth under a fiction, that the truth
itself detracted nothing from the public persuasion. It is manifest
concerning the share of Neptune; for we say that his kingdom resembled
that unlimited authority possessed by Mark Antony, to whom the senate
had decreed the power of the maritime coast, that he might punish the
pirates, and tranquillize the whole sea. Thus all the maritime coasts,
together with the islands, fell to the lot of Neptune. How can this be
proved? Undoubtedly ancient stories attest it. Euhemerus, an ancient
author, who was of the city of Messene, collected the actions of
Jupiter and of the others, who are esteemed gods, and composed a
history from the titles and sacred inscriptions which were in the most
ancient temples, and especially in the sanctuary of the Triphylian
Jupiter, where an inscription indicated that a golden column had been
placed by Jupiter himself, on which column he wrote an account of his
exploits, that posterity might have a memorial of his actions. This
history was translated and followed by Ennius, whose words are these:
"Where Jupiter gives to Neptune the government of the sea, that he
might reign in all the islands and places bordering on the sea."
The accounts of the poets, therefore, are true, but
veiled with an outward covering and show. It is possible that Mount
Olympus may have supplied the poets with the hint for saying that
Jupiter obtained the kingdom of heaven, because Olympus is the common
name both of the mountain and of heaven. But the same history informs
us that Jupiter dwelt on Mount Olympus, when it says: "At that time
Jupiter spent the greatest part of his life on Mount Olympus; and they
used to resort to him thither for the administration of justice, if any
matters were disputed. Moreover, if any one had found out any new
invention which might be useful for human life, he used to come thither
and display it to Jupiter." The poets transfer many things after this
manner, not for the sake of speaking falsely against the objects of
their worship, but that they may by variously coloured figures add
beauty and grace to their poems. But they who do not understand the
manner, or the cause, or the nature of that which is represented by
figure, attack the poets as false and sacrilegious. Even the
philosophers were deceived by this error; for because these things
which are related about Jupiter appeared unsuited to the character of a
god, they introduced two Jupiters, one natural, the other fabulous.
They saw, on the one hand, that which was true, that he, forsooth,
concerning whom the poets speak, was man; but in the case of that
natural Jupiter, led by the common practice of superstition, they
committed an error, inasmuch as they transferred the name of a man to
God, who, as we have already said, because He is one only, has no need
of a name. But it is undeniable that he is Jupiter who was born from
Ops and Saturn. It is therefore an empty persuasion on the part of
those who give the name of Jupiter to the Supreme God. For some are in
the habit of defending their errors by this excuse; for, when convinced
of the unity of God, since they cannot deny this, they affirm that they
worship Him, but that it is their pleasure that He should be called
Jupiter. But what can be more absurd than this? For Jupiter is not
accustomed to be worshipped without the accompanying worship of his
wife and daughter. From which his real nature is evident; nor is it
lawful for that name to be transferred thither,(1) where there is
neither any Minerva nor Juno. Why should I say that the peculiar
meaning of this name does not express a divine, but human power? For
Cicero explains the names Jupiter and Juno as being derived from giving
help;(2) and Jupiter is so called as if he were a helping father,--a
name which is ill adapted to God:
23
for to help is the part of a man conferring some aid upon one who is a
stranger, and in a case where the benefit is small. No one implores God
to help him, but to preserve him, to give him life and safety, which is
a much greater and more important matter than to help.
And since we are speaking of a father, no father is
said to help his sons when he begets or brings them up. For that
expression is too insignificant to denote the magnitude of the benefit
derived from a father. How ranch more unsuitable is it to God, who is
our true Father, by whom we exist, and whose we are altogether, by whom
we are formed, endued with life, and enlightened, who bestows upon us
life, gives us safety, and supplies us with various kinds of food! He
has no apprehension of the divine benefits who thinks that he is only
aided by God. Therefore he is not only ignorant, but impious, who
disparages the excellency of the supreme power under the name of
Jupiter. Wherefore, if both from his actions and character we have
proved that Jupiter was a man, and reigned on earth, it only remains
that we should also investigate his death. Ennius, in his sacred
history, having described all the actions which he performed in his
life, at the close thus speaks: Then Jupiter, when he had five times
made a circuit of the earth, and bestowed governments upon all
his friends and relatives, and left laws to men, provided them with a
settled mode of life and corn, and given them many other benefits, and
having been honoured with immortal glory and remembrance, left lasting
memorials to his friends, and when his age(1) was almost spent, he
changed(2) his life in Crete, and departed to the gods. And the
Curetes. his sons, took charge of him, and honoured him; and his tomb
is in Crete, in the town of Cnossus, and Vesta is said to have founded
this city; and on his tomb is an inscription in ancient Greek
characters, "Zan Kronou," which is in Latin. "Jupiter the son of
Saturn." This undoubtedly is not handed down by poets. but by writers
of ancient events; and these things are so true, that they are
confirmed by some verses of the Sibyls, to this effect:--
"Inanimate demons, images of the dead,
Whose tombs the ill-fated Crete possesses as a boast."
Cicero, in his treatise concerning the Nature of the
Gods, having said that three Jupiters were enumerated by theologians,
adds that the third was of Crete, the son of Saturn, and that his
tomb is shown in that island. How, therefore, can a god be alive
in one place, and dead in another; in one place have a temple, and in
another a tomb? Let the Romans then know that their Capitol, that
is the chief head of their
objects of public veneration, is nothing but an empty monument.
Let us now come to his father who reigned before
him, and who perhaps had more power in himself, because he is said to
be born from the meeting of such great elements. Let us see what there
was in him worthy of a god, especially that he is related to have had
the golden age, because in his reign there was justice in the earth. I
find something in him which was not in his son. For what is so
befitting the character of a god, as a just government and an age of
piety? But when, on the same principle, I reflect that he is a son, I
cannot consider him as the Supreme God; for I see that there is
something more ancient than himself,--namely, the heaven and the earth.
But I am in search of a God beyond whom nothing has any existence, who
is the source and origin of all things. He must of necessity exist who
framed the heaven itself, and laid the foundations of the earth. But if
Saturn was born from these, as it is supposed, how can he be the chief
God, since he owes his origin to another? Or who presided over the
universe before the birth of Saturn? But this, as I recently said, is a
fiction of the poets. For it was impossible that the senseless
elements, which are separated by so long an interval, should meet
together and give birth to a son, or that he who was born should not at
all resemble his parents, but should have a form which his parents did
not possess.
Let us therefore inquire what degree of truth lies
hid under this figure. Minucius Felix, in his treatise which has the
title of Octavius,(3) alleged these proofs: "That Saturn, when he had
been banished by his son, and had come into Italy, was called the son
of Coelus (heaven), because we are accustomed to say that those whose
virtue we admire, or those who have unexpectedly arrived, have fallen
from heaven; and that he was called the son of earth, because we name
those who are born from unknown parents sons of earth." These things,
indeed, have some resemblance to the truth, but are not true, because
it is evident that even during his reign he was so esteemed. He might
have argued thus: That Saturn, being a very powerful king, in order
that the memory of his parents might be preserved, gave their names to
the heaven and earth, whereas these were before called by other names,
for which reason we know that names were applied both to mountains and
rivers. For when the poets speak of the offspring of Atlas, or of the
river Inachus, they do not absolutely say that men could possibly be
born from inanimate objects; but they undoubtedly indicate those who
were born from those men, who either during their lives or after their
death gave their
24
names to mountains or rivers. For that was a common practice among the
ancients, and especially among the Greeks. Thus we have heard that seas
received the names of those who had fallen into them, as the Aegean,
the Icarian, and the Hellespont. In Latium, also, Aventinus gave his
name to the mountain on which he was buried; and Tiberinus, or Tiber,
gave his name to the river in which he was drowned. No wonder, then, if
the names of those who had given birth to most powerful kings were
attributed to the heaven and earth. Therefore it appears that Saturn
was not born from heaven, which is impossible, but from that man who
bore the name of Uranus. And Trismegistus attests the truth of this;
for when he said that very few had existed in whom there was perfect
learning, he mentioned by name among these his relatives, Uranus,
Saturn, and Mercury. And because he was ignorant of these things, he
gave another account of the matter; how he might have argued, I have
shown. Now I will say in what manner, at what time, and by whom this
was done; for it was not Saturn who did this, but Jupiter. Ennius thus
relates in his sacred history: "Then Pan leads him to the mountain,
which is called the pillar of heaven. Having ascended thither, he
surveyed the lands far and wide, and there on that mountain he builds
an altar to Coelus; and Jupiter was the first who offered sacrifice on
that altar. In that place he looked up to heaven, by which name we now
call it, and that which was above the world which was called the
firmament,(1) and he gave to the heaven its name from the name of his
grandfather; and Jupiter in prayer first gave the name of heaven to
that which was called firmament,(1) and he burnt entire the victim
which he there offered in sacrifice." Nor is it here only that Jupiter
is found to have offered sacrifice. Caesar also, in Aratus, relates
that Aglaosthenes says that when he was setting out from the island of
Naxos against the Titans, and was offering sacrifice on the shore, an
eagle flew to Jupiter as an omen, and that the victor received it as a
good token, and placed it under his own protection. But the sacred
history testifies that even beforehand an eagle had sat upon his head,
and portended to him the kingdom. To whom, then, could Jupiter have
offered sacrifice, except to his grandfather Coelus, who, according to
the saying of Euhemerus,(2) died in Oceania, and was buried in the town
of Aulatia?
CHAP. XII.--THAT THE STOICS TRANSFER THE FIGMENTS OF THE POETS TO A
PHILOSOPHICAL SYSTEM.
Since we have brought to light the mysteries of the
poets, and have found out the parents of Saturn, let us return to his
virtues and actions. He was, they say, just in his rule. First, from
this very circumstance he is not now a god, inasmuch as he has ceased
to be. In the next place, he was not even just, but impious not only
towards his sons, whom he devoured, but also towards his father, whom
he is said to have mutilated. And this may perhaps have happened in
truth. But men, having regard to the element which is called the
heaven, reject the whole fable as most foolishly invented; though the
Stoics, (according to their custom) endeavour to transfer it to a
physical system, whose opinion Cicero has laid down in his treatise
concerning the Nature of the Gods. They held, he says, that the highest
and ethereal nature of heaven, that is, of fire, which by itself
produced all things, was without that part of the body which contained
the productive organs. Now this theory might have been suitable to
Vesta, if she were called a male. For it is on this account that they
esteem Vesta to be a virgin, inasmuch as fire is an incorruptible
element; and nothing can be born from it, since it consumes all things,
whatever it has seized upon. Ovid in the Fasti says:(3) "Nor do you
esteem Vesta to be anything else than a living flame; and you see no
bodies produced from flame. Therefore she is truly a virgin, for she
sends forth no seed, nor receives it, and loves the attendants of
virginity."
This also might have been ascribed to Vulcan, who
indeed is supposed to be fire, and yet the poets did not mutilate him.
It might also have been ascribed to the sun, in whom is the nature and
cause of the productive powers. For without the fiery heat of the sun
nothing could be born, or have increase; so that no other element has
greater need of productive organs than heat, by the nourishment of
which all things are conceived, produced, and supported. Lastly, even
if the case were as they would have it, why should we suppose that
Coelus was mutilated, rather than that he was born without productive
organs? For if he produces by himself, it is plain that he had no need
of productive organs, since he gave birth to Saturn himself; but if he
had them, and suffered mutilation from his son, the origin of all
things and all nature would have perished. Why should I say that they
deprive Saturn himself not only of divine, but also of human
intelligence, when they affirm that Saturn is he who comprises the
course and change of the spaces and seasons, and that he has that very
25
name in Greek? For he is called Cronos, which is the same as Chronos,
that is, a space of time. But he is called Saturn, because he is
satiated with years. These are the words of Cicero, setting forth the
opinion of the Stoics: "The worthlessness of these things any one may
readily understand. For if Saturn is the son of Coelus, how could Time
have been born from Coelus, or Coelus have been mutilated by Time, or
afterwards could Time have been despoiled of his sovereignty by his son
Jupiter? Or how was Jupiter born from Time? Or with what years could
eternity be satiated, since it has no limit?"(1)
CHAP. XIII.- HOW VAIN AND TRIFLING ARE THE INTERPRETATIONS OF THE
STOICS RESPECTING THE GODS, AND IN THEM CONCERNING THE ORIGIN OF
JUPITER, CONCERNING SATURN AND OPS.
If therefore these speculations of the philosophers
are trifling, what remains, except that we believe it to be a matter of
fact that, being a man, he suffered mutilation from a man? Unless by
chance any one esteems him as a god who feared a co-heir; whereas, if
he had possessed any divine knowledge, he ought not to have mutilated
his father, but himself, to prevent the birth of Jupiter, who deprived
him of the possession of his kingdom. And he also, when he had married
his sister Rhea, whom in Latin we call Ops, is said to have been warned
by an oracle not to bring up his male children, because it would come
to pass that he should be driven into banishment by a son. And being in
fear of this, it is plain that he did not devour his sons, as the
fables report, but put them to death; although it is written in sacred
history that Saturn and Ops, and other men, were at that time
accustomed to eat human flesh, but that Jupiter, who gave to men laws
and civilization, was the first who by an edict prohibited the use of
that food. Now if this is true, what justice can there possibly have
been in him? But let us suppose it to be a fictitious story that Saturn
devoured his sons, only true after a certain fashion; must we then
suppose, with the vulgar, that he has eaten his sons, who has carried
them out to burial? But when Ops had brought forth Jupiter, she stole
away the infant, and secretly sent him into Crete to be nourished.
Again, I cannot but blame his want of foresight. For why did he receive
an oracle from another, and not from himself? Being placed in heaven,
why did he not see the things which were taking place on earth? Why did
the Corybantes with their cymbals escape his notice? Lastly, why did
there exist any greater force which might overcome his power?
Doubtless, being aged, he was easily
overcome by one who was young, and despoiled of his sovereignty. He was
therefore banished and went into exile; and after long wanderings came
into Italy in a ship, as Ovid relates in his Fasti:--
"The cause of the ship remains to be explained. The
scythe-bearing god came to the Tuscan river in a ship, having first
traversed the world."
Janus received him wandering and destitute; and the
ancient coins are a proof of this, on which there is a representation
of Janus with a double face, and on the other side a ship; as the same
poet adds:--
"But pious posterity represented a ship on the coin,
bearing testimony to the arrival of the stranger god."
Not only therefore all the poets, but the writers
also of ancient histories and events, agree that he was a man, inasmuch
as they handed down to memory his actions in Italy: of Greek writers,
Diodorus and Thallus; of Latin writers, Nepos, Cassius, and Varro. For
since men lived in Italy after a rustic fashion,(2)--
"He brought the race to union first,
Erewhile on mountain tops dispersed,
And gave them statutes to obey,
And willed the land wherein he lay
Should Latium's title bear."
Does any one imagine him to be a god, who was driven into banishment,
who fled, who lay hid? No one is so senseless. For he who flees, or
lies hid, must fear both violence and death. Orpheus, who lived in more
recent times than his, openly relates that Saturn reigned on earth and
among men:--
"First Cronus
ruled o'er men on earth,
And then
from Cronus sprung the mighty king,
The widely
sounding Zeus."
And also our own Maro says:(3)--
"This life the
golden Saturn led on earth;"
and in another place:(4)--
"That was the storied age of gold,
So peacefully, serenely rolled
The years beneath his reign."
The poet did not say in the former passage that he led this life in
heaven, nor in the latter passage that he reigned over the gods above.
From which it appears that he was a king on earth; and this he declares
more plainly in another place:(5)--
"Restorer of the age of gold,
In lands where Saturn ruled of old."
26
Ennius, indeed, in his translation of Euhemerus says that Saturn was
not the first who reigned, but his father Uranus. In the beginning, he
says, Coelus first had the supreme power on the earth. He instituted
and prepared that kingdom in conjunction with his brothers. There is no
great dispute, if there is doubt, on the part of the greatest
authorities respecting the son and the father. But it is possible that
each may have happened: that Uranus first began to be pre-eminent in
power among the rest, and to have the chief place, but not the kingdom;
and that afterwards Saturn acquired greater resources, and took the
title of king.
CHAP. XIV.--WHAT THE SACRED HISTORY OF EUHEMERUS AND ENNIUS TEACHES
CONCERNING THE GODS.
Now, since the sacred history differs in some degree
from those things which we have related, let us open those things which
are contained in the true writings, that we may not, in accusing
superstitions, appear to follow and approve of the follies of the
poets. These are the words of Ennius: "Afterwards Saturn married Ops.
Titan, who was older than Saturn, demands the kingdom for himself. Upon
this their mother Vesta, and their sisters Ceres and Ops, advise Saturn
not to give up the kingdom to his brother. Then Titan, who was inferior
in person to Saturn, on that account, and because he saw that his
mother and sisters were using their endeavours that Saturn might reign,
yielded the kingdom to him. He therefore made an agreement with Saturn,
that if any male children should be born to him, he would not bring
them up. He did so for this purpose, that the kingdom might return to
his own sons. Then, when a son was first born to Saturn, they slew him.
Afterwards twins were born, Jupiter and Juno. Upon this they present
Juno to the sight of Saturn, and secretly hide Jupiter, and give him to
Vesta to be brought up, concealing him from Saturn. Ops also brings
forth Neptune without the knowledge of Saturn, and secretly hides him.
In the same manner Ops brings forth twins by a third birth, Pluto and
Glauca. Pluto in Latin is Dispater; others call him Orcus. Upon this
they show to Saturn the daughter Glauca, and conceal and hide the son
Pluto. Then Glauca dies while yet young." This is the lineage of
Jupiter and his brothers, as these things are written, and the
relationship is handed down to us after this manner from the sacred
narrative. Also shortly afterwards he introduces these things: "Then
Titan, when he learned that sons were born to Saturn, and secretly
brought up, secretly takes with him his sons, who are called Titans,
and seizes his brother Saturn and Ops, and encloses
them within a wall, and places over them a guard."
The truth of this history is taught by the
Erythraean Sibyl, who speaks almost the same things, with a few
discrepancies, which do not affect the subject-matter itself. Therefore
Jupiter is freed from the charge of the greatest wickedness, according
to which he is reported to have bound his father with fetters; for this
was the deed of his uncle Titan, because he, contrary to his promise
and oath, had brought up male children. The rest of the history is thus
put together. It is said that Jupiter, when grown up, having heard that
his father and mother had been surrounded with a guard and imprisoned,
came with a great multitude of Cretans, and conquered Titan and his
sons in an engagement, and rescued his parents from imprisonment,
restored the kingdom to his father, and thus returned into Crete. Then,
after these things, they say that an oracle was given to Saturn,
bidding him to take heed lest his son should expel him from the
kingdom; that he, for the sake of weakening the oracle and avoiding the
danger, laid an ambush for Jupiter to kill him; that Jupiter, having
learned the plot, claimed the kingdom for himself afresh, and banished
Saturn; and that he, when he had been tossed over all lands, followed
by armed men whom Jupiter had sent to seize or put him to death,
scarcely found a place of concealment in Italy.
CHAP. XV.--HOW THEY WHO WERE
MEN OBTAINED THE NAME OF GODS.
Now, since it is evident from these things that they
were men, it is not difficult to see in what I manner they began to be
called gods.(1) For if there were no kings before Saturn or Uranus, on
account of the small number of men who lived a rustic life without any
ruler, there is no doubt but in those times men began to exalt the king
himself, and his whole family, with the highest praises and with new
honours, so that they even called them gods; whether on account of
their wonderful excellence, men as yet rude and simple really
entertained this opinion, or, as is commonly the case, in flattery of
present power, or on account of the benefits by which they were set in
order and reduced to a civilized state. Afterwards the kings
themselves, since they were beloved by those whose life they had
civilized, after their death left regret of themselves. Therefore men
formed images of them, that they might derive some consolation from the
contemplation of their likenesses; and proceeding further through love
of their worth,(2) they began to reverence the memory of the deceased,
that
27
they might appear to be grateful for their services, and might attract
their successors to a desire of ruling well. And this Cicero teaches in
his treatise on the Nature of the Gods, saying "But the life of men and
common intercourse led to the exalting to heaven by fame and goodwill
men who were distinguished by their benefits. On this account Hercules,
on this Castor and Pollux, Aesculapius and Liber" were ranked with the
gods. And in another passage: "And in most states it may be understood,
that for the sake of exciting valour, or that the men most
distinguished for bravery might more readily encounter danger on
account of the state, their memory was consecrated with the honour paid
to the immortal gods." It was doubtless on this account that the Romans
consecrated their Caesars, and the Moors their kings. Thus by degrees
religious honours began to be paid to them; while those who had known
them, first instructed their own children and grandchildren, and
afterwards all their posterity, in the practice of this rite. And yet
these great kings, on account of the celebrity of their name, were
honoured in all provinces.
But separate people privately honoured the founders
of their nation or city with the highest veneration, whether they were
men distinguished for bravery, or women admirable for chastity; as the
Egyptians honoured Isis, the Moors Juba, the Macedonians Cabirus, the
Carthaginians Uranus, the Latins Faunus, the Sabines Sancus, the Romans
Quirinus. In the same manner truly Athens worshipped Minerva, Samos
Juno, Paphos Venus, Lemnos Vulcan, Naxos Liber, and Delos Apollo. And
thus various sacred rites have been undertaken among different peoples
and countries, inasmuch as men desire to show gratitude to their
princes, and cannot find out other honours which they may confer upon
the dead. Moreover, the piety of their successors contributed in a
great degree to the error; for, in order that they might appear to be
born from a divine origin, they paid divine honours to their parents,
and ordered that they should be paid by others. Can any one doubt in
what way the honours paid to the gods were instituted, when he reads in
Virgil the words of Aeneas giving commands to his friends:(1)--
"Now with full cups
libation pour
To mighty Jove,
whom all adore,
Invoke Anchises'
blessed soul."
And he attributes to him not only immortality, but also power over the
winds:(2)--
"Invoke the winds to
speed our flight,
And pray that he
we hold so dear
May take our
offerings year by year,
Soon as our
promised town we raise,
In temples
sacred to his praise."
In truth, Liber and Pan, and Mercury and Apollo, acted in the same way
respecting Jupiter, and afterwards their successors did the same
respecting them. The poets also added their influence, and by means of
poems composed to give pleasure, raised them to the heaven; as is the
case with those who flatter kings, even though wicked, with false
panegyrics. And this evil originated with the Greeks, whose levity
being furnished with the ability and copiousness of speech, cited in an
incredible degree mists of falsehoods. And thus from admiration of them
they first undertook their sacred rites, and handed them down to all
nations. On account of this vanity the Sibyl thus rebukes them:--
"Why trustest thou, O Greece, to princely men?
Why to the dead dost offer empty gifts?
Thou offerest to idols; this error who suggested,
That thou shouldst leave the presence of the mighty God,
And make these offerings?"
Marcus Tullius, who was not only an accomplished
orator, but also a philosopher, since he alone was an imitator of
Plato, in that treatise in which he consoled himself concerning the
death of his daughter, did not hesitate to say that those gods who were
publicly worshipped were men. And this testimony of his ought to be
esteemed the more weighty, because he held the priesthood of the
augurs, and testifies that he worships and venerates the same gods. And
thus within the compass of a few verses he has presented us with two
facts. For while he declared his intention of consecrating the image of
his daughter in the same manner in which they were consecrated by the
ancients, he both taught that they were dead, and showed the origin of
a vain superstition. "Since, in truth,"
he says, "we see many men and women among the number of the gods, and
venerate their shrines, held in the greatest honour in cities and in
the country, let us assent to the wisdom of those to whose talents and
inventions we owe it that life is altogether adorned with laws and
institutions, and established on a firm basis. And if any living being
was worthy of being consecrated, assuredly it was this. If the
offspring of Cadmus, or Amphitryon, or Tyndarus, was worthy of being
extolled by fame to the heaven, the same honour ought undoubtedly to be
appropriated to her. And this indeed I will do; and with the
approbation of the gods, I will place you the best and most learned of
all women in their assembly. and will consecrate you to the estimation
of men." Some one may perhaps say that Cicero raved through excessive
grief. But, in truth, the whole of that speech, which was perfect both
in learning and in its examples, and in the very style of expression,
gave no indications of a dis-
28
tempered mind, but of constancy and judgment; and this very sentence
exhibits no sign of grief. For I do not think that he could have
written with such variety, and copiousness, and ornament, had not his
grief been mitigated by reason itself, and the consolation of his
friends and length of time. Why should I mention what he says in his
books concerning the Republic, and also concerning glory? For in his
treatise on the Laws, in which work, following the example of Plato, he
wished to set forth those laws which he thought that a just and wise
state would employ, he thus decreed concerning religion:(1) "Let them
reverence the gods, both those who have always been regarded as gods of
heaven, and those whose services to men have placed them in heaven:
Hercules, Liber, Aesculapius, Castor, Pollux, and Quirinus." Also in
his Tusculan Disputations,(2) when he said that heaven was almost
entirely filled with the human race, he said: "If, indeed, I should
attempt to investigate ancient accounts, and to extract from them those
things which the writers of Greece have handed down, even those who are
held in the highest rank as gods will be found to have gone from us
into heaven. Inquire whose sepulchres are pointed out in Greece:
remember, since you are initiated, what things are handed down in the
mysteries; and then at length you will understand how widely this
persuasion is spread." He appealed, as it is plain, to the conscience
of Atticus, that it might he understood from the very mysteries that
all those who are worshipped were men; and when he acknowledged this
without hesitation in the case of Hercules, Liber, Aesculapius, Castor
and Pollux, he was afraid openly to make the same admission respecting
Apollo and Jupiter their fathers, and likewise respecting Neptune,
Vulcan, Mars, and Mercury, whom he termed the greater gods; and
therefore he says that this opinion is widely spread, that we may
understand the same concerning Jupiter and the other more ancient gods:
for if the ancients consecrated their memory in the same manner in
which he says that he will consecrate the image and the name of his
daughter, those who mourn may be pardoned, but those who believe it
cannot be pardoned. For who is so infatuated as to believe that heaven
is opened to the dead at the consent and pleasure of a senseless
multitude? Or that any one is able to give to another that which he
himself does not possess? Among the Romans, Julius was made a god,
because it pleased a guilty man, Antony; Quirinus was made a god,
because it seemed good to the shepherds, though one of them was the
murderer of his twin brother, the other the destroyer of his country.
But if Antony had not
been consul, in return for his services towards the state Caius Caesar
would have been without the honour even of a dead man, and that, too,
by the advice of his father-in-law Piso, and of his relative Lucius
Caesar, who opposed the celebration of the funeral, and by the advice
of Dolabella the consul, who overthrew the column in the forum, that
is, his monuments, and purified the forum. For Ennius declares that
Romulus was regretted by his people, since he represents the people as
thus speaking, through grief for their lost king: "O Romulus, Romulus,
say what a guardian of your country the gods produced you? You brought
us forth within the regions of light. O father, O sire, O race,
descended from the gods." On account of this regret they more readily
believed Julius Proculus uttering falsehoods, who was suborned by the
fathers to announce to the populace that he had seen the king in a form
more majestic than that of a man; and that he had given command to the
people that a temple should be built to his honour, that he was a god,
and was called by the name of Quirinus. By which deed he at once
persuaded the people that Romulus had gone to the gods, and freed the
senate from the suspicion of having slain the king.
CHAP, XVI.--BY WHAT ARGUMENT IT IS PROVED THAT THOSE
WHO ARE DISTINGUISHED BY A DIFFERENCE OF SEX CANNOT BE GODS.(3)
I might be content with those things which I
have related, but there still remain many things which are
necessary for the work which I have undertaken. For although, by
destroying the principal part of superstitions, I have taken away the
whole, yet it pleases me to follow up the remaining parts, and more
fully to refute so inveterate a persuasion, that men may at length be
ashamed and repent of their errors. This is a great undertaking, and
worthy of a man. "I proceed to release the minds of men from the ties
of superstitions," as Lucretius(4) says; and be indeed was unable to
effect this, because he brought forward nothing true. This is our duty,
who both assert the existence of the true God and refute false deities.
They, therefore, who entertain the opinion that the poets have invented
fables about the gods, and yet believe in the existence of female
deities, and worship them, are unconciously brought back to that which
they had denied--that they have sexual intercourse, and bring forth.
For it is impossible that the two sexes can have been instituted except
for the sake of generation. But a difference of sex being admitted,
they do not perceive that conception follows as a consequence. And this
cannot
29
be the case with a God. But let the matter be as they imagine; for they
say that there are sons of Jupiter and of the other gods. Therefore new
gods are born, and that indeed daily, for gods are not surpassed in
fruitfulness by men. It follows that all things are full of gods
without number, since forsooth none of them dies. For since the
multitude of men is incredible, and their number not to be
estimated--though, as they are born, they must of necessity die--what
must we suppose to be the case with the gods who have been born through
so many ages, and have remained immortal? How is it, then, that so few
are worshipped? Unless we think by any means that there are two sexes
of the gods, not for the sake of generation, but for mere
gratification, and that the gods practise those things which men are
ashamed to do, and to submit to. But when any are said to be born from
any, it follows that they always continue to be born, if they are born
at any time; or if they ceased at any time to be born, it is befitting
that we should know why or at what time they so ceased. Seneca, in his
books of moral philosophy, not without some plesantry, asks, "What is
the reason why Jupiter, who is represented by the poets as most
addicted to lust, ceased to beget children? Was it that he was become a
sexagenarian, and was restrained by the Papian law?(1) Or did he obtain
the privileges conferred by having three children? Or did the sentiment
at length occur to him, 'What you have done to another, you may expect
from another;' and does he fear lest any one should act towards him as
he himself did to Saturn?" But let those who maintain that they are
gods, see in what manner they can answer this argument which I shall
bring forward. If there are two sexes of the gods, conjugal
intercourse follows; and if this takes place, they must have houses,
for they are not without virtue and a sense of shame, so as to do this
openly and promiscuously, as we see that the brute animals do. If they
have houses, it follows that they also have cities; and for this we
have the authority of Ovid, who says, "The multitude of gods occupy
separate places; in this front the powerful and illustrious inhabitants
of heaven have placed their dwellings." If they have cities, they will
also have fields. Now who cannot see the consequence,--namely, that
they plough and cultivate their lands? And this is done for the sake of
food. Therefore they are mortal. And this argument is of the same
weight when reversed. For if they have no lands, they have no cities;
and if they have no cities, they are also without houses. And if they
have no houses, they have no conjugal intercourse; and if they are
without this, they have no female sex. But
we see that there are females among the gods also. Therefore there are
not gods. If any one is able, let him do away with this argument. For
one thing so follows the other, that it is impossible not to admit
these last things. But no one will refute even the former argument. Of
the two sexes the one is stronger, the other weaker. For the males are
more robust, the females more feeble. But a god is not liable to
feebleness; therefore there is no female sex. To this is added
that last conclusion of the former argument, that there are no gods,
since there are females also among the gods.
CHAP. XVII.--CONCERNING THE SAME OPINION OF THE STOICS, AND CONCERNING
THE HARDSHIPS AND DISGRACEFUL CONDUCT OF THE GODS.
On these accounts the Stoics form a different
conception of the gods; and because they do not perceive what the truth
is, they attempt to join them with the system of natural things. And
Cicero, following them, brought forward this opinion respecting the
gods and their religions. Do you see then, he says, how an argument has
been drawn from physical subjects which have been well and usefully
found out, to the existence of false and fictitious gods? And this
circumstance gave rise to false opinions and turbulent errors, and
almost old-womanly superstitions. For both the forms of the gods, and
their ages, and clothing and ornaments, are known to us; and moreover
their races, and marriages, and all their relationships, and all things
reduced to the similitude of human infirmity. What can be said more
plain, more true? The chief of the Roman philosophy, and invested with
the most honourable priesthood, refutes the false and fictitious gods,
and testifies that their worship consists of almost old-womanly
superstitions: he complains that men are entangled in false opinions
and turbulent errors. For the whole of his third book respecting the
Nature of the Gods altogether overthrows and destroys all religion.
What more, therefore, is expected from us? Can we surpass Cicero in
eloquence? By no means; but confidence was wanting to him, being
ignorant of the truth, as he himself simply acknowledges in the same
work. For he says that he can more easily say what is not, than what
is; that is, that he is aware that the received system is false, but is
ignorant of the truth.(2) It is plain, therefore, that those who are
supposed to be gods were but men, and that their memory was consecrated
after their death. And on this account also different ages and
established representations of form are assigned to each, be-
30
cause their images were fashioned in that dress and of that age at
which death arrested each.
Let us consider, if you please, the hardships of the
unfortunate gods. Isis lost her son; Ceres her daughter; Latona,
expelled and driven about over the earth, with difficulty found a small
island(1) where she might bring forth. The mother of the gods both
loved a beautiful youth, and also mutilated him when found in company
with a harlot; and on this account her sacred rites are now celebrated
by the Galli(2) as priests. Juno violently persecuted harlots, because
she was not able to conceive by her brother.(3) Varro writes, that the
island Samos was before called Parthenia, because Juno there grew up,
and there also was married to Jupiter. Accordingly there is a most
noble and ancient temple of hers at Samos, and an image fashioned in
the dress of a bride; and her annual sacred rites are celebrated after
the manner of a marriage. If, therefore, she grew up, if she was at
first a virgin and afterwards a woman, he who does not understand that
she was a human being confesses himself a brute. Why should I speak of
the lewdness of Venus, who ministered to the lusts of all, not only
gods, but also men? For from her infamous debauchery with Mars she
brought forth Harmonia; from Mercury she brought forth Hermaphroditus,
who was born of both sexes; from Jupiter Cupid; from Anchines AEneas;
from Butes Eryx; from Adonis she could bring forth no offspring,
because he was struck by a boar, and slain, while yet a boy. And she
first instituted the art of courtesanship, as is contained in the
sacred history; and taught women in Cyprus to seek gain by
prostitution, which she commanded for this purpose, that she alone
might not appear unchaste and a courter of men beyond other females.
Has she, too, any claim to religious worship, on whose part more
adulteries are recorded than births? But not even were those virgins
who are celebrated able to preserve their chastity inviolate. For from
what source can we suppose that Erichthonius was born? Was it from the
earth, as the poets would have it appear? But the circumstance itself
cries out. For when Vulcan had made arms for the gods, and Jupiter had
given him the option of asking for whatever reward he might wish, and
had sworn, according to his custom, by the infernal lake, that he would
refuse him nothing which he might ask, then the lame artificer demanded
Minerva in marriage. Upon this the excellent and mighty Jupiter, being
bound by so great an oath, was not able to refuse; he, however, advised
Minerva to oppose and defend her chastity. Then in that
struggle they say that Vulcan shed his seed upon the earth, from which
source Erichthonius was born: and that this name was given to him from
<greek>eridos</greek> and
<greek>kqonos</greek>, that is, from the contest and
the ground. Why, then, did she, a virgin, entrust that boy
shut up with a dragon and sealed to three virgins born from Cecrops? An
evident case of incest, as I think, which can by no means be glossed
over. Another, when she had almost lost her lover, who was torn to
pieces by his madened horses, called in the most excellent physician
AEsculapius for the treatment of the youth; and when he was healed,
"Trivia kind her favourite bides,
And to Egeria's care confides,
To live in woods obscure and lone,
And lose in Virbius' name his own."(4)
What is the meaning of this so diligent and anxious care? Why this
secret abode? Why this banishment, either to so great a distance, or to
a woman, or into solitude? Why, in the next place, the change of name?
Lastly, why such a determined hatred of horses? What do all these
things imply, but the consciousness of dishonour, and a love by no
means consistent with a virgin? There was evidently a reason why she
undertook so great a labour for a youth so faithful, who had
refused compliance with the love of his stepmother.
CHAP. XVIII.--ON THE CONSECRATION OF GODS, ON ACCOUNT OF THE BENEFITS
WHICH THEY CONFERRED UPON MEN.
In this place also they are to be refuted, who not
only admit that gods have been made from men, but even boast of it as a
subject of praise, either on account of their valour, as Hercules, or
of their gifts, as Ceres and Liber, or of the arts which they
discovered, as AEsculapius or Minerva. But how foolish these things
are, and how unworthy of being the causes why men should contaminate
themselves with inexpiable guilt, and become enemies to God, in
contempt of whom they undertake offerings to the dead, I will show from
particular instances. They say that it is virtue(5) which exalts man to
heaven,--not, however, that concerning which philosophers discuss,
which consists in goods of the soul, but this connected with the body,
which is called fortitude; and since this was pre-eminent in Hercules,
it is believed to have deserved immortality. Who is so foolishly
senseless as to judge strength of body to be a divine or even a human
good, when it has been assigned in greater measure to cattle, and it is
often impaired by one disease, or is lessened by old age
31
itself, and altogether fails? And so Hercules, when he perceived that
his muscles were disfigured by ulcers, neither wished to be healed nor
to grow old, that he might not at any time appear to have less strength
or comeliness than he once had.(1) They supposed that he ascended into
heaven from the funeral pile on which he had burnt himself alive; and
those very qualities which they most foolishly admired, they expressed
by statues and images, and consecrated, so that they might for ever
remain as memorials of the folly of those who had believed that gods
owed their origin to the slaughter of beasts. But this, perchance, may
be the fault of the Greeks, who always esteemed most trifling things as
of the greatest consequence. What is the case of our own countrymen?
Are they more wise? For they despise valour in an athlete, because it
produces no injury; but in the case of a king, because it occasions
widely-spread disasters, they so admire it as to imagine that brave and
warlike generals are admitted to the assembly of the gods, and that
there is no other way to immortality than to lead armies, to lay waste
the territory of others, to destroy cities, to overthrow towns, to put
to death or enslave free peoples. Truly the greater number of men they
have cast down, plundered, and slain, so much the more noble and
distinguished do they think themselves; and ensnared by the show of
empty glory, they give to their crimes the name of virtue. I would
rather that they should make to themselves gods from the slaughter of
wild beasts, than approve of an immortality so stained with blood. If
any one has slain a single man, he is regarded as contaminated and
wicked, nor do they think it lawful for him to be admitted to this
earthly abode of the gods. But he who has slaughtered countless
thousands of men, has inundated plains with blood, and infected rivers,
is not only admitted into the temple, but even into heaven. In Ennius
Africanus thus speaks: "If it is permitted any one to ascend to the
regions of the gods above, the greatest gate of heaven is open to me
alone." Because, in truth, he extinguished and destroyed a great part
of the human race. Oh how great the darkness in which you were
involved, O Africanus, or rather O poet, in that you imagined
the ascent to heaven to be open to men through slaughters
and bloodshed! And Cicero also assented to this delusion. It is so in
truth, he said, O Africanus, for the same gate was open to Hercules; as
though he himself had been doorkeeper in heaven at the time when this
took place. I indeed cannot determine whether I should think it a
subject of grief or of ridicule, when I see grave and learned, and, as
they appear to themselves, wise men, involved in such miserable waves
of errors. If this is the virtue which renders us immortal, I for my
part should prefer to die, rather than to be the cause of destruction
to as many as possible. If immortality can be obtained in no other way
than by bloodshed, what will be the result if all shall agree to live
in harmony? And this may undoubtedly be realized, if men would cast
aside their pernicious and impious madness, and live in innocence and
jus rice. Shall no one, then, be worthy of heaven? Shall virtue perish,
because it will not be permitted men to rage against their fellow-men?
But they who reckon the overthrow of cities and people as the greatest
glory will not endure public tranquillity: they will plunder and rage;
and by the infliction of outrageous injuries will disturb the compact
of human society, that they may have an enemy whom they may destroy
with greater wickedness than that with which they attacked.
Now let us proceed to the remaining subjects. The
conferring of benefits gave the name of gods to Ceres and Liber. I am
able to prove from the sacred writings that wine and corn were used by
men before the offspring of Coelus and Saturnus. But let us suppose
that they were introduced by these. Can it appear to be a greater thing
to have collected corn, and having bruised it, to have taught men to
make bread; or to have pressed grapes gathered from the vine, and to
have made wine, than to have produced and brought forth from the earth
corn itself, or the vine? God, indeed, may have left these things
to be drawn out by the ingenuity of man; yet all things must belong to
Him, who gave to man both wisdom to discover, and those very things
which might be discovered. The arts also are said to have gained
immortality for their inventors, as medicine for AEsculapius, the craft
of the smith for Vulcan. Therefore let us worship those also who taught
the art of the fuller and of the shoemaker. But why is not honour paid
to the discoverer of the potter's art? Is it that those rich men
despise Samian vessels? There are also other arts, the inventors of
which greatly profiled the life of man. Why have not temples been
assigned to them also? But doubtless it is Minerva who discovered all,
and therefore workmen offer prayers to her. Such, then, was the low
condition(2) from which Minerva ascended to heaven. Is there truly any
reason why any one should leave the worship of Him who created(3) the
earth with its living creatures, and the heaven with its stars, for the
adoration of her who taught men to set up the woof? What place does he
hold who taught the healing of wounds in the
32
body? Can he be more excellent than Him who formed the body itself, and
the power of sensibility and of life? Finally, did he contrive
and bring to light the herbs themselves, and the other
things in which the healing art consists?
CHAP. XIX.--THAT IT IS IMPOSSIBLE FOR ANY ONE TO WORSHIP THE TRUE GOD
TOGETHER WITH FALSE DEITIES.
But some one will say that this supreme Being, who
made all things, and those also who conferred on men particular
benefits, are entitled to their respective worship. First of all, it
has never happened that the worshipper of these has also been a
worshipper of God. Nor can this possibly happen. For if the honour paid
to Him is shared by others, He altogether ceases to be worshipped,
since His religion requires us to believe that He is the one and only
God. The excellent poet exclaims, that all those who refined life by
the invention of arts are in the lower regions, and that even the
discoverer himself of such a medicine and art was thrust down by
lightning to the Stygian waves, that we may understand how great is the
power of the Almighty Father, who can extinguish even gods by His
lightnings. But ingenious men perchance thus reasoned with themselves:
Because God cannot be struck with lightning, it is manifest that the
occurrence never took place; nay, rather, because it did take place, it
is manifest that the person in question was a man, and not a god. For
the falsehood of the poets does not consist in the deed, but in the
name. For they feared evil, if, in opposition to the general
persuasion, they should acknowledge that which was true. But if this is
agreed upon among themselves, that gods were made from men, why then do
they not believe the poets, if at any time they describe their
banishments and wounds, their deaths, and wars, and adulteries? From
which things it may be understood that they could not possibly become
gods, since they were not even good men, and during their life they
performed I those actions which bring forth everlasting death.
CHAP.XX.--OF THE GODS PECULIAR TO THE ROMANS, AND THEIR SACRED
RITES.
I now come to the superstitions peculiar to the
Romans, since I have spoken of those which are common. The wolf, the
nurse of Romulus, was invested with divine honours. And I could endure
this, if it had been the animal itself whose figure she
bears. Livy relates that there was an image of Larentina, and
indeed not of her body, but of her mind and character. For
she was the wife of Faustulus, and on account of her prostitution she
was called among the
shepherds wolf,(1) that is, harlot, from which also the brothel(2)
derives its name. The Romans doubtless followed the example of the
Athenians in representing her figure. For when a harlot, by name
Leaena, had put to death a tyrant among them, because it was unlawful
for the image of a harlot to be placed in the temple, they erected the
effigy of the animal whose name she bore. Therefore, as the Athenians
erected a monument from the name, so did the Romans from the profession
of the person thus honoured. A festival was also dedicated to her name,
and the Larentinalia were instituted. Nor is she the only harlot whom
the Romans worship, but also Faula, who was, as Verrius writes, the
paramour of Hericules. Now how great must that immortality be thought
which is attained even by harlots! Flora, having obtained great wealth
by this practice, made the people her heir, and left a fixed sum of
money, from the annual proceeds of which her birthday might be
celebrated by public games, which they called Floralia. And because
this appeared disgraceful to the senate, in order that a kind of
dignity might be given to a shameful matter, they resolved
that an argument should be taken from the name itself. They
pretended that she was the goddess who presides over flowers, and that
she must be appeased, that the crops, together with the trees or vines,
might produce a good and abundant blossom. The poet followed up this
idea in his Fasti, and related that there was a nymph, by no means
obscure, who was called Chloris, and that, on her marriage with
Zephyrus, she received from her husband as a wedding gift the control
over all flowers. These things are spoken with propriety, but to
believe them is unbecoming and shameful. Anti when the truth is in
question, ought disguises of this kind to deceive us? Those games,
therefore, are celebrated with all wantonness, as is suitable to the
memory of a harlot. For besides licentiousness of words, in which all
lewdness is poured forth, women are also stripped of their garments at
the demand of the people, and then perform the office of mimeplayers,
and are detained in the sight of the people with indecent
gestures, even to the satiating of unchaste eyes. Tatius
consecrated an image of Cloacina, which had been found in the great
sewer; and because he did not know whose likeness it was, he gave it a
name from the place. Tullus Hostilius fashioned and worshipped Fear and
Pallor. What shall I say respecting him, but that he was worthy of
having his gods always at hand, as men commonly wish? The conduct of
Marcus Marcellus concerning the consecration of Honour and Valour
differs from this in goodness of the names, but agrees with it in
reality. The senate
33
acted with the same vanity in placing Mind(1) among the gods; for if
they had possessed any intelligence, they would never have undertaken
sacred rites of this kind. Cicero says that Greece undertook a great
and bold design in consecrating the images of Cupids and Loves in the
gymnasia: it is plain that he flattered Atticus and jested with his
friend. For that ought not to have been called a great design, or a
design at all, but the abandoned and deplorable wickedness of unchaste
men, who exposed their children, whom it was their duty to train to an
honourable course, to the lust of youth, and wished them to worship
gods of profligacy, in those places especially where their naked bodies
were exposed to the gaze of their corruptors, and at that age which,
through its simplicity and incautiousness, can be enticed and ensnared
before it can be on its guard. What wonder, if all kinds of profligacy
flowed from this nation, among whom vices themselves have the sanction
of religion, and are so far from being avoided, that they are even
worshipped? And therefore, as though he surpassed the Greeks in
prudence, he subjoined to this sentence as follows: "Vices ought not to
be consecrated, but virtues." But if you admit this, O Marcus Tullius,
you do not see that it will come to pass that vices will break in
together with virtues, because evil things adhere to those which are
good, and have greater influence on the minds of men; and if you forbid
these to be consecrated, the same Greece will answer you that it
worships some gods that it may receive benefits, and others that it may
escape injuries. For this is always the excuse of those who regard
their evils as gods, as the Romans esteem Blight and Fever. If,
therefore, vices are not to be consecrated, in which I agree with you,
neither indeed are virtues. For they have no intelligence or perception
of themselves; nor are they to be placed within walls or shrines made
of clay, but within the breast; and they are to be enclosed within,
lest they should be false if placed without man. Therefore I laugh at
that illustrious law of yours which you set forth in these words: "But
those things on account of which it is given to man to ascend into
heaven--I speak of mind, virtue, piety, faith let there be temples for
their praises." But these things cannot be separated from man. For if
they are to be honoured, they must necessarily be in man himself. But
if they are without man, what need is there to honour those things
which yon do not possess? For it is virtue, which is to be honoured,
and not the image of virtue; and it is to be honoured not by any
sacrifice, or incense, or solemn prayer, but only by the will and
purpose. For what else is it to honour virtue, but to comprehend it
with the mind, and to hold it fast? And as soon as any one begins to
wish for this, he attains it. This is the only honour of virtue; for no
other religion and worship is to be held but that of the one God.
To what purport is it, then, O wisest man, to occupy with
superfluous buildings places which may turn out to the service of
men? To what purport is it to establish priests for the worship of vain
and senseless objects ? To what purport to immolate victims? To what
purport to bestow such great expenditure on the forming or worshipping
of images? The human breast is a stronger and more uncorrupted
temple: let this rather be adorned, let this be filled with the true
deities. For they who thus worship the virtues--that is, who pursue the
shadows and images of virtues--cannot hold the very things which are
true. Therefore there is no virtue in any one when vices bear rule;
there is no faith when each individual carries off all things for
himself; there is no piety when avarice spares neither relatives nor
parents, and passion rushes to poison and the sword: no peace, no
concord, when wars rage in public, and in private enmities
prevail even to bloodshed; no chastity when unbridled lusts contaminate
each sex, and the whole body in every part. Nor, however, do they cease
to worship those things which they flee from and hate. For they worship
with incense and the tips of their fingers those things which they
ought to have shrunk from with their inmost feelings; and this error is
altogether de~ rived from their ignorance of the principal and chief
good.
When their city was occupied by the Gauls, and the
Romans, who were besieged in the Capitol, had made military engines
from the hair of the women, they dedicated a temple to the Bald Venus.
They do not therefore understand how vain are their religions, even
from this very fact, that they jeer at them by these follies. They had
perhaps learned from the Lacedaemonians to invent for themselves gods
from events. For when they were besieging the Messenians, and they (the
Messenians) had gone out secretly, escaping the notice of the
besiegers, and had hastened to plunder Lacedaemon, they were routed and
put to flight by the Spartan women. But the Lacedaemonians, having
learned the stratagem of the enemy, followed. The women in arms went
out to a distance to meet them; and when they saw that their husbands
were preparing themselves for battle, supposing them to be Messenians,
they laid bare their persons. But the men, recognising their wives, and
excited to passion by the sight, rushed to promiscuous intercourse, for
there was not time for discrimination. In like manner, the youths who
had on a
34
former occasion been sent by the same people, having intercourse with
the virgins, from whom the Partheniae were born, in memory of this deed
erected a temple and statue to armed Venus. And although this
originated in a shameful cause, yet it seems better to have consecrated
Venus as armed than bald. At the same time an altar was erected also to
Jupiter Pistor (the baker), because he had admonished them in a dream
to make all the corn which they had into bread, and throw it into the
camp of the enemy; and when this was done, the siege was ended, since
the Gauls despaired of being able to reduce the Romans by want.
What a derision of religions rites is this! I were a
defender of these, what could I complain of so greatly as that the name
of gods had conic into such contempt as to be mocked by the most
disgraceful names? Who would not laugh at the goddess Fornax, or rather
that learned men should be occupied with celebrating the Fornacalia?
Who can refrain from laughter on hearing of the goddess Muta? They say
that she is the goddess from whom the Lares were born, and they call
her Lara, or Larunda. What advantage can she, who is unable to speak,
afford to a worshipper? Caca also is worshipped, who informed Hercules
of the theft of his oxen, having obtained immortality through the
betrayal of her brother; and Cunina, who protects infants in the
cradle, and keeps off witchcraft; and Stercutus, who first introduced
the method of manuring the land; and Tutinus, before whom brides sit,
as an introduction to the marriage rites; and a thousand other
fictions, so that they who regarded these as objects of worship may be
said to be more foolish than the Egyptians, who worship certain
monstrous and ridiculous images. These however, have some delineation
of form. What shall I say of those who worship a rude and shapeless
stone under the name of Terminus? This is he whom Saturnus is said to
have swallowed in the place of Jupiter; nor is the honour paid to him
underservedly. For when Tarquinius wished to build the Capitol, and
there were the chapels of many gods on that spot, he consulted them by
augury whether they would give way to Jupiter; and when the rest gave
way, Terminus alone remained. From which circumstance the pact speaks
of the immoveable stone of the Capitol. Now from this very fact how
great is Jupiter found to be, to whom a stone did not give way, with
this confidence, perhaps, because it had rescued him from the jaws of
his father! Therefore, when the Capitol was built, an aperture was left
in the roof above Terminus himself, that, since he had not given way,
he might enjoy the free heaven; but they did not themselves enjoy
this, who imagined that a stone enjoyed it. And therefore they make
public supplications to him, as to the god who is the guardian of
boundaries; and he is not only a stone, but sometimes also a stock.
What shall I say of those who worship such objects, unless--that they
above all others are stones and stocks?
CHAP. XXI.--OF CERTAIN DEITIES PECULIAR TO BARBARIANS, AND THEIR SACRED
RITES; AND IN LIKE MANNER CONCERNING THE ROMANS.
We have spoken of the gods themselves who are
worshipped; we must now speak a few words respecting their sacrifices
and mysteries. Among the people of Cyprus, Teucer sacrificed a human
victim to Jupiter, and handed down to posterity that sacrifice which
was lately abolished by Hadrian when he was emperor. There was a law
among the people of Tauris, a fierce and inhuman nation, by which it
was ordered that strangers should be sacrificed to Diana; and this
sacrifice was practised through many ages. The Gauls used to appease
Hesus and Teutas with human blood. Nor, indeed, were the Latins free
from this cruelty, since Jupiter Latialis is even now worshipped with
the offering of human blood. What benefit do they who offer such
sacrifices implore from the gods? Or what are such deities able to
bestow on the men by whose punishments they are propitiated? But this
is not so much a matter of surprise with respect to barbarians, whose
religion agrees with their character. But are not our countrymen, who
have always claimed for themselves the glory of gentleness and
civilization, found to be more inhuman by these sacrilegious rites? For
these ought rather to be esteemed impious, who, though they are
embellished with the pursuits of liberal training, turn aside from such
refinement. than those who, being ignorant and inexperienced, glide
into evil practices from their ignorance of those which are good. And
yet it is plain that this rite of immolating human victims is ancient,
since Saturn was honoured in Latium with the same kind of sacrifice;
not indeed that a man was slain at the altar, but that he was thrown
from the Milvian bridge into the Tiber. And Varro relates that this was
done in accordance with an oracle; of which oracle the last verse is to
this effect: "And offer heads to Ades, and to the father a man."(1) And
because this appears ambiguous, both a torch and a man are accustomed
to be thrown to him. But it is said that sacrifices of this kind were
put an end to by Hercules when he returned from Spain; the custom still
continuing, that instead of real men, images made from rushes were cast
forth, as Ovid informs us in his Fasti:(2) "Until the Tirynthian
35
came into these lands, gloomy sacrifices were annually offered in the
Leucadian manner: he threw into the water Romans made of straw; do you,
after the example of Hercules, cast(1) in the images of human bodies."
The Vestal virgins make these sacred offerings, as
the same poet says:(2) "Then also a virgin is accustomed to cast from
the wooden bridge the images of ancient men made from rushes."
For I cannot find language to speak of the infants
who were immolated to the same Saturn, on account of his hatred of
Jupiter. To think that men were so barbarous, so savage, that they gave
the name of sacrifice to the slaughter of their own children, that is,
to a deed foul, and to be held in detestation by the human race; since,
without any regard to parental affection, they destroyed tender and
innocent lives, at an age which is especially pleasing to parents, and
surpassed in brutality the savageness of all beasts, which--savage as
they are--still love their offspring! O incurable madness! What more
could those gods do to them, if they were most angry, than they now do
when propitious, when they defile their worshippers with parricide,
visit them with bereavements, and deprive them of the sensibilities of
men? What can be sacred to these men? Or what will they do in profane
places, who commit the greatest crimes amidst the altars of the gods?
Pescennius Festus relates in the books of his History by a Satire, that
the Carthaginians were accustomed to immolate human victims to Saturn;
and when they were conquered by Agathocles, the king of the Sicilians,
they imagined that the god was angry with them; and therefore, that
they might more diligently offer an expiation, they immolated two
hundred sons of their nobles: "So great the ills to which religion
could prompt, which has ofttimes produced wicked and impious deeds."
What advantage, then, did the men propose by that sacrifice, when they
put to death so large a part of the state, as not even Agathocles had
slain when victorious?
From this kind of sacrifices those public rites are
to be judged signs of no less madness; some of which are in honour of
the mother of the gods, in which men mutilate themselves; others are in
honour of Virtus, whom they also call Bellona, in which the priests
make offsprings not with the blood of another victim, but with their
own.(3) For, cutting their shoulders, and thrusting forth drawn swords
in each hand, they run, they are beside themselves, they are frantic.
Quintilian therefore says excellently in his Fanatic: "If a god compels
this, he does it in anger." Are even these things sacred? Is it not
better to live like cattle, than to worship deities so impious.
profane, and sanguinary? But we will discuss at the proper time the
source from which these errors and deeds of such great disgrace
originated. In the mean time, let us look also to other matters which
are without guilt, that we may not seem to select the worse parts
through the desire of finding fault. In Egypt there are sacred
rites in honour of Isis, since she either lost or found her little
son. For at first her priests, having made their bodies smooth,
beat their breasts, and lament, as the goddess herself had done when
her child was lost. Afterwards the boy is brought forward, as if found,
and that mourning is changed into joy. Therefore Lucan says, "And
Osiris never sufficiently sought for." For they always lose, and they
always find him. Therefore in the sacred rites there is a
representation of a circumstance which really occurred; and which
assuredly declares, if we have any intelligence, that she was a mortal
woman, and almost desolate, had she not found one person. And this did
not escape the notice of the poet himself; for he represents Pompey
when a youth as thus speaking, on hearing the death of his father: "I
will now draw forth the deity Isis from the tomb, and send her through
the nations; and I will scatter through the people Osiris covered with
wood." This Osiris is the same whom the people call Serapis. For it is
customary for the names of the dead who are deified to be changed, that
no one, as I believe, may imagine them to be men. For Romulus after his
death became Quirinus, and Leda became Nemesis, and Circe Marica; and
Ino, when she had leapt into the sea, was called Leucothea; and the
mother Matuta; and her son Melicerta was called Palaemon and Portumnus.
And the sacred rites of the Eleusinian Ceres are not unlike these. For
as in those which have been mentioned the boy Osiris is sought with the
wailing of his mother, so in these Proserpine is carried away to
contract an incestuous marriage with her uncle; and because Ceres is
said to have sought for her in Sicily with torches lighted from the top
of Etna, on this account her sacred rites are celebrated with the
throwing of torches.
At Lampsacus the victim to he offered to Priapus is
an ass, and the cause of the sacrifice of this animal is thus set forth
in the Fasti:-When all the deities had assembled at the festival of the
Great Mother, and when, satiated with feasting. they were spending the
night in sport, they say that Vesta had laid herself on the ground for
rest, and had fallen asleep, and that Priapus upon this formed a design
against her honour as she slept; but that she was aroused by the
unseasonable braying of the ass on which Silenus used to ride, and that
the design of the insidi-
36
ous plotter was frustrated. On this account they say that the people of
Lampsacus were accustomed to sacrifice an ass to Priapus, as though it
were in revenge; but among the Romans the same animal was crowned at
the Vestalia (festival of Vesta) with loaves,(1) in honour of the
preservation of her chastity. What is baser, what more disgraceful,
than if Vesta is indebted to an ass for the preservation of her purity?
But the poet invented a fable. But was that more true which is related
by those(2) who wrote "Phenomena," when they speak concerning the two
stars of Cancer, which the Greeks call asses? That they were asses
which carried across father Liber when he was unable to cross a river,
and that he rewarded one of them with the power of speaking with human
voice; and that a contest arose between him and Priapus; and Priapus,
being worsted in the contest, was enraged, and slew the victor. This
truly is ranch more absurd. But poets have the licence of saying what
they will. I do not meddle with a mystery so odious; nor do
I strip Priapus of his disguise, lest something deserving of
ridicule should be brought to light. It is true the poets
invented these fictions, but they must have been invented for the
purpose of concealing some greater depravity. Let us inquire what this
is. But in fact it is evident. For as the bull is sacrificed to
Luna,(3) because he also has horns as she has; and as "Persia
propitiates with a horse Hyperion surrounded with rays, that a slow
victim may not be offered to the swift god;" so in this case no more
suitable victim could be found than that which resembled him to whom it
is offered.
At Lindus, which is a town of Rhodes, there are
sacred rites in honour of Hercules, the observance of which differs
widely from all other rites; for they are not celebrated with words of
good omen(4) (as the Greeks term it), but with revilings and cursing.
And they consider it a violation of the sacred rites, if at any tithe
during the celebration of the solemnities a good word shall have
escaped from any one even inadvertently. And this is the reason
assigned for this practice, if indeed there can be any reason in
things utterly senseless. When Hercules had arrived at the place, and
was suffering hunger, he saw a ploughman at work, and began to ask him
to sell one of his oxen. But the ploughman replied that this was
impossible, because his hope of cultivating the land depended
altogether upon those two bullocks. Hercules, with his usual violence,
because he was not able to receive one of them, killed both. But the
unhappy man, when he saw that his oxen were slain, avenged the injury
with revilings,--a circumstance which afforded gratification to the man
of elegance and refinement. For while he prepares a feast for his
companions, and while he devours the oxen of another man, he receives
with ridicule and loud laughter the bitter reproaches with which the
other assails him. But when it had been determined that divine honours
should be paid to Hercules in admiration of his excellence, an altar
was erected in his honour by the citizens, which he named, from the
circumstance, the yoke of oxen;(5) and at this altar two yoked oxen
were sacrificed, like those which he had taken from the ploughman. And
he appointed the same man to be his priest, and directed him always to
use the same revilings in offering sacrifice, because he said that he
had never feasted more pleasantly. Now these things are not sacred, but
sacrilegious, in which that is said to be enjoined, which, if it is
done in other things, is punished with the greatest severity. What,
moreover, do the rites of the Cretan Jupiter himself show, except the
manner in which he was withdrawn from his father, or brought up? There
is
a goat belonging to the nymph Amalthea, which gave suck to the infant;
and of this goat Germanicus Caesar thus speaks, in his poem translated
from Aratus: 6--
"She is supposed to be the nurse of Jupiter; if in truth the infant
jupiter pressed the faithful teats of the Cretan
goat, whichattests the gratitude of her lord by a bright constellation."
Musaeus relates that Jupiter, when fighting
against the Titans, used the hide of this goat as a shield, from which
circumstance he is called by the poets shield-bearer.(7) Thus, whatever
was done in concealing the boy, that also is done by way of
representation in the sacred rites. Moreover, the mystery of his mother
also contains the same story which Ovid sets forth in the Fasti:--
"Now the lofty Ida resounds with tinklings, that the boy may cry in
safety with infant mouth. Some strike their shields
with stakes,some beat their empty helmets. This is the employment of
theCuretes, this of the Corybantes. The matter was concealed,
andimitations of the ancient deed remain; the attendant goddessesshake
instruments of brass, and hoarse hides. Instead of helmetsthey strike
cymbals, and drums instead of shields; the flutegives Phrygian strains,
as it gave before."
Sallust rejected this opinion altogether, as though
invented by the poets, and wished to give an ingenious explanation of
the reasons for
37
which the Curetes are said to have nourished Jupiter; and he speaks to
this purport: Because they were the first to understand the worship of
the deity, that therefore antiquity, which exaggerates all things, made
them known as the nourishers of Jupiter. How much this learned man was
mistaken, the matter itself at once declares. For if Jupiter holds the
first place, both among the gods and in religious rites, if no gods
were worshipped by the people before him, because they who are
worshipped were not yet born; it appears that the Curetes, on the
contrary, were the first who did not understand the worship of
the deity, since all error was introduced by them, and the memory of
the true God was taken away. They ought therefore to have understood
from the mysteries and ceremonies themselves, that they were offering
prayers to dead men. I do not then require that any one should believe
the fictions of the poets. If any one imagines that these speak
falsely, let him consider the writings of the pontiffs themselves, and
weigh whatever there is of literature pertaining to sacred rites: he
will perhaps find more things than we bring forward, from which he may
understand that all things which are esteemed sacred are empty, vain,
and fictitious. But if any one, having discovered wisdom, shall lay
aside his error, he will assuredly laugh at the follies of men
who are almost without understanding: I mean those who either dance
with unbecoming gestures, or run naked, anointed, and crowned with
chaplets, either wearing a mask or besmeared with mud. What shall I say
about shields now putrid with age? When they carry these, they think
that they are carrying gods themselves on their shoulders. For Furius
Bibaculus is regarded among the chief examples of piety, who, though he
was praetor, nevertheless carried the sacred shield,(1) preceded by the
lictors, though his office as proetor gave him an exemption from this
duty. He was therefore not Furius, but altogether mad,(2) who thought
that he graced his praetorship by this service. Deservedly then, since
these things are done by men not unskilful and ignorant, does Lucretius
exclaim :--
"O foolish minds of men! O blinded breasts! In what darkness of life
andin how great dangers is passed this term of life, whatever be
itsduration!"
Who that is possessed of any sense would not laugh
at these mockeries, when he sees that men, as though bereft of
intelligence, do those things seriously, which if any one should do in
sport, he would appear too full of sport and folly?
CHAP. XXII.--WHO WAS THE AUTHOR OF THE VANITIES BEFORE DESCRIBED IN
ITALY AMONG THE ROMANS, AND WHO AMONG OTHER NATIONS.
The author and establisher of these vanities among
the Romans was that Sabine king who especially engaged(3) the rude and
ignorant minds of men with new superstitions: and that he might do this
with some authority, he pretended that he had meetings by night with
the goddess Egeria. There was a very dark cavern in the grove of
Aricia, from which flowed a stream with a never failing spring. Hither
he was accustomed to withdraw himself without any witnesses, that he
might be able to pretend that, by the admonition of the goddess
his wife, he delivered to the people those sacred rites which were most
acceptable to the gods. It is evident that he wished to imitate the
craftiness of Minos, who concealed himself in the cave of Jupiter, and,
after a long delay there, brought forward laws, as though
delivered to him by Jupiter, that he might bind men to obedience not
only by the authority of his government, but also by the sanction of
religion. Nor was it difficult to persuade shepherds. Therefore he
instituted pontiffs, priests, Salii, and augurs; he arranged the gods
in families; and by these means he softened the fierce spirits of
the new people and called them away from warlike affairs to
the pursuit of peace. But though he deceived others, he did not
deceive himself. For after many years, in the consulship of Cornelius
and Bebius, in a field belonging to the scribe Petilius, under the
Janiculum, two stone chests were found by men who were digging, in one
of which was the body of Numa, in the other seven books in latin
respecting the law of the pontiffs, and the same number written in
Greek respecting systems of philosophy, in which he not only annulled
the religious rites which he himself had instituted, but all others
also. When this was referred to the senate, it was decreed that these
books should be destroyed. Therefore Quintus Petilius, the praetor who
had jurisdiction in the
city burnt them in an assembly of the people. This was a
senseless proceeding; for of what advantage was it that the books
were burnt, s when the cause on account of which they were burnt--that
they took away the authority due to religion--was itself handed
down to memory? Every one then in the senate was most foolish; for the
books might have been burnt, and yet the matter itself have been
unknown. Thus, while they wish to prove even to posterity with what
piety they defended religious institutions, they lessened the authority
of the institutions themselves by their testimony.
But as Pompilius was the institutor of foolish
38
superstitions among the Romans, so also, before Pompilius, Faunus
was in Latium, who both established impious rites to his grandfather
Saturnus, and honoured his father Picus with a place among the gods,
and consecrated his sister Fatua Fauna, who was also his wife; who, as
Gabius Bassus relates, was called Fatua because she had been in the
habit of foretelling their fates to women, as Faunus did to men. And
Varro writes that she was a woman of such great modesty, that, as long
as she lived, no male except her husband saw her or heard her name. On
this account women sacrifice to her in secret, and call her the Good
Goddess. And Sextus Claudius, in that book which he wrote in Greek,
relates that it was the wife of Faunus who, because, contrary to the
practice and honour of kings, she had drunk a jar of wine, and had
become intoxicated, was beaten to death by her husband with myrtle
rods. But afterwards, when he was sorry for what he had done, and was
unable to endure his regret for her, he paid her divine honours. For
this reason they say that a covered jar of wine is placed at her sacred
rites. Therefore Faunus also left to posterity no slight error, which
all that are intelligent see through. For Lucilius in these verses
derides the folly of those who imagine that images are gods: "The
terrestrial(1) Lamiae, which Faunus and Numa Pompilius and others
instituted; at and these he trembles, he places everything in this. As
infant boys believe that every statue of bronze is a living man, so
these imagine that all things reigned are true: they believe that
statues of bronze contain a heart. It is a painter's gallery;(2) there
is nothing true; all things are fictitious." The poet, indeed,
compares foolish men to infants. But I say that they are much more
senseless than infants. For they (infants) suppose that images are men,
whereas these take them for gods: the one through their age, the others
through folly, imagine that which is not true: at any rate, the one
soon ceased to be deceived; the foolishness of the others is permanent,
and always increases. Orpheus was the first who introduced the rites of
father Liber into Greece; and he first celebrated them on a mountain of
Boeotia, very near to Thebes, where Liber was born; and because this
mountain continually resounded with the strains of the lyre, it
was called Cithaeron.(3) Those sacred rites are even now called Orphic,
in which he himself was lacerated and torn in pieces; and he lived
about the same time with Faunus. But which of them was prior in age
admits of doubt, since Latinus and Priam reigned during the same years,
as did also their fathers Faunus and Laomedon, in whose reign Orpheus
came with the Argonauts to the coast of the Trojans.
Let us therefore advance further, and inquire who
was really the first author of the worship of the gods. Didymus,(4) in
the books of his commentary on Pindar, says that Melisseus, king of the
Cretans, was the first who sacrificed to the gods, and introduced new
rites and parades of sacrifices. He had two daughters, Amalthaea and
Melissa, who nourished the youth fill Jupiter with goats' milk and
honey. Hence that poetic fable derived its origin, that bees flew to
the child, and filled his mouth with honey. Moreover, he says that
Melissa was appointed by her father the first priestess of the Great
Mother; from which circumstance the priests of the same Mother are
still called Melissae. But the sacred history testifies that Jupiter
himself, when he had gained possession of power, arrived at such
insolence that he built temples in honour of himself in many places.
For when he went about to different lands, on his arrival in each
region, he united to himself the kings or princes of the people in
hospitality and friendship; and when he was departing from each, he
ordered that a shrine should be dedicated to himself in the name of his
host, as though the remembrance of their friendship and league could
thus be preserved. Thus temples were founded in honour of Jupiter
Atabyrius and Jupiter Labrandius; for Atabyrius and Labrandius were his
entertainers and assistants in war. Temples were also built to Jupiter
Laprius, to Jupiter Molion, to Jupiter Casius, and others, after the
same manner. This was a very crafty device on his part, that he might
both acquire divine honour for himself, and a perpetual name for his
entertainers in conjunction with religious observances. Accordingly
they were glad, and cheerfully submitted to his command, and observed
annual rites and festivals for the sake of handing down their own name.
AEneas did something like this in Sicily, when he gave the name of his
host(5) Acestes to a city which he had built, that Acestes might
afterwards joyfully and willingly love, increase, and adorn it. In this
manner Jupiter spread abroad through the world the observance of his
worship, and gave an example for the imitation of others. Whether,
then, the practice of worshipping the gods proceeded from Melisseus, as
Didymus related, or from Jupiter also himself, as Euhemerus says, the
39
time is still agreed upon when the gods began to be worshipped.
Melisseus, indeed, was much prior in time, inasmuch as he brought up
Jupiter his grandson. It is therefore possible that either before, or
while Jupiter was yet a boy, he taught the worship of the gods, namely,
the mother of his foster-child, and his grandmother Tellus, who was the
wife of Uranus, and his father Saturnus; and he himself, by this
example and institution, may have exalted Jupiter to such pride, that
he afterwards ventured to assume divine honours to himself.
CHAP. XXIII.--OF THE AGES OF VAIN SUPERSTITIONS, AND THE TIMES AT WHICH
THEY COMMENCED.
Now, since we have ascertained the origin of vain
superstitions, it remains that we should also collect the times during
which they whose memory is honoured lived. Theophilus,(1) in his book
written to Autolycus respecting the times,(2) says that Thallus relates
in his history, that Belus, who is worshipped by the Babylonians and
Assyrians, is found to have lived 322 years before the Trojan war; that
Belus, moreover, was contemporary with Saturnus, and that they both
grew up at one time;-- which is so true, that it may be inferred by
reason itself. For Agamemnon, who carried on the Trojan war, was the
fourth(3) in descent from Jupiter; and Achilles and Ajax were of the
third(4) descent from him; and Ulysses was related in the same degree.
Priam, indeed, was distant by a long series of descents. But according
to some authorities, Dardanus and Iasius were sons of Coritus, not of
Jupiter. For if it had been so, Jupiter could not have formed that
unchaste connection with Ganymede, his own descendant. Therefore, if
you divide the years which are in agreement, the number will be found
in harmony with the parents of those whom I have named above. Now, from
the destruction of the Trojan city fourteen hundred and seventy years
are made up. From this calculation of times, it is manifest that
Saturnus has not been born more than eighteen hundred years, and he
also was the father of all the gods. Let them not glory, then, in the
antiquity of their sacred rites, since both their origin and system and
times have been ascertained. There still remain some things which may
be of great weight for the disproving of false religions; but I have
determined now to bring this book to an end, that it may not exceed
moderate limits. For those things must be followed up more fully, that,
having refuted all things which seem to oppose the truth, we may be
able to instruct in true religion men who, through ignorance of good
things, wander in uncertainty. But the first step towards wisdom is to
understand what is false; the second, to ascertain what is true.
Therefore he who shall have profited by this first discussion of mine,
in which we have exposed false things, will be excited to the knowledge
of the truth, than which no pleasure is more gratifying to man; and he
will now be worthy of the wisdom of heavenly training, who shall
approach with willingness and preparation to the knowledge of the other
subjects.
40
THE DIVINE INSTITUTES
BOOK II.
OF THE ORIGIN OF ERROR.
CHAP. I--THAT FORGETFULNESS OF REASON MAKES MEN IGNORANT OF THE TRUE
GOD, WHOM THEY WORSHIP IN ADVERSITY AND DESPISE IN PROSPERITY.
ALTHOUGH I have shown in the first book that the
religious ceremonies of the gods are false, because those in whose
honour the general consent of men throughout the world by a foolish
persuasion undertook various and dissimilar rites were mortals, and
when they had completed their term of life, yielded to a divinely
appointed necessity and died, yet, lest any doubt should be left, this
second book shall lay open the very fountain of errors, and shall
explain all the causes by which men were deceived, so that at first
they believed that they were gods, and afterwards with an inveterate
persuasion persevered in the religious observances which they had most
perversely undertaken. For I desire, O Emperor Constantine, now that I
have proved the emptiness of these things, and brought to light the
impious vanity of men, to assert the majesty of the one God,
undertaking the more useful and greater duty of recalling men from
crooked paths, and of bringing them back into favour with themselves,
that they may not, as some philosophers do, so greatly despise
themselves, nor think that they are weak and useless, and of no
account, and altogether born in vain. For this notion drives many to
vicious pursuits. For while they imagine that we are a care to no God,
or that we are about to have no existence after death, they altogether
give themselves to the indulgence of their passions; and while they
think that it is allowed them, they eagerly apply themselves to the
enjoyment of pleasures, by which they unconsciously run into the snares
of death; for they are ignorant as to what is reasonable conduct on the
part of man: for if they wished to understand this, in the first place
they would acknowledge their Lord, and would follow after virtue and
justice; they would not subject their souls to the influence of
earth-born fictions, nor would they seek the deadly fascinations of
their lusts; in short, they would value themselves highly, and would
understand that there is more in man than appears; and that they cannot
retain their power and standing unless men lay aside depravity, and
undertake the worship of their true Parent. I indeed, as I ought, often
reflecting on the sum of affairs, am accustomed to wonder that the
majesty of the one God, which keeps together and rules all things, has
come to be so forgotten, that the only befitting object of worship is,
above all others, the one which is especially neglected; and that men
have sunk to such blindness, that they prefer the dead to the true and
living God, and those who are of the earth, and buried in the earth, to
Him who was the Creator of the earth itself.
And yet this impiety of men might meet with some
indulgence if the error entirely arose from ignorance of the divine
name. But since we often see that the worshippers of other gods
themselves confess and acknowledge the Supreme God, what pardon can
they hope for their impiety, who do not acknowledge the worship of Him
whom man cannot altogether be ignorant of? For both in swearing, and in
expressing a wish, and in giving thanks, they do not name Jupiter, or a
number of gods, but God;(1) so entirely does the truth of its own
accord break forth by the force of nature even from unwilling breasts.
And this, indeed, is not the case with men in their prosperity. For
then most of all does God escape the memory of men, when in the
enjoyment of His benefits they ought to honour His divine beneficence.
But if any weighty necessity shall press them, then they remember God.
If the terror of war shall have resounded, if the pestilential force of
diseases shall have overhung them, if long-continued drought shall have
denied nourishment to the
41
crops, if a violent tempest or hail shall have assailed them, they
betake themselves to God, aid is implored from God, God is entreated to
suc-cour them. If any one is tossed about on the sea, the wind being
furious, it is this God whom he invokes. If any one is harassed by any
violence, he implores His aid. If any one, reduced to the last
extremity of poverty, begs for food, he appeals to God alone, and by
His divine and matchless name(1) alone he seeks to gain the compassion
of men. Thus they never remember God, unless it be while they are in
trouble. When fear has left them, and the dangers have withdrawn, then
in truth they quickly hasten to the temples of the gods: they pour
libations to them, they sacrifice to them, they crown(2) them with
garlands. But to God, whom they called upon in their necessity itself,
they do not give thanks even in word. Thus from prosperity arises
luxury; and from luxury, together with all other vices, there arises
impiety towards God.
From what cause can we suppose this to arise? Unless
we imagine that there is some perverse power which is always hostile to
the truth, which rejoices in the errors of men, whose one and only task
it is perpetually to scatter darkness, and to blind the minds of men,
lest they should see the light,--lest, in short, they should look to
heaven, and observe the nature(3) of their own body, the origin(4) of
which we shall relate at the proper place; but now let us refute
fallacies. For since other animals look down to the ground, with bodies
bending forward, because they have not received reason and wisdom,
whereas an upright position and an elevated countenance have been given
to us by the Creator God, it is evident that these ceremonies paid to
the gods are not in accordance with the reason of man, because they
bend down the heaven-sprung being to the worship of earthly objects.
For that one and only Parent of ours, when He created man,--that is, an
animal intelligent and capable of exercising reason,--raised him from
the ground, and elevated him to the contemplation of his Creator. As an
ingenious poet s has well represented it:--
"And when other animals bend forward and look to the earth, He gave to
man an elevated countenance, and commanded him to
look up to theheaven, and to raise his countenance erect to stars."
From this circumstance the Greeks plainly derived
the name <greek>anqrwpos</greek>,(6) because he looks
upward. They therefore deny themselves, and renounce the name of man,
who do not look up, but downward: unless they think that the fact of
our being upright is assigned to man without any cause. God willed that
we should look up to heaven, and undoubtedly not without reason. For
both the birds and almost all of the dumb creation see the heaven, but
it is given to us in a peculiar manner to behold the heaven as we stand
erect, that we may seek religion there; that since we cannot see God
with our eyes, we may with our mind contemplate Him, whose throne is
there: and this cannot assuredly be done by him who worships brass and
stone, which are earthly things. But it is most incorrect that the
nature of the body, which is temporary, should be upright, but that the
soul itself, which is eternal, should be abject; whereas the figure and
position have no other signification, except that the mind of man ought
to look in the same direction as his countenance, and that his soul
ought to be as upright as his body, so that it may imitate that which
it ought to rule. But men, forgetful both of their name and nature,
cast down their eyes from the heaven, and fix them upon the ground, and
fear the works of their own hands, as though anything could be greater
than its own artificer.
CHAP. II.--WHAT WAS THE FIRST CAUSE OF MAKING IMAGES; OF THE TRUE
LIKENESS OF GOD, AND THE TRUE WORSHIP OF HIM.
What madness is it, then, either to form those
objects which they themselves may afterwards fear, or to fear the
things which they have formed? But, they say, we do not fear the images
themselves, but those beings after whose likeness they were formed, and
to whose names they are dedicated. You fear them doubtless on this
account, because you think that they are in heaven; for if they are
gods, the case cannot be otherwise. Why, then, do you not raise
your eyes to heaven, and, invoking their names, offer sacrifices in the
open air? Why do you look to walls, and wood, and stone, rather than to
the place where you believe them to be? What is the meaning of
temples(7) and altars? what, in short, of the images themselves, which
are memorials either of the dead or absent? For the plan of making
likenesses was invented by men for this reason, that it might be
possible to retain the memory of those who had either been removed by
death or separated by absence.
42
In which of these classes, then, shall we reckon the gods? If among the
dead, who is so foolish as to worship them? If among the absent, then
they are not to be worshipped, if they neither see our actions nor hear
our prayers. But if the gods cannot be absent,--for, since they are
divine, they see and hear all things, in whatever part of the universe
they are,--it follows that images are superfluous, since the gods are
present everywhere, and it is sufficient to invoke with prayer the
names of those who hear us. But if they are present, they cannot fail
to be at hand at their own images. It is entirely so, as the people
imagine, that the spirits of the dead wander(1) about the tombs and
relics of their bodies. But after that the deity has begun to be near,
there is no longer need of his statue.
For I ask, if any one should often contemplate the
likeness of a man who has settled in a foreign land, that he may thus
solace himself for him who is absent, would he also appear to be of
sound mind, if, when the other had returned and was present, he should
persevere in contemplating the likeness, and should prefer the
enjoyment of it, rather than the sight of the man himself? Assuredly
not. For the likeness of a man appears to be necessary at that time
when he is far away; and it will become superfluous when he is at hand.
But in the case of God, whose spirit and influence are diffused
everywhere, and can never be absent, it is plain that an image is
always superfluous. But they fear lest their religion should be
altogether vain and empty if they should see nothing present which they
may adore, and therefore they set up images; and since these are
representations of the dead, they resemble the dead, for they are
entirely destitute of perception. But the image of the ever-living God
ought to be living and endued with perception. But if it received this
name(2) from resemblance, how can it be supposed that these images
resemble God, which have neither perception nor motion? Therefore the
image of God is not that which is fashioned by the fingers of men out
of stone, or bronze, or other material, but man himself, since he has
both perception and motion, and performs many and great actions. Nor do
the foolish men understand, that if images could exercise perception
and motion, they would of their own accord adore men, by whom they have
been adorned and embellished, since they would be either rough and
unpolished stone, or rude and unshapen wood,(3) had they not been
fashioned by man.
Man, therefore, is to be regarded as the parent of
these images; for they were produced by his instrumentality, and
through him they first had shape, figure, and beauty. Therefore he who
made them is superior to the objects which were made. And yet no one
looks up to the Maker Himself, or reverences Him: he fears the things
which he has made, as though there could be more power in the work than
in the workman. Seneca, therefore, rightly says in his moral treatises:
They worship the images of the gods, they supplicate them with bended
knee, they adore them, they sit or stand beside them through the whole
day, they offer to them contributions,(4) they slay victims; and while
they value these images so highly, they despise the artificers who made
them. What is so inconsistent, as to despise the statuary and to adore
the statue; and not even to admit to your society him who makes your
gods? What force, what power can they have, when he who made them has
none? But he was unable to give to these even those powers which he
had, the power of sight, of hearing, of speech, and of motion. Is any
one so foolish as to suppose that there is anything in the image of a
god, in which there is nothing even of a man except the mere
resemblance? But no one considers these things; for men are imbued with
this persuasion, and their minds have thoroughly imbibed the deception
s of folly. And thus beings endowed with sense adore objects which are
senseless, rational beings adore irrational objects, those who are
alive adore inanimate objects, those sprung from heaven adore earthly
objects. It delights me, therefore, as though standing on a lofty
watch-tower, from which all may hear, to proclaim aloud that saying of
Persius:(6)--
"O souls bent down to the earth, and destitute of heavenly
things?"
Rather look to the heaven, to the sight of which God
your Creator raised you. He gave to you an elevated countenance; you
bend it down to the earth; you depress to things below those lofty
minds, which are raised together with their bodies to their parent, as
though it repented you that you were not born quadrupeds. It is not
befitting that the heavenly being should make himself equal to things
which are earthly, and incline to the earth. Why do you deprive
yourselves of heavenly benefits, and of your own accord fall prostrate
upon the ground? For you do wretchedly roll yourselves(7) on the ground,
43
when you seek here below that which you ought to have sought above. For
as to those vain(1) and fragile productions, the work of man's hands,
from whatever kind of material they are formed, what are they but
earth, out of which they were produced? Why, then, do you subject
yourselves to lower objects? why do you place the earth above your
heads? For when you lower yourselves to the earth, and humiliate
yourselves, you sink of your own accord to hell, and condemn yourselves
to death; for nothing is lower and more humble than the earth, except
death and hell. And if you wished to escape these, you would despise
the earth lying beneath your feet, preserving the position of your
body, which you received upright, in order that you might be able to
direct your eyes and your mind to Him who made it. But to despise and
trample upon the earth is nothing else than to refrain from adoring
images, because they are made of earth; also not to desire riches, and
to despise the pleasures of the body, because wealth, and the body
itself, which we make use of as a lodging, is but earth. Worship a
living being, that you may live; for he must necessarily die who has
subjected(2) himself and his soul to the dead.
CHAP. III.--THAT CICERO AND OTHER MEN OF LEARNING ERRED IN NOT TURNING
AWAY THE PEOPLE FROM ERROR.
But what does it avail thus to address the vulgar
and ignorant, when we see that learned and prudent men, though they
understand the vanity of these ceremonies, nevertheless through some
perverseness persist in the worship of those very objects which they
condemn? Cicero was well aware that the deities which men worshipped
were false. For when he had spoken many things which tended to the
overthrow of religious ceremonies, he said nevertheless that these
matters ought not to be discussed by the vulgar, lest such discussion
should extinguish the system of religion which was publicly
received. What can you do respecting him, who, when he perceives
himself to be in error, of his own accord dashes himself against the
stones, that all the people may stumble? or tears out his own eyes,
that all may be blind? who neither deserves well of others, whom he
suffers to be in error, nor of himself, since he inclines to the errors
of others, and makes no use of the benefit of his own wisdom, so as to
carry out(3) in action the conception of his own mind, but knowingly
and consciously thrusts his foot into the snare, that he also may be
taken with the rest, whom he ought, as the more prudent, to have
extricated? Nay rather, if you have any virtue, Cicero, endeavour to
make the people wise: that is a befitting subject, on which you may
expend all the powers of your eloquence. For there is no fear lest
speech should fail you in so good a cause, when you have often defended
even bad ones with copious-ness and spirit. But truly you fear the
prison of Socrates,(4) and on that account you do not venture to
undertake the advocacy of truth. But, as a wise man, you ought to have
despised death. And, indeed, it would have been much more glorious to
die on account of good words than on account of revilings. Nor would
the renown of your Philippics have been more advantageous to you than
the dispersion of the errors of mankind, and the recalling of the minds
of men to a healthy state by your disputation.
But let us make allowance for timidity, which ought
not to exist in a wise man. Why, then, are you yourself engaged in the
same error? I see that you worship things of earth made by the hand:
you understand that they are vain, and yet you do the same things which
they do, whom you confess to be most foolish. What, therefore, did it
profit you, that you saw the truth, which you were neither about to
defend nor to follow? If even they who perceive themselves to be in
error err willingly, how much more so do the unlearned vulgar, who
delight in empty processions, and gaze at all things with boyish minds!
They are delighted with trifling things, and are captivated with the
form of images; and they are unable to weigh every object in their own
minds, so as to understand that nothing which is beheld by the eyes of
mortals ought to be worshipped, because it must necessarily be mortal.
Nor is it matter of surprise if they do I not see God, when they
themselves do not even see man, whom they believe that they see. For
this, which falls under the notice of the eyes,(5) is not man, but the
receptacle of man, the quality and figure of which are not seen from
the lineaments of the vessel which contains them, but from the actions
and character. They, therefore, who worship images are mere bodies
without men, because they have given themselves to corporeal things,
and do not see anything with the mind more than with the body; whereas
it is the office of the soul to perceive those things more clearly
which the eye of the body cannot behold. And that philosopher and poet
severely accuses those men as humble and abject, who, in opposition to
the design of their nature, prostrate them-
44
selves to the worship of earthly things; for he says:(1)--
"And they abase their souls with fear of the gods, and weigh and press
them down to earth."
When he said these things, indeed, his meaning was different--that
nothing was to be worshipped, because the gods do not regard the
affairs of men.
In another place, at length, he acknowledges that
the ceremonies and worship of the gods is an unavailing office:(2)--
"Nor is it any piety to be often seen with veiled head to turn to a
stone, and approach every altar, and fall prostrate
on the ground, andspread the hands before the shrines of the gods, and
sprinkle thealtars with much blood of beasts, and to offer vow after
vow."
And assuredly if these things are useless, it is not right that sublime
and lofty souls should be called away and depressed to the earth, but
that they should think only of heavenly things.
False religious systems, therefore, have been
attacked by more sagacious men, because they perceived their falsehood;
but the true religion was not introduced, because they knew not what
and where it was. They therefore so regarded it as though it had no
existence, because they were unable to find it in its truth. And in
this manner they fell into a much greater error than they who held a
religion which was false. For those worshippers of fragile images,
however foolish they may be, inasmuch as they place heavenly things in
things which are earthly and corruptible, yet retain something of
wisdom, and may be pardoned, because they hold the chief duty of man,
if not in reality, yet still in their purpose; since, if not the only,
yet certainly the greatest difference between men and the beasts
consists in religion. But this latter class, in proportion to their
superior wisdom, in that they understood the error of false religion,
rendered themselves so much the more foolish, because they did not
imagine that some religion was true. And thus, because it is easier to
judge of the affairs of others than of their own, while they see the
downfall of others, they have not observed what was before their own
feet. On either side is found the greatest folly, and a certain
trace(3) of wisdom; so that you may doubt which are rather to be called
more foolish--those who embrace a false religion, or those who embrace
none. But (as I have said) pardon may be granted to those who are
ignorant and do not own themselves to be wise; but it cannot be
extended to those who, while they profess(4) wisdom, rather exhibit
folly. I am not, indeed, so unjust as to imagine that they could
divine, so that they might find out the truth by themselves; for I
acknowledge that this is impossible. But I require from them that which
they were able to perform by reason(5) itself. For they would act more
prudently, if they both understood that some form of religion is true,
and if, while they attacked false religions, they openly proclaimed
that men were not in possession of that which is true.
But this consideration may perhaps have influenced
them, that if there were any true religion, it would exert itself and
assert its authority, and not permit the existence of anything opposed
to it. For they were unable to see at all, on what account, or by whom,
and in what manner true religion was depressed, which partakes of a
divine mystery(6) and a heavenly secret. And no man can know(7) this by
any means, unless he is taught. The sum of the matter is this: The
unlearned and the foolish esteem false religions as true, because they
neither know the true nor understand the false.(8) But the more
sagacious, because they are ignorant of the true, either persist in
those religions which they know to be false, that they may appear to
possess something; or worship nothing at all, that they may not fall
into error, whereas this very thing partakes largely of error, under
the figure of a man to imitate the life of cattle. To understand that
which is false is truly the part of wisdom, but of human wisdom. Beyond
this step man cannot proceed, and thus many of the philosophers have
taken away religious institutions, as I have pointed out; but to know
the truth is the part of divine wisdom. But man by himself cannot
attain to this knowledge, unless he is taught by God. Thus philosophers
have reached the height of human wisdom, so as to understand that which
is not; but they have failed in attaining the power of saying that
which really is. It is a well-known saying of Cicero:(9) "I wish that I
could as easily find out the truth as I can refute false things." And
because this is beyond the power of man's condition, the capability of
this office is assigned to us, to whom God has delivered the knowledge
of the truth; to the explaining of which the four last books shall be
devoted. Now, in the meantime, let us bring to light false things, as
we have begun to do.
CHAP. IV.--OF IMAGES, AND THE ORNAMENTS OF TEMPLES, AND THE CONTEMPT IN
WHICH THEY ARE HELD EVEN BY THE HEATHENS THEMSELVES.
What majesty, then, can images have, which were
altogether in the power of puny man, either
445
that they should be formed into something else, or that they should not
be made at all? On which account Priapus thus speaks in Horace:(1)
"Formerly I was the trunk of a fig-tree,(2) a useless log, when
thecarpenter, at a loss whether he should make a bench or a
Priapus,decided that it should be a god. Accordingly I am a god, a very
greatterror to thieves and birds."
Who would not be at ease with such a guardian as this? For thieves are
so foolish as to fear the figure of Priapus; though the very birds,
which they imagine to be driven away by fear of his scythe, settle upon
the images which are skilfully made, that is, which altogether resemble
men, build their nests there, and defile them. But Flaccus, as a writer
of satire, ridiculed the folly of men. But they who make the images
fancy that they are performing a serious business. In short, that very
great poet, a man of sagacity in other things, in this alone displayed
folly, not like a poet, but after the manner of an old woman, when even
in those most highly-finished(3) books he orders this to be done:--
"And let the guardianship of Priapus of the Hellespont,(4) who drives
away thieves and birds with his willow scythe,
preserve them."
Therefore they adore mortal things, as made by mortals. For they may be
broken, or burnt, or be destroyed. For they are often apt to be broken
to pieces, when houses fall through age, and when, consumed by
conflagration, they waste away to ashes; and in many instances, unless
aided by their own magnitude, or protected by diligent watchfulness,
they become the prey of thieves. What madness is it, then, to fear
those objects for which either the downfall of a building, or fires, or
thefts, may be feared! What folly, to hope for protection from those
things which are unable to protect themselves! What perversity, to have
recourse to the guardianship of those which, when injured, are
themselves unavenged, unless vengeance is exacted by their worshippers!
Where, then, is truth? Where no violence can be applied to religion;
where there appears to be nothing which can be injured; where no
sacrilege can be committed.
But whatever is subjected to the eyes and to the
hands, that, in truth, because it is perishable, is inconsistent with
the whole subject of immortality. It is in vain, therefore, that men
set off and adorn their gods with gold, ivory, and jewels, as though
they were capable of deriving any pleasure from these things. What is
the use of precious gifts to insensible objects? Is it the same
which the dead have? For as they embalm the bodies of the dead, wrap
them in spices and precious garments, and bury them in the earth,
so they honour the gods, who when they were made did not perceive it,
and when they are worshipped have no knowledge of it; for they did not
receive sensibility on their consecration. Persius was displeased that
golden vessels should be carried into the temples, since he thought it
superfluous that that should be reckoned among religious offerings
which was not an instrument of sanctity, but of avarice. For these are
the things which it is better to offer as a gift to the god whom you
would rightly worship:--
"Written law(5) and the divine law of the conscience, and the
sacredrecesses of the mind, and the breast imbued with nobleness."(6)
A noble and wise sentiment. But he ridiculously added this: that
there is this gold in the temples, as there are doll(7) presented to
Venus by the virgin; which perhaps he may have despised on
account of their smallness. For he did not see that the very images and
statues of the gods, wrought in gold and ivory by the hand of
Polycletus, Euphranor, and Phidias, were nothing more than large dolls,
not dedicated by virgins, to whose sports some indulgence may be
granted, but by bearded men. Therefore Seneca deservedly laughs at the
folly even of old men. We are not (he says) boys twice,(8) as is
commonly said, but are always so. But there is this difference, that
when men we have greater subjects of sport. Therefore men offer to
these dolls, which are of large size, and adorned as though for the
stage, both perfumes, and incense, and odours: they sacrifice to these
costly and fattened victims, which have a mouth,(9) but one that is not
suitable for eating; to these they bring robes and costly garments,
though they have no need of clothing; to these they dedicate gold and
silver, of which they who receive them are as destitute(10) as they who
have given them.
And not without reason did Dionysius, the despot of
Sicily, when after a victory he had become master of Greece,(11)
despise, and plunder and jeer at such gods, for he followed up his
sacrilegious acts by jesting words. For when he
46
had taken off a golden robe from the statue of the Olympian Jupiter, he
ordered that a woollen garment should be placed upon him, saying that a
golden robe was heavy in summer and cold in winter, but that a woollen
one was adapted to each season. He also took off the golden beard from
AEsculapius, saying that it was unbecoming and unjust, that while his
father Apollo was yet smooth and beardless, the son should be seen to
wear a beard before his father. He also took away the bowls, and
spoils, and some little images(1) which were held in the extended hands
of the statues, and said that he did not take them away, but received
them: for that it would be very foolish and ungrateful to refuse to
receive good things, when offered voluntarily by those from whom men
were accustomed to implore them. He did these things with impunity,
because he was a king and victorious. Moreover, his usual good fortune
also followed him; for he lived even to old age, and handed down the
kingdom in succession to his son. In his case, therefore, because men
could not punish his sacrilegious deeds, it was befitting that the gods
should be their own avengers. But if any humble person shall have
committed any such crime, there are at hand for his punishment the
scourge, fire, the rack,(2) the cross, and whatever torture men can
invent in their anger and rage. But when they punish those who have
been detected in the act of sacrilege, they themselves distrust the
power of their gods. For why should they not leave to them especially
the opportunity of avenging themselves, if they think that they are
able to do so? Moreover, they also imagine that it happened through the
will of the deities that the sacrilegious robbers were discovered and
arrested; and their cruelty is instigated not so much by anger as by
fear, lest they themselves should be visited with punishment if they
failed to avenge the injury done to the gods. And, in truth, they
display incredible shallowness in imagining that the gods will injure
them on account of the guilt of others, who by themselves were unable
to injure those very persons by whom they were profaned and plundered.
But, in fact, they have often themselves also inflicted punishment on
the sacrilegious: that may have occurred even by chance, which has
sometimes happened, but not always. But I will show presently how that
occurred. Now in the meantime I will ask, Why did they not punish so
many and such great acts of sacrilege in Dionysius, who insulted the
gods openly, and not in secret? Why did they not repel this
sacrilegious man, possessed of such power, from their temples, their
ceremonies, and their images? Why, even when he had carried off their
sacred things, had he a prosperous voyage--as he himself, according to
his custom, testified in joke? Do you see, he said to his companions
who feared shipwreck, how prosperous a voyage the immortal gods
themselves give to the sacrilegious? But perhaps he had learnt from
Plato that the gods have no(3) power.
What of Caius Verres? whom his accuser Tully
compares to this same Dionysius, and to Phalaris, and to all tyrants.
Did he not pillage the whole of Sicily, carrying away the images of the
gods, and the ornaments of the temples? It is idle to follow up each
particular instance: I would fain make mention of one, in which the
accuser, with all the force of eloquence--in short, with every effort
of voice and of body--lamented about Ceres of Catina, or of Henna: the
one of whom was of such great sanctity, that it was unlawful for men to
enter the secret recesses of her temple; the other was of such great
antiquity, that all accounts relate that the goddess herself first
discovered grain in the soil of Henna, and that her virgin daughter was
carried away from the same place. Lastly, in the times of the Gracchi,
when the state was disturbed both by seditions and by portents, on its
being discovered in the Sibylline predictions that the most ancient
Ceres ought to be appeased, ambassadors were sent to Henna. This Ceres,
then, either the most holy one, whom it was unlawful for men to behold
even for the sake of adoration, or the most ancient one, whom the
senate and people of Rome had appeased with sacrifices and gifts, was
carried away with impunity by Caius Verres from her secret anti ancient
recesses, his robber slaves having been sent in. The same orator, in
truth, when he affirmed that he had been entreated by the Sicilians to
undertake the cause of the province, made use of these words: "That
they had now not even any gods in their cities to whom they might
betake themselves, since Verres had taken away the most sacred images
from their most venerable shrines." As though, in truth, if Verres had
taken them away from the cities and shrines, he had also taken them
from heaven. From which it appears that those gods have nothing in them
more than the material of which they are made. And not without reason
did the Sicilians have recourse to you, O Marcus Tullius, that is, to a
man; since they had for three years experienced that those gods had no
power. For they would have been most foolish if they had fled for
protection against the injuries of men, to those who were unable to be
angry with Caius Verres on their own behalf. But, it will be urged,
Verres was condemned on account of these deeds. Therefore he was not
punished by the gods, but by the energy of Cicero, by which he either
47
crushed his defenders or withstood his influence.(1) Why should I say
that, in the case of Verres himself, that was not so much a
condemnation as a respite from labour? So that, as the immortal
gods had given a prosperous voyage to Dionysius when he was carrying
off the spoils of gods, so also they appear to have bestowed on Verres
quiet repose, in which he might with tranquility enjoy the fruits of
his sacrilege. For when civil wars afterwards raged, being removed from
all danger and apprehension, under the cloak of condemnation he heard
of the disastrous misfortunes and miserable deaths of others; and he
who appeared to have fallen while all retained their position, he
alone, in truth, retained his position while all fell; until the
proscription of the triumvirs,-- that very proscription, indeed, which
carried off Tully, the avenger of the violated majesty of the
gods,--carried him off, satiated at once with the enjoyment of the
wealth which he had gained by sacrilege, and with life, and worn out by
old age. Moreover, he was fortunate in this very circumstance, that
before his own death he heard of the most cruel end of his accuser; the
gods doubtless providing that this sacrilegious man and spoiler of
their worship should not die before he had received consolation from
revenge.
CHAP. V.--THAT GOD ONLY, THE CREATOR OF ALL THINGS, IS TO BE
WORSHIPPED, AND NOT THE ELEMENTS OR HEAVENLY BODIES; AND THE OPINION OF
THE STOICS IS REFUTED, WHO THINK THAT THE STARS AND PLANETS ARE GODS.
How much better, therefore, is it, leaving vain and
insensible objects, to turn our eyes in that direction where is the
seat and dwelling-place of the true God; who suspended the earth(2) on
a firm foundation, who bespangled the heaven with shining stars; who
lighted up the sun, the most bright and matchless light for the affairs
of men, in proof of His own single majesty; who girded the earth with
seas, and ordered the rivers to flow with perpetual course!
"He also commanded the plains to extend themselves, the valleys to sink
down, the woods to be covered with foliage, the
stony mountains to rise."(3)
All these things truly were not the work of Jupiter, who was born
seventeen hundred years ago; but of the same, "that framer of all
things, the origin of a better world,"(3) who is called God, whose
beginning cannot be comprehended, and ought not to be made the subject
of inquiry. It is sufficient for man, to his full and perfect wisdom,
if he understands the existence of God: the force and sum of which
understanding is this, that he look up to and honour the common Parent
of the human race, and the Maker of wonderful things. Whence some
persons of dull and obtuse mind adore as gods the elements, which are
both created objects and are void of sensibility; who, when they
admired the works of God, that is, the heaven with its various lights,
the earth with its plains and mountains, the seas with their rivers and
lakes and fountains, struck with admiration of these things, and
forgetting the Maker Himself, whom they were unable to see, began to
adore and worship His works. Nor were they able at all to understand
how much greater and more wonderful He is, who made these things out of
nothing. And when they see that these things, in obedience to divine
laws, by a perpetual necessity are subservient to the uses and
interests of men, they nevertheless regard them as gods, being
ungrateful towards the divine bounty, so that they preferred their own
works to their most indulgent God and Father. But what wonder is it if
uncivilized or ignorant men err, since even philosophers of the Stoic
sect are of the same opinion, so as to judge that all the heavenly
bodies which have motion are to be reckoned in the number of
gods; inasmuch as the Stoic Lucilius thus speaks in Cicero:(4) "This
regularity, therefore, in the stars, this great agreement of the times
in such various courses during all eternity, are unintelligible to me
with out the exercise of mind, reason, and design; land when we see
these things in the constellations, we cannot but place these very
objects in the number of the gods." And he thus speaks a little
before: "It remains," he says, "that the motion of the stars is
voluntary; and he who sees these things, would act not only
unlearnedly, but also impiously, if he should deny it." We in truth
firmly deny it; and we prove that you, O philosophers, are not only
unlearned and impious, but also blind, foolish, and senseless, who have
surpassed in shallowness the ignorance of the uneducated. For
they regard as gods only the sun and moon, but you the stars also.
Make known to us, therefore, the mysteries of the
stars, that we may erect altars anti temples to each; that we may know
with what rites and on what day to worship each, with what names and
with what prayers we should call on them; unless perhaps we ought to
worship gods so innumerable without any discrimination, and gods so
minute in a mass. Why should I mention that the argument by which they
infer that all the heavenly bodies are gods, tends to the opposite
conclusion? For if they imagine that they are gods on this account,
because they have their courses fixed and in accordance with reason,
48
they are in error. For it is evident from this that they are not gods,
because it is not permitted them to deviate(1) from their prescribed
orbits. But if they were gods, they would be borne hither and thither
in all directions without any necessity, as living creatures on the
earth, who wander hither and thither as they please, because their
wills are unrestrained, and each is borne wherever inclination may have
led it. Therefore the motion of the stars is not voluntary, but of
necessity, because they obey(2) the laws appointed for them. But when
he was arguing about the courses of the stars, while he understood from
the very harmony of things and times that they were not by chance, he
judged that they were voluntary; as though they could not be moved with
such order and arrangement, unless they contained within them an
understanding acquainted with its own duty. Oh, how difficult is truth
to those who are ignorant of it! how easy to those who know it! If, he
says, the motions of the stars are not by chance, nothing else remains
but that they are voluntary; nay, in truth, as it is plain that they
are not by chance, so is it clear that they are not voluntary. Why,
then, in completing their courses, do they preserve their regularity?
Undoubtedly God, the framer of the universe, so arranged and contrived
them, that they might rim through their courses(3) in the heaven with a
divine and wonderful order, to accomplish the variations of the
successive seasons. Was Archimedes(4) of Sicily able to contrive a
likeness and representation of the universe in hollow brass, in which
he so arranged the sun and moon, that they effected, as it were every
day, motions unequal and resembling the revolutions of the heavens, and
that sphere, while it revolved,(5) exhibited not only the approaches
and withdrawings of the sun, or the increase and waning of the moon,
but also the unequal courses of the stars, whether fixed or wandering?
Was it then impossible for God to plan and create the originals,(6)
when the skill of man was able to represent them by imitation? Would
the Stoic, therefore, if he should have seen the figures of the stars
painted and fashioned in that brass, say that they moved by their own
design, and not by the genius of the artificer? There is therefore in
the stars design, adapted to the accomplishment of their courses; but
it is the design of God, who both made and governs all things, not of
the stars themselves, which are thus moved. For if it had been His will
that the sun should remain.(7) fixed, it is plain that there would be
perpetual day. Also if the stars had no motions, who doubts that there
would have been eternal night? But that there might be vicissitudes of
day and night, it was His will that the stars should move, and move
with such variety that there might not only be mutual interchanges of
light and darkness, by which alternate courses(8) of labour and rest
might be established, but also interchanges of cold and heat, that the
power and influence of the different seasons might be adapted either to
the production or the ripening of the crops. And because philosophers
did not see this skill of the divine power in contriving the movements
of the stars, they supposed them to be living, as though they moved
with feet and of their own accord, and not by the divine intelligence.
But who does not understand why God contrived them? Doubtless lest, as
the light of the sun was withdrawn, a night of excessive darkness
should become too oppressive with its foul and dreadful gloom, and
should be injurious to the living. And so He both bespangled the heaven
with wondrous variety, and tempered the darkness itself with many and
minute lights. How much more wisely therefore does Naso judge, than
they who think that they are devoting themselves to the pursuit of
wisdom, in thinking that those lights were appointed by God to remove
the gloom of darkness! He concludes the book, in which he briefly
comprises the phenomena of nature, with these three verses:--
"These images, so many in number, and of such a figure, God placed in
theheaven; and having scattered them through the gloomy darkness,
Heordered them to give a bright light to the frosty night." But if it
isimpossible that the stars should be gods, it follows that the sun
andmoon cannot be gods, since they differ from the light of the stars
inmagnitude only, and not in their design. And if these are not
gods,the same is true of the heaven, which contains them all.
CHAP. VI.--THAT NEITHER THE WHOLE UNIVERSE NOR THE ELEMENTS ARE GOD,
NOR ARE THEY POSSESSED OF LIFE.
In like manner, if the land on which we tread, and
which we subdue and cultivate for food, is not a god, then the plains
and mountains will not be gods; and if these are not so, it follows
that the whole of the earth cannot appear to be God. In like manner, if
the water, which is
49
adapted to the wants(1) of living creatures for the purpose of drinking
and bathing, is not a god, neither are the fountains gods from which
the water flows. And if the fountains are not gods, neither are the
rivers, which are collected from the fountains. And if the rivers also
are not gods, it follows that the sea, which is made up of rivers,
cannot be considered as God. But if neither the heaven, nor the earth,
nor the sea, which are the parts of the world, can be gods, it follows
that the world altogether is not God; whereas the same Stoics contend
that it is both living and wise, and therefore God. But in this they
are so inconsistent, that nothing is said by them which they do not
also overthrow. For they argue thus: It is impossible that that which
produces from itself sensible objects should itself be insensible. But
the world produces man, who is endowed with sensibility; therefore it
must also itself be sensible. Also they argue: that cannot be without
sensibility, a part of which is sensible; therefore, because man is
sensible, the world, of which man is a part, also possesses
sensibility. The propositions(2) themselves are true, that that which
produces a being endowed with sense is itself sensible; and that that
possesses sense, a part of which is endowed with sense. But the
assumptions by which they draw their conclusions are false; for the
world does not produce man, nor is man a part of the world. For the
same God who created the world, also created man from the beginning:
and man is not a part of the world, in the same manner in which a limb
is a part of the body; for it is possible for the world to be without
man, as it is for a city or house. Now, as a house is the
dwelling-place of one man, and a city of one people, so also the world
is the abode(3) of the whole human race; and that which is inhabited is
one thing, that which inhabits another. But these persons, in their
eagerness to prove that which they had falsely assumed, that the world
is possessed of sensibility, and is God, did not perceive the
consequences of their own arguments. For if man is a part of the world,
and if the world is endowed with sensibility because man is
sensible, therefore it follows that, because man is mortal, the world
must also of necessity be mortal, and not only mortal, but also liable
to all kinds of disease and suffering. And, on the contrary, if the
world is God, its parts also are plainly immortal: therefore man also
is God, because he is, as you say, a part of the world. And if man,
then also both beasts of burden and cattle, and the other kinds of
beasts and of birds, and fishes, since these also in the same manner
are possessed of sensibility, and are parts of the world. But this is
endurable; for the Egyptians worship even these. But the matter comes
to this: that even frogs, and gnats, and ants appear to be gods,
because these also have sensibility, and are parts of the world. Thus
arguments drawn from a false source always lead to foolish and absurd
conclusions. Why should I mention that the same philosophers assert
that the world was constructed(4) for the sake of gods and men as a
common dwelling? Therefore the world is neither god, nor living,
if it has been made: for a living "creature is not made, but born; and
if it has been built, it has been built as a house or ship is
built. Therefore there is a builder of the world, even God; and the
world which has been made is distinct from Him who made it. Now, how
inconsistent and absurd is it, that when they affirm that the heavenly
fires(5) and the other elements of the world are gods, they also say
that the world itself is God! How is it possible that out of a great
heap of gods one God can be made up? If the stars are gods, it follows
that the world is not God, but the dwelling-place of gods. But if the
world is God, it follows that all the things which are in it are not
gods, but members(6) of God, which clearly cannot by themselves(7) take
the name of God. For no one can rightly say that the members of one man
are many men; but, however, there is no similar comparison between a
living being and the world. For because a living being is endowed with
sensibility, its members also have sensibility; nor do they become
senseless s unless they are separated from the body. But what
resemblance does the world present to this? Truly they themselves tell
us, since they do not deny that it was made, that it might be, as it
were, a common abode for gods and men. If, therefore, it has been
constructed as an abode, it is neither itself God, nor are the elements
which are its parts; because a house cannot bear rule over itself, nor
can the parts of which a house consists. Therefore they are refuted not
only by the truth, but even by their own words. For as a house, made
for the purpose of being inhabited, has no sensibility by itself, and
is subject to the master who built or inhabits it; so the world, having
no sensibility of itself, is subject to God its Maker, who made it for
His own use.
50
CHAP. VII.--OF GOD, AND THE RELIGIOUS RITES OF THE FOOLISH; OF
AVARICE,AND THE AUTHORITY OF ANCESTORS.
The foolish, therefore, err in a twofold manner:
first, in preferring the elements, that is, the works of God, to God
Himself; secondly, in worshipping the figures of the elements
themselves under human form. For they form the images of the sun and
moon after the fashion of men; also those of fire, and earth, and sea,
which they call Vulcan, Vesta, and Neptune. Nor do they openly
sacrifice to the elements themselves. Men are possessed with so great a
fondness for representations,(1) that those things which are true are
now esteemed of less value: they are delighted, in fact, with gold, and
jewels, and ivory. The beauty and brilliancy of these things dazzle
their eyes, and they think that there is no religion where these do not
shine. And thus, under pretence of worshipping the gods, avarice and
desire are worshipped. For they believe that the gods love whatever
they themselves desire, whatever it is, on account of which thefts and
robberies and murders daily rage, on account of which wars overthrow
nations and cities throughout the whole world. Therefore they
consecrate their spoils and plunder to the gods, who must undoubtedly
be weak, and destitute of the highest excellence, if they are subject
to desires. For why should we think them celestial if they long for
anything from the earth, or happy if they are in want of anything, or
uncorrupted if they take pleasure in those things in the pursuit of
which the desire of men is not unreservedly condemned? They approach
the gods, therefore not so much on account of religion, which can have
no place in badly acquired and corruptible things, as that they may
gaze upon(2) the gold, and view the brilliancy of polished marble or
ivory, that they may survey with unwearied contemplation garments
adorned with precious stones and colours, or cups studded with
glittering jewels. And the more ornamented are the temples, and the
more beautiful the images, so much the greater majesty are they
believed to have: so entirely is their religion confined(3) to that
which the desire of men admires.
These are the religious institutions handed down to
them by their ancestors, which they persist in maintaining and
defending with the greatest obstinacy. Nor do they consider of what
character they are; but they feel assured of their excellence and truth
on this account. because the ancients have handed them down; anti so
great is the authority of antiquity, that it is said to be a crime to
inquire into it. And thus it is everywhere believed as ascertained
truth. In short, in Cicero,(4) Cotta thus speaks to Lucilius: "You
know, Balbus, what is the opinion of Cotta, what the opinion of the
pontiff. Now let me understand what are your sentiments: for since you
are a philosopher, I ought to receive from you a reason for your
religion; but in the case of our ancestors it is reasonable to believe
them, though no reason is alleged by them." If you believe, why then do
you require a reason, which may have the effect of causing you not to
believe? But if you require a reason, and think that the subject
demands inquiry, then you do not believe; for you make inquiry with
this view, that you may follow it when you have ascertained it. Behold,
reason teaches you that the religious institutions of the gods are not
true: what will you do? Will you prefer to follow antiquity or reason?
And this, indeed, was not imparted(5) to you by another, but was found
out and chosen by yourself, since you have entirely uprooted all
religious systems. If you prefer reason, you must abandon the
institutions and authority of our ancestors, since nothing is right but
that which reason prescribes. But if piety advises you to follow your
ancestors, then admit that they were foolish, who complied with
religious institutions invented contrary to reason; and that you are
senseless, since you worship that which you have proved to be false.
But since the name of ancestors is so greatly objected to us, let us
see, I pray, who those ancestors were from whose authority it is said
to be impious to depart.(6)
Romulus, when he was about to found the city, called
together the shepherds among whom he had grown up; and since their
number appeared inadequate to the rounding of the city, he established
an asylum. To this all the most abandoned men flocked together
indiscriminately from the neighbouring places, without any distinction
of condition. Thus he brought together the people from all these; and
he chose into the senate those who were oldest, and called them
Fathers, by whose advice he might direct all things. And concerning
this senate, Propertius the elegiac poet thus speaks:--
"The trumpet used to call the ancient Quirites to an assembly;(7) those
hundred in the field often formed the senate. The
senate-house, whichnow is raised aloft and shines with the well-robed
senate, receivedthe Fathers clothed in skins, rustic spirits."
These are the Fathers whose decrees learned and sagacious men obey with
the greatest devotion; and all posterity must judge that to be true and
unchangeable which an hundred old men clothed in skins established at
their will; who, however,
51
as has been mentioned in the first book,(1) were enticed by Pompilius
to believe the truth of those sacred rites which he himself delivered.
Is there any reason why their authority should be so highly esteemed by
posterity, since during their life no one either high or low judged
them worthy of affinity?(2)
CHAP. VIII.--OF THE USE OF REASON IN RELIGION; AND OF DREAMS, AUGURIES,
ORACLES, AND SIMILAR PORTENTS.
It is therefore right, especially in a matter on
which the whole plan of life turns, that every one should place
confidence in himself, and use his own judgment and individual capacity
for the investigation and weighing of the truth, rather than through
confidence in others to be deceived by their errors, as though he
himself were without understanding. God has given wisdom to all
alike,(3) that they might be able both to investigate things which they
have not heard, and to weigh things which they have heard. Nor, because
they preceded us in time did they also outstrip us in wisdom; for if
this is given equally to all, we cannot be anticipated(4) in it by
those who precede us. It is incapable of diminution, as the light and
brilliancy of the sun; because, as the sun is the light of the eyes, so
is wisdom the light of man's heart. Wherefore, since wisdom--that is,
the inquiry after truth--is natural to all, they deprive themselves of
wisdom, who without any judgment approve of the discoveries of their
ancestors, and like sheep are led by others. But this escapes their
notice, that the name of ancestors being introduced, they think it
impossible that they themselves should have more knowledge because they
are called descendants, or that the others should be unwise because
they are called ancestors.(5) What, therefore, prevents us from taking
a precedent(6) from them, that as they handed down to posterity their
false inventions, so we who have discovered the truth may hand down
better things to our posterity? There remains therefore a great subject
of inquiry, the discussion of which does not come from talent, but from
knowledge: and this must be explained at greater length, that nothing
at all may be left in doubt. For perhaps some one may have recourse to
those things which are handed down
by many and undoubted authorities; that those very persons, whom we
have shown to be no gods, have often displayed their majesty both by
prodigies, and dreams, and auguries, and oracles. And, indeed, many
wonderful things may be enumerated, and especially this, that Accius
Navius, a consummate augur, when he was warning Tarquinius Priscus to
undertake the commencement of nothing new without the previous sanction
of auguries,(7) and the king, detracting from(8) the credit due to his
art, told him to consult the birds, and then to announce to him whether
it was possible for that which he himself had conceived in his mind to
be accomplished, and Navius affirmed that it was possible; then take
this whetstone, he said, and divide it with a razor. But the other
without any hesitation took and cut it.
In the next place is the fact of Castor and Pollux
having been seen in the Latin war at the lake of Juturna washing off
the sweat of their horses, when their temple which adjoins the
fountain had been open of its own accord. In the Macedonian war the
same deities, mounted on white horses, are said to have presented
themselves to Publius Vatienus as he went to Rome at night, announcing
that King Perseus had been vanquished and taken captive on that day,
the truth of which was proved by letters received from Paulus(9) a few
days afterwards. That also is wonderful, that the statue of Fortune, in
the form(10) of a woman, is reported to have spoken more than once;
also that the statue of Juno Moneta,(11) when, on the capture of Veii,
one of the soldiers, being sent to remove it, sportively and in jest
asked whether she wished to remove to Rome, answered that she wished
it. Claudia also is set forth as an example of a miracle. For when, in
accordance with the Sibylline books, the Idaean mother was sent for,
and the ship in which she was conveyed had grounded on a shoal of the
river Tiber, and could not be moved by any force, they report that
Claudia, who had been always regarded as unchaste on account of her
excess in personal adornment, with bended knees entreated the goddess,
if she judged her to be chaste, to follow her girdle; anti thus the
ship, which could not be moved by all the strong men,(12) was moved by
a single woman. It is equally wonderful, that during the prevalence of
a pestilence, AEsculapius, being called from Epidaurus, is said to have
released the city of Rome from the long-continued plague.
52
Sacrilegious persons can also be mentioned, by the
immediate punishment of whom the gods are believed to have avenged the
injury done to them. Appius Claudius the censor having, against the
advice of the oracle, transferred the sacred rites of Hercules to the
public slaves,(1) was deprived of his eyesight; and the Potitian gens,
which abandoned(2) its privilege, within the space of one year became
extinct. Likewise the censor Fulvius, when he had taken away the marble
tiles from the temple of the Lacinian(3) Juno, to cover the temple of
the equestrian Fortuna, which he had built at Rome, was deprived of his
senses, and having lost his two sons who were serving in Illyricum, was
consumed with the greatest grief of mind. Turullius also, the
lieutenant of Mark Antony, when he had cut down a grove of AEsculapius
in Cos,(4) and built a fleet, was afterwards slain at the same place by
the soldiers of Caesar. To these examples is added Pyrrhus, who,
having taken away money from the treasure of the Locrian Proserpine,
was shipwrecked, and dashed against the shores near to the temple of
the goddess, so that nothing was found uninjured except that money.
Ceres of Miletus also gained for herself great veneration among men.
For when the city had been taken by Alexander, and the soldiers had
rushed in to plunder her temple, a flame of fire suddenly thrown upon
them blinded them all.
There are also found dreams which seem to show the
power of the gods. For it is said that Jupiter presented himself to
Tiberius Atinius, a plebeian, in his sleep, and enjoined him to
announce to the consuls and senate, that in the last Circensian(5)
games a public dancer had displeased him, because a certain Antonius
Maximus had severely scourged a slave under the furca(6) in the middle
of the circus, and had led him to punishment, and that on this account
the games ought to be repeated. And when he had neglected this command,
he is said on the same day to have lost his son, and to have been
himself seized by a severe disease; and that when he again perceived
the same image asking whether he had suffered sufficient punishment for
the neglect of his command, he was carried on a litter to the consuls;
and having explained the whole matter in the senate, he regained
strength of body, and returned to his house on foot. And that dream
also was not less wonderful, to which it is said that Augustus Caesar
owed his preservation. For when in the civil war with Brutus he was
afflicted with a severe disease, and had determined to abstain from
battle, the image of Minerva presented itself to his physician
Artorius, advising him that Caesar should not confine himself to the
camp on account of his bodily infirmity. He was therefore carried on a
litter to the army, and on the same day the camp was taken by Brutus.
Many other examples of a similar nature may be brought forward; but I
fear that, if I shall delay too long in the setting forth of contrary
subjects, I may either appear to have forgotten my purpose, or may
incur the charge of loquacity.
CHAP. IX.--OF THE DEVIL, THE WORLD,GOD, PROVIDENCE, MAN, AND HIS
WISDOM.
I will therefore set forth the method of all
these things, that difficult and obscure subjects may be more easily
understood; and I will bring to light all these deceptions(7) of the
pretended deity, led by which men have departed very far from the
way of truth. But I will retrace the matter far back from its source;
that if any, unacquainted with the truth and ignorant, shall apply
himself to the reading of this book, he may be instructed, and may
understand what can in truth be "the source and origin of these evils;"
and having received light, may perceive his own errors and those of the
whole human race.
Since God was possessed(8) of the greatest foresight
for planning, and of the greatest skill for carrying out in action,
before He commenced this business of the world,--inasmuch as there was
in Him, and always is, the fountain of full and most complete
goodness,--in order that goodness might spring as a stream from Him,
and might flow forth afar, He produced a Spirit like to Himself, who
might be endowed with the perfections of God the Father. But how He
willed that, I will endeavour to show in the fourth book.(9) Then He
made another being, in whom the disposition of the divine origin did
not remain. Therefore he was infected with his own envy as with poison,
and passed from good to evil; and at his own will, which had been given
to him by God unfettered,(10) he acquired for himself a contrary name.
From which it appears that the source of all evils is envy. For he
envied his predecessor,(11) who through his stedfastness(12) is
acceptable and dear to God the Father. This being, who from good became
53
evil by his own act, is called by the Greeks diabolus:(1) we call him
accuser, because he reports to God the faults to which he himself
entices us. God, therefore, when He began the fabric of the world, set
over the whole work that first and greatest Son, and used Him at the
same time as a counsellor and artificer, in planning, arranging, and
accomplishing, since He is complete both in knowledge,(2) and judgment,
and power; concerning whom I now speak more sparingly, because in
another place(3) both His excellence, and His name, and His nature must
be related by us. Let no one inquire of what materials God made these
works so great and wonderful: for He made all things out of nothing.
Nor are the poets to be listened to, who say
that in the beginning was a chaos, that is, a confusion of matter and
the elements; but that God afterwards divided all that mass, and having
separated each object from the confused heap, and arranged them in
order, He constructed and adorned the world. Now it is easy to reply to
these persons, who do not understand the power of God: for they believe
that He can produce nothing, except out of materials already
existing(4) and prepared; in which error philosophers also were
involved. For Cicero, while discussing the nature of the gods,(5) thus
speaks: "First of all, therefore, it is not probable(6) that the
matter(7) from which all things arose was made by divine providence,
but that it has, and has had, a force and nature of its own. As
therefore the builder, when he is about to erect any building, does not
himself make the materials, but uses those which are already prepared,
and the statuary(8) also uses the wax; so that divine providence ought
to have had materials at hand, not of its own production, but already
prepared for use. But if matter was not made by God, then neither was
the earth, and water, and air, and fire, made by God." Oh, how many
faults there are in these ten lines First, that he who in almost all
his other disputations and books was a maintainer of the divine
providence, and who used very acute arguments in assailing those who
denied the existence of a providence, now himself, as a traitor or
deserter, endeavoured to take away providence; in whose case, if you
wish to oppose(9) him, neither consideration nor labour is required: it
is only necessary to remind him of his own words. For it will be
impossible for Cicero to be more strongly refuted by any one than by
Cicero himself. But let us make this concession to the custom and
practice of the Academics,(10) that men are permitted to speak with
great freedom, and to entertain what sentiments they may wish. Let us
examine the sentiments themselves. It is not probable, he says, that
matter was made by God. By what arguments do you prove this? For you
gave no reason for its being improbable. Therefore, on the contrary, it
appears to me exceedingly probable; nor does it appear so without
reason, when I reflect that there is something more in God, whom you
verily reduce to the weakness of man, to whom you allow nothing else
but the mere workmanship. In what respect, then, will that divine power
differ from man, if God also, as man does, stands in need of the
assistance of another? But He does stand in need of it, if He can
construct nothing unless He is furnished with materials by another. But
if this is the case, it is plain that His power is imperfect, and
he who prepared the material(11) must be judged more powerful. By what
name, therefore, shall he be called who excels God in
power?--since it is greater to make that which is one's own, than
to arrange those things which are another's. But if it is impossible
that anything should be more powerful than God, who must necessarily be
of perfect strength, power, and intelligence, it follows that He
who made the things which are composed of matter, made matter also. For
it was neither possible nor befitting that anything should exist
without the exercise of God's power, or against His will. But it is
probable, he says, that matter has, and always has had, a force
and nature of its own.(12) What force could it have, without any
one to give it? what nature, without any one to produce it? If it had
force, it took that force from some one. But from whom could it
take it, unless it were from God? Moreover, if it had a nature,
which plainly is so called from being produced, it must have been
produced. But from whom could it have derived its existence, except
God? For nature, from which you say that all things had their origin,
if it has no understanding, can make nothing. But if it has the power
of producing and making, then it has understanding, and must be God.
For that force can be called by no other name, in which there is both
the foresight(13) to plan, and the skill and power to carry into
effect. Therefore Seneca, the most intelligent of all the Stoics, says
better, who saw "that nature was nothing else but God." Therefore he
54
says, "Shall we not praise God, who possesses natural excellence?" For
He did not learn it from any one. Yes, truly, we will praise Him; for
although it is natural to Him, He gave it to Himself,(1) since God
Himself is nature. When, therefore, you assign the origin of all things
to nature, and take it from God, you are in the same difficulty:--
"You pay your debt by borrowing,(2) Geta."
For while simply changing the name, you clearly admit that it was made
by the same person by whom you deny that it was made.
There follows a most senseless comparison. "As the
builder," he says, "when he is about to erect any building, does not
himself make the materials, but uses those which are already prepared,
and the statuary also the wax; so that divine providence ought to have
had materials at hand, not of its own production, but already prepared
for use." Nay rather it ought not; for God will have less power if He
makes from materials already provided, which is the part of man. The
builder will erect nothing without wood, for he cannot make the wood
itself; and not to be able to do this is the part of human weakness.
But God Himself makes the materials for Himself, because He has the
power. For to have the power is the property of God; for if He is not
able, He is not God. Man produces his works out of that which already
exists, because through his mortality he is weak, and through his
weakness his power is limited and moderate; but God produces His works
out of that which has no existence, because through His eternity He is
strong, and through His strength His power is immense, which has no end
or limit, like the life of the Maker Himself. What wonder, then, if
God, when He was about to make the world, first prepared the material
from which to make it, and prepared it out of that which had no
existence? Because it is impossible for God to borrow anything from
another source, inasmuch as all things are in Himself and from Himself.
For if there is anything before Him, and if anything has been made, but
not by Him, He will therefore lose both the power and the name of God.
But it may be said matter was never made, like God, who out of matter
made this world. In that case, it follows that two eternal principles
are established, and those indeed opposed to one another, which cannot
happen without discord and destruction. For those things which have a
contrary force and method must of necessity come into collision.
In this manner
it will be impossible that both should be eternal, if they are opposed
to one another, because one must overpower the other. Therefore the
nature of that which is eternal cannot be otherwise than simple, so
that all things descended from that source as from a fountain.
Therefore either God proceeded from matter, or matter from God. Which
of these is more true, is easily understood. For of these two, one is
endued with sensibility, the other is insensible. The power of making
anything cannot exist, except in that which has sensibility,
intelligence, reflection, and the power of motion. Nor can anything be
begun, or made, or completed, unless it shall have been foreseen by
reason how it shall be made before it exists, and how it shall
endure(3) after it has been made. In short, he only makes anything who
has the will to make it, and hands to complete that which he has
willed. But that which is insensible always lies inactive and torpid;
nothing can originate in that source where there is no voluntary
motion. For if every animal is possessed of reason, it is certain that
it cannot be produced from that which is destitute of reason, nor can
that which is not present in the original source(4) be received from
any other quarter. Nor, however, let it disturb any one, that certain
animals appear to be born from the earth. For the earth does not give
birth to these of itself, but the Spirit of God, without which nothing
is produced. Therefore God did not arise from matter, because a being
endued with sensibility can never spring from one that is insensible, a
wise one from one that is irrational, one that is incapable of
suffering from one that can suffer, an incorporeal being from a
corporeal one; but matter is rather from God. For whatever consists of
a body solid, and capable of being handled, admits of an external
force. That which admits of force is capable of dissolution; that which
is dissolved perishes; that which perishes must necessarily have had an
origin; that which had an origin had a source(5) from which it
originated, that is, some maker, who is intelligent, foreseeing, and
skilled in making. There is one assuredly, and that no other than God.
And since He is possessed of sensibility, intelligence, providence,
power, and vigour, He is able to create and make both animated and
inanimate objects, because He has the means of making everything. But
matter cannot always have existed, for if it had existed it would be
incapable of change. For that which always was, does not cease always
to be; and that which had no beginning must of necessity be without an
end. Moreover, it is easier for that which had a beginning to be
without an end, than for that which had no beginning
55
to have an end. Therefore if matter was not made, nothing can be made
from it. But if nothing can be made from it, then matter itself can
have no existence. For matter is that out of which something is made.
But everything out of which anything is made, inasmuch as it has
received the hand of the artificer, is destroyed,(1) and begins to be
some other thing. Therefore, since matter had an end, at the time when
the world was made out of it, it also had a beginning. For that which
is destroyed(1) was previously built up; that which is loosened was
previously bound up; that which is brought to an end was begun. If,
then, it is inferred from its change and end, that matter had a
beginning, from whom could that beginning have been, except from God?
God, therefore, is the only being who was not made; and therefore He
can destroy other things, but He Himself cannot be destroyed. That
which was in Him will always be permanent, because He has not been
produced or sprung from any other source; nor does His birth depend on
any other object, which being changed may cause His dissolution. He is
of Himself, as we said in the first book;(2) and therefore He is such
as He willed that He should be, incapable of suffering, unchangeable,
incorruptible, blessed, and eternal.
But now the conclusion, with which Tully finished
the sentiment, is much more absurd.(3) "But if matter," he says, "was
not made by God, the earth indeed, and water, and air, and fire, were
not made by God." How skilfully he avoided the danger! For he stated
the former point as though it required no proof, whereas it was much
more uncertain than that on account of which the statement was made. If
matter, he says, was not made by God, the world was not made by God. He
preferred to draw a false inference from that which is false, than a
true one from that which is true. And though uncertain things ought to
be proved from those which are certain, he drew a proof from an
uncertainty, to overthrow that which was certain. For, that the world
was made by divine providence (not to mention Trismegistus, who
proclaims this; not to mention the verses of the Sibyls, who make the
same announcement; not to mention the prophets,(4) who with one impulse
and with harmonious(5) voice. bear witness that the world was made,(6)
and that it
was the workmanship of God), even the philosophers almost universally
agree; for this is the opinion of the Pythagoreans, the Stoics, and the
Peripatetics, who are the chief of every sect.(7) In short, from those
first seven wise men,(8) even to Socrates and Plato, it was held as an
acknowledged and undoubted fact; until many ages afterwards(9) the
crazy Epicurus lived, who alone ventured to deny that which is most
evident, doubtless through the desire of discovering novelties, that he
might found a sect in his own name. And because he could find out
nothing new, that he might still appear to disagree with the others, he
wished to overthrow old opinions. But in this all the philosophers who
snarled(10) around him, refuted him. It is more certain, therefore,
that the world was arranged by providence, than that matter was
collected(11) by providence. Wherefore he ought not to have supposed
that the world was not made by divine providence, because its matter
was not made by divine providence; but because the world was made by
divine providence, he ought to have concluded that matter also was made
bY the Deity. For it is more credible that matter was made by God,
because He is all-powerful, than that the world was not made by God,
because nothing can be made without mind, intelligence, and design. But
this is not the fault of Cicero, but of the sect. For when he had
undertaken a disputation, by which he might take away the nature of the
gods, respecting which philosophers prated, in his ignorance of the
truth he imagined that the Deity must altogether be taken away. He was
able therefore to take away the gods, for they had no existence. But
when he attempted to overthrow the divine providence, which is in the
one God, because he had begun to strive against the truth, his
arguments failed, and he necessarily fell into this pitfall, from which
he was unable to withdraw himself. Here, then, I hold him firmly fixed;
I hold him fastened to the spot, since Lucilius, who disputed on the
other side, was silent. Here, then, is the turning-point;(12) on this
everything depends. Let Cotta disentangle himself, if he can, from this
difficulty;(13) let him bring forward arguments by which he may prove
that matter has always existed, which no providence made. Let him show
how anything ponderous and heavy either could exist without an author
or could be changed, and how that which
56
always was ceased to be, so that that which never was might begin to
be. And if he shall prove these things, then, and not till then, will I
admit that the world itself was not established by divine providence,
and yet in making this admission I shall hold him fast by another
snare. For he will turn round again to the same point, to which he will
be unwilling to return, so as to say that both the matter of which the
world consists, and the world which consists of matter, existed by
nature; though I contend that nature itself is God. For no one can make
wonderful things, that is, things existing with the greatest order,
except one who has intelligence, foresight, and power. And thus it will
come to be seen that God made all things, and that nothing at all can
exist which did not derive its origin from God.
But the same, as often as he follows the
Epicureans,(1) and does not admit that the world was made by God, is
wont to inquire by what hands by what machines, by what levers, by what
contrivance, He made this work of such magnitude. He might see, if he
could have lived at that time in which God made it. But, that man might
not look into the works of God, He was unwilling to bring him into this
world until all things were completed. But he could not be brought in:
for how could he exist while the heaven above was being built, and the
foundations of the earth beneath were being laid; when humid things,
perchance, either benumbed with excessive stiffness were becoming
congealed, or seethed with fiery heat and rendered solid were
growing hard? Or how could he live when the sun was not yet
established, and neither corn nor animals were produced? Therefore it
was necessary that man should be last made, when the finishing(2) hand
had now been applied to the world and to all other things. Finally, the
sacred writings teach that man was the last work of God, and that he
was brought into this world as into a house prepared and made ready;
for all things were made on his account. The poets also acknowledge the
same. Ovid, having described the completion of the world, and the
formation of the other animals, added:(3)--
"An animal more sacred than these, and more capacious of a lofty mind,
was yet wanting, and which might exercise dominion over the rest. Man
was produced."
So impious must we think it to search into those things which God
wished to be kept secret! But his inquiries were not made through a
desire of hearing or learning, but of refuting; for he was confident
that no one could assert that. As though, in truth, it were to be
supposed that these things were not made by God, because it cannot be
plainly seen in what manner they were created! If you had been brought
up in a well-built and ornamented house, and had never seen a
workshop,(4) would you have supposed that that house was not built by
man, because you did not know how it was built? You would assuredly ask
the same question about the house which you now ask about the world--by
what hands, with what implements, man had contrived such great works;
and especially if you should see large stones, immense blocks,(5) vast
columns, the whole work lofty and elevated, would not these things
appear to you to exceed the measure of human strength, because you
would not know that these things were made not so much by strength as
by skill and ingenuity?
But if man, in whom nothing is perfect, nevertheless
effects more by skill than his feeble strength would permit, what
reason is there why it should appear to you incredible, when it is
alleged that the world was made by God, in whom, since He is perfect,
wisdom can have no limit, and strength no measure? His works are seen
by the eyes; but how He made them is not seen even by the mind,
because, as Hermes says, the mortal cannot draw nigh to (that is,
approach nearer, and follow up with the understanding) the immortal,
the temporal(6) to the eternal, the corruptible to the incorruptible.
And on this account the earthly animal is as yet incapable of
perceiving(7) heavenly things, because it is shut in and held as it
were in custody by the body, so that it cannot discern all things with
free and unrestrained perception. Let him know, therefore, how
foolishly he acts, who inquires into things which are indescribable.
For this is to pass the limits of one's own condition, and not to
understand how far it is permitted man to approach. In short, when God
revealed the truth to man, He wished us only to know those things which
it concerned man to know for the attainment of life; but as to the
things which related to a profane and eager curiosity(8) He was silent,
that they might be secret. Why, then, do you inquire into things which
you cannot know, and if you knew them you would not be happier. It is
perfect wisdom in man, if he knows that there is but one God, and that
all things were made by Him.
CHAP. X.--OF THE WORLD, AND ITS PARTS, THE ELEMENTS
AND SEASONS.
Now, having refitted those who entertain false
sentiments respecting the world and God its
57
Maker, let us return to the divine workmanship of the world, concerning
which we are informed in the sacred' writings of our holy religion.
Therefore, first of all, God made the heaven, and suspended it on high,
that it might be the seat of God Himself, the Creator. Then He founded
the earth, and placed it under the heaven, as a dwelling-place for man,
with the other races of animals. He willed that it should be surrounded
and held together by water. But He adorned and filled His own
dwelling-place with bright lights; He decked it with the sun, and the
shining orb of the moon, and with the glittering signs of the twinkling
stars; but He placed on the earth the darkness, which is contrary to
these. For of itself the earth contains no light, unless it receives it
from the heaven, in which He placed perpetual light, and the gods
above, and eternal life; and, on the contrary, He placed on the earth
darkness, and the inhabitants of the lower regions, and death. For
these things are as far removed from the former ones, as evil things
are from good, and vices from virtues. He also established two parts of
the earth itself opposite to one another, and of a different
character,--namely, the east and the west; and of these the east is
assigned to God, because He Himself is the fountain of light, and the
enlightener, of all things, and because He makes us rise to eternal
life. But the west is ascribed to that disturbed and depraved mind,
because it conceals the light, because it always brings on darkness,
and because it makes men die and perish in their sins. For as light
belongs to the east, and the whole course of life depends upon the
light, so darkness belongs to the west: but death and destruction are
contained in darkness.(3) Then He measured out in the same way the
other parts,--namely, the south and the north, which parts are closely
united with the two former. For that which is more glowing with the
warmth of the sun, is nearest to and closely united with the east; but
that which is torpid with colds and perpetual ice belongs to the same
division as the extreme west. For as darkness is opposed to light, so
is cold to heat. As, therefore, heat is nearest to light, so is the
south to the east; and as cold is nearest to darkness, so is the
northern region to the west. And He assigned to each of these parts its
own time,--namely, the spring to the east, the summer to the southern
region, the autumn belongs to the west, and the winter to the north. In
these two parts also, the southern and the northern, is contained a
figure of life and death, because life consists in heat, death in cold.
And as heat arises from fire, so does cold from water. And according to
the division of these parts He also made day and night, to complete by
alternate succession with each other the courses(4) and perpetual
revolutions of time, which we call years. The day, which the first east
supplies, must belong to God, as all things do, which are of a better
character. But the night, which the extreme west brings on, belongs,
indeed, to him whom we have said to be the rival of God.
And even in the making of these God had regard to
the future; for He made them so, that a representation of true religion
and of false superstitions might be shown from these. For as the sun,
which rises daily, although it is but one,--from which Cicero would
have it appear that it was called Sol,(5) because the stars are
obscured, and it alone is seen,--yet, since it is a true light, and of
perfect fulness, and of most powerful heat, and enlightens all things
with the brightest splendour; so God, although He is one only, is
possessed of perfect majesty, and might, and splendour. But night,
which we say is assigned to that depraved adversary of God,(6) shows by
a resemblance the many and various superstitions which belong to him.
For although innumerable stars appear to glitter and shine,(7) yet,
because they are not full and solid lights, and send forth no heat, nor
overpower the darkness by their multitude, therefore these two things
are found to be of chief importance, which have power differing from
and opposed to one another--heat and moisture, which God wonderfully
designed for the support and production of all things. For since the
power of God consists in heat and fire, if He had not tempered its
ardour and force by mingling matter of moisture and cold, nothing could
have been born or have existed, but whatever had begun to exist must
immediately have been destroyed by conflagration. From which also some
philosophers and poets said that the world was made up of a discordant
concord; but they did not thoroughly understand the matter. Heraclitus
said that all things were produced from fire Thales of Miletus from
water. Each saw something of the truth, and yet each was in error: for
if one element only had existed, water could not have been produced
from fire, nor, on the other hand, could fire from water; but it is
more true that all things were produced from a mingling of the two.
Fire, indeed, cannot be mixed with water, because they are opposed to
each other; and if they came into collision, the one which proved
superior must destroy the other. But their sub-
58
stances may be mingled. The substance of fire is heat; of water,
moisture. Rightly therefore does Ovid say:(1)--
"For when moisture and heat have become mingled, they
conceive, and all things arise from these two. And though fire is at
variance with water, moist vapour produces all things, and discordant
concord(2) is adapted to production."
For the one element is, as it were, masculine; the other, as it were,
feminine: the one active, the other passive. And on this account it was
appointed by the ancients that marriage contracts should be ratified by
the solemnity(3) of fire and water, because the young of animals are
furnished with a body by heat and moisture, and are thus animated to
life.
For, since every animal consists of soul(4) and
body, the material of the body is contained in moisture, that of the
soul in heat: which we may know from the offspring of birds; for though
these are full of thick moisture, unless they are cherished by
creative(5) heat, the moisture cannot become a body, nor can the body
be animated with life. Exiles also were accustomed to be forbidden the
use of fire and water: for as yet it seemed unlawful to inflict capital
punishment on any, however guilty, inasmuch as they were men. When,
therefore, the use of those things in which the life of men consists
was forbidden, it was deemed to be equivalent to the actual infliction
of death on him who had been thus sentenced. Of such importance were
these two elements considered, that they believed them to be essential
for the production of man, and for the sustaining of his life. One of
these is common to us with the other animals, the other has been
assigned to man alone. For we, being a heavenly and immortal race,(6)
make use of fire, which is given to us as a proof of immortality, since
fire is from heaven; and its nature, inasmuch as it is moveable and
rises upward, contains the principle of life. But the other animals,
inasmuch as they are altogether mortal, make use of water only, which
is a corporeal and earthly element. And the nature of this, because it
is moveable, and has a downward inclination, shows a figure of death.
Therefore the cattle do not look up to heaven, nor do they entertain
religious sentiments, since the use of fire is removed from them.
But from what source or in what manner God lighted up or caused(7) to
flow these two principal elements, fire and water, He who made them
alone can know.(8)
CHAP. XI.--OF LIVING CREATURES, OF MAN; PROMETHEUS, DEUCALION, THE
PARCAE.
Therefore, having finished the world, He commanded
that animals of various kinds and of dissimilar forms should be
created, both great and
smaller. And they were made in pairs, that is, one of each sex; from
the offspring of which both the air and the earth and the seas were
filled. And God gave nourishment to all these by their kinds(9) from
the earth, that they might be of service to men: some, for instance,
were for food, others for clothing; but those which are of great
strength He gave, that they might assist in cultivating the earth,
whence they were called beasts of burthen.(10) And thus, when all
things had been settled with a wonderful arrangement, He determined to
prepare for Himself an eternal kingdom, and to create innumerable
souls, on whom He might bestow immortality. Then He made for Himself a
figure endowed with perception and intelligence, that is, after the
likeness of His own image, than which nothing can be more perfect: He
formed man out of the dust of the ground, from which he was called
man,(11) because He was made from the earth. Finally, Plato says that
the human form(12) was godlike; as does the Sibyl, who says,--
"Thou art my image, O man, possessed of right reason."(13)
The poets also have not given a different account respecting this
formation of man, however they may have corrupted it; for they said
that man was made by Prometheus from clay. They were not mistaken in
the matter itself, but in the name of the artificer. For they had never
come into contact with a line of the truth; but the things which were
handed down by the oracles of the prophets, and contained in the sacred
book(14) of God; those things collected from fables and obscure
opinion, and distorted, as the truth is wont to be corrupted by the
multitude when spread abroad by various conversations, every one
adding something to that which he had heard,--those things they
comprised in their poems; and in this, indeed, they acted foolishly, in
that they attributed so wonderful and divine a work to man. For what
need was there that man should be formed of clay, when he might he
generated in the same way in which Prometheus himself was born from
Iapetus? For if he was a man, he was able to beget a man, but not to
make one. But his punishment on Mount
59
Caucasus declares that he was not of the gods. But no one reckoned his
father Iapetus or his uncle(1) Titan as gods, because the high dignity
of the kingdom was in possession of Saturn only, by which he obtained
divine honours, together with all his descendants. This invention of
the poets admits of refutation by many arguments. It is agreed by all
that the deluge took place for the destruction of wickedness, and for
its removal from the earth. Now, both philosophers and poets, and
writers of ancient history, assert the same, and in this they
especially agree with the language of the prophets. If, therefore, the
flood took place for the purpose of destroying wickedness, which had
increased through the excessive multitude of men, how was Prometheus
the maker of man, when his son Deucalion is said by the same writers to
have been the only one who was preserved on account of his
righteousness? How could a single descent(2) and a single generation
have so quickly filled the world with men? But it is plain that they
have corrupted this also, as they did the former account; since they
were ignorant both at what time the flood happened on the earth, and
who it was that deserved on account of his righteousness to be saved
when the human race perished, and how and with whom he was saved: all
of which are taught by the inspired(3) writings. It is plain,
therefore, that the account which they give respecting the work of
Prometheus is false.
But because I had said(4) that the poets are not
accustomed to speak that which is altogether untrue, but to wrap up in
figures and thus to obscure their accounts, I do not say that; they
spoke falsely in this, but that first of all Prometheus made the image
of a man of rich and soft clay, and that he first originated the art of
making statues and images; inasmuch as he lived in the times of
Jupiter, during which temples began to be built, and new modes of
worshipping the gods introduced. And thus the truth was corrupted by
falsehood; and that which was said to have been made by God began also
to be ascribed to man, who imitated the divine work. But the making of
the true and living man from clay is the work of God. And this also is
related by Hermes,(5) who not only says that man was made by God, after
the image of God, but he even tried to explain in how skilful a manner
He formed each limb in the human body, since there is none of them
which is not as available for the necessity of use as for beauty. But
even the Stoics, when they discuss the subject of providence, attempt
to do
this; and Tully followed them in many places. But, however, he briefly
treats of a subject so copious and fruitful, which I now pass over on
this account, because I have lately written a particular book on this
subject to my disciple Demetrianus. But I cannot here omit that which
some erring philosophers say, that men and the other animals arose from
the earth without any author; whence that expression of Virgil:(6)--
"And the earth-born(7) race of men raised its head from the hard
fields."
And this opinion is especially entertained by those who deny the
existence of a divine providence. For the Stoics attribute the
formation of animals to divine skill. But Aristotle freed himself from
labour and trouble, by saying that the world always existed, and
therefore that the human race, and the other things which are in it,
had no beginning, but always had been, and always would be. But when we
see that each animal separately, which had no previous existence,
begins to exist, and ceases to exist, it is necessary that the whole
race must at some time have begun to exist, and must cease at some time
because it had a beginning.
For all things must necessarily be comprised in
three periods of time--the past, the present, and the future. The
commencement(8) belongs to the past, existence to the present,
dissolution to the future. And all these things are seen in the case of
men individually: for we begin when we are born; and we exist while we
live; and we cease when we die. On which account they would have it
that there are three Parcae:(9) one who warps the web of life for men;
the second, who weaves it; the third, who cuts and finishes it. But in
the whole race of men, because the present time only is seen, yet from
it the past also, that is, the commencement, and the future, that is,
the dissolution, are inferred. For since it exists, it is evident that
at some time it began to exist, for nothing can exist without a
beginning; and because it had a beginning, it is evident that it will
at some time have an end. For that cannot, as a whole, be immortal,
which consists of mortals. For as we all die individually, it is
possible that, by some calamity, all may perish simultaneously: either
through the unproductiveness of the earth, which sometimes happens in
particular cases; or through the general spread of pestilence, which
often desolates separate cities and countries; or by the conflagration
of the world, as is said to have happened in the case of Phaethon; or
by a deluge, as is reported in the time of Deucalion, when
60
the whole race was destroyed with the exception of one man. And if this
deluge happened by chance, it might assuredly have happened
that he who was the only survivor should perish. But if he
was reserved by the will of divine providence, as it cannot be denied,
to recruit mankind, it is evident that the life and the destruction of
the human race are in the power of God. And if it is possible for
it to die altogether, because it dies in parts, it is evident that it
had an origin at some time; and as the liability to decay(1) bespeaks a
beginning, so also it gives proof of an end. And if these things
are true, Aristotle will be unable to maintain that the world also
itself had no beginning. But if Plato and Epicurus extort this
from Aristotle, yet Plato and Aristotle, who thought that the world
would be everlasting, will, notwithstanding their eloquence, be
deprived of this also by Epicurus, because it follows, that, as it had
a beginning, it must also have an end. But we will speak of these
things at greater length in the last book. Now let us revert to
the origin of man.
CHAP. XII.--THAT ANIMALS WERE NOT PRODUCED SPONTANEOUSLY, BUT BY
A DIVINE ARRANGEMENT, OF WHICH GOD WOULD HAVE GIVEN US THE KNOWLEDGE,
IF IT WERE ADVANTAGEOUS FOR US TO KNOW IT.
They say that at certain changes of the heaven, and
motions of the stars, there existed a kind of maturity(2) for the
production of animals;
and thus that the new earth, retaining the productive seed, brought
forth of itself certain vessels(3) after the likeness of wombs,
respecting
which Lucretius(4) says,--
"Wombs
grew attached to the earth by roots;"
and that these, when they had become mature, being rent by the
compulsion of nature, produced tender animals; afterwards, that the
earth itself abounded with a kind of moisture which resembled milk, and
that animals were supported by this nourishment. How, then, were they
able to endure or avoid the force of the cold or of heat, or to be born
at all, since the sun would scorch them or the cold contract them? But,
they say, at the beginning of the world there was no winter nor summer,
but a perpetual spring of an equable temperature.(5) Why, then, do we
see that none of these things now happens? Because, they say, it was
necessary that it should once happen, that animals might be born; but
after they began to exist, and the power of generation was given to
them, the earth ceased to bring forth, and the condition of time(6) was
changed. Oh, how easy it is to refute falsehoods! In the first place,
nothing can exist in this world which does not continue permanent, as
it began. For neither were the sire and moon and stars then uncreated;
nor. having been created, were they without their motions; nor did that
divine government, which manages and rules their courses, fail to begin
its exercise together with them. In the next place, if it is as they
say, there must of necessity be a providence, and they fall into that
very condition which they especially avoid. For while the animals were
yet unborn, it is plain that some one provided that they should be
born, that the world might not appear gloomy(7) with waste and
desolation. But, that they might be produced from the earth without the
office of parents, provision must have been made with great judgment;
and in the next place, that the moisture condensed from the earth might
be formed into the various figures of bodies; and also that, having
received from the vessels with which they were covered the power of
life and sensation, they might be poured forth, as it were, from the
womb of mothers, is a wonderful and indescribable(8) provision. But let
us suppose that this also happened by chance; the circumstances which
follow assuredly cannot be by chance,--that the earth should at once
flow with milk, and that the temperature of the atmosphere should be
equable. And if these things plainly happened, that the newly born
animals might have nourishment, or be free from danger, it must be that
some one provided these things by some divine counsel.
But who is able to make this provision except God?
Let us, however, see whether the circumstance itself which they assert
could have taken place, that men should be born from the earth. If any
one considers during how long a time and in what manner an infant is
reared, he will assuredly understand that those earth-born children
could not possibly have been reared without some one to bring them up.
For they must have lain for many months cast forth, until their sinews
were strengthened, so that they had power to move
themselves and to change their place, which can scarcely happen within
the space of one year. Now see whether an infant could have lain
through many months in the same manner and in the same place where it
was cast forth, without dying, overwhelmed and corrupted by that
moisture of the earth which it supplied for the sake of nourishment,
and by the excrements of its own body mixed together. Therefore it is
impossible but that it was reared by some one; unless, indeed, all
animals are born not in a tender con-
61
dition, but grown up: and it never came into their mind to say this.
Therefore the whole of that method is impossible and vain; if that can
be called method by which it is attempted that there shall be no
method. For he who says that all things are produced of their own
accord, and attributes nothing to divine providence, he assuredly does
not assert, but overthrows method. But if nothing can be done or
produced without design, it is plain that there is a divine providence,
to which that which is called design peculiarly belongs. Therefore God,
the Contriver of all things, made man. And even Cicero, though ignorant
of the sacred writings, saw this, who in his treatise on the Laws, in
the first book,(1) handed down the same thing as the prophets; and I
add his words: "This animal, foreseeing, sagacious, various, acute,
gifted with memory, full of method and design, which we call man, was
produced by the supreme Deity under remarkable circumstances; for this
alone of so many kinds and natures of animals, partakes of judgment and
reflection, when all other animals are destitute of them." Do you see
that the man, although far removed from the knowledge of the truth,
yet, inasmuch as he held the image of wisdom, understood that man could
not be produced except by God? But, however, there is need of divine(2)
testimony, lest that of man should be insufficient. The Sibyl testifies
that man is the work of God:--
"He who is the only God being the invincible
Creator, He Himself fixed(3) the figure of the form of men, He Himself
mixed the nature of all belonging to the generation of life."
The sacred writings contain statements to the same effect. Therefore
God discharged the office of a true father. He Himself formed the body;
He Himself infused the soul with which we breathe. Whatever we are, it
is altogether His work. In what manner He effected this He would have
taught us, if it were right for us to know; as He taught us other
things, which have conveyed to us the knowledge both of ancient error
and of true light.
CHAP. XIII.--WHY MAN IS OF TWO SEXES; WHAT IS HIS FIRST DEATH, AND WHAT
THE SECOND AND OF THE FAULT AND PUNISHMENT OF OUR FIRST PARENTS.
When, therefore, He had first formed the male after
His own likeness, then He also fashioned woman after the image of the
man himself, that the two by their union might be able to perpetuate
their race, and to fill the whole earth with a multitude. But in the
making of man himself
He concluded and completed the nature of those two materials which we
have spoken of as contrary to each other, fire and water. For
having made the body, He breathed into it a soul from the vital
source of His own Spirit, which is everlasting, that it might bear the
similitude of the world itself, which is composed of opposing elements.
For he(4) consists of soul and body, that is, as it were, of heaven and
earth: since the soul by which we live, has its origin, as it were, out
of heaven from God, the body out of the earth, of the dust of which we
have said that it was formed. Empedocles--whom you cannot tell whether
to reckon among poets or philosophers, for he wrote in verse respecting
the nature of things, as did Lucretius and Varro among the
Romans--determined that there were four elements, that is, fire, air,
water, and earth; perhaps following Trismegistus, who said that our
bodies were composed of these four elements by God, for he said that
they contained in themselves something of fire, something of air,
something of water, and something of earth, and yet that they
were neither fire, nor air, nor water, nor earth. And these things
indeed are not false; for the nature of earth is contained in the
flesh, that of moisture in the blood, that of air in the breath, that
of fire in the vital heat. But neither can the blood be separated from
the body, as moisture is from the earth; nor the vital heat from the
breath, as fire from the air: so that of all things only two elements
are found, the whole nature of which is included in the formation
of our body. Man, therefore, was made from different and opposite
substances, as the world itself was made from light and darkness, from
life and death; and he has admonished us that these two things contend
against each other in man: so that if the soul, which has its origin
from God, gains the mastery, it is immortal, and lives in perpetual
light; if, on the other hand, the body shall overpower the soul, and
subject it to its dominion, it is in everlasting darkness and death.(5)
And the force of this is not that it altogether annihilates(6) the
souls of the unrighteous, but subjects them to everlasting
punishment.(7)
We term that punishment the second death, which is
itself also perpetual, as also is immortality. We thus define the first
death: Death is the dissolution of the nature of living beings; or
thus: Death is the separation of body and
62
soul. But we thus define the second death: Death is the suffering of
eternal pain; or thus: Death is the condemnation of souls for
their deserts to eternal punishments. This does not extend
to the dumb cattle, whose spirits, not being composed of God,(1) but of
the common air, are dissolved by death. Therefore in this union of
heaven and earth, the image of which is developed(2) in man, those
things which belong to God occupy the higher part, namely the soul,
which has dominion over the body; but those which belong to the devil
occupy the lower(3) part, manifestly the body: for this, being earthly,
ought to be subject to the soul, as the earth is to heaven. For it is,
as it were, a vessel which this heavenly spirit may employ as a
temporary dwelling. The duties of both are--for the latter, which is
from heaven and from God, to command; but for the former, which is from
the earth and the devil, to obey. And this, indeed, did not escape the
notice of a dissolute man, Sallust,(4) who says: "But all our power
consists in the soul and body; we use the soul to command, the body
rather to obey." It had been well if he had lived in accordance with
his words; for he was a slave to the most degrading pleasures, and he
destroyed the efficacy of his sentiment by the depravity of his life.
But if the soul is fire, as we have shown, it ought to mount up to
heaven as fire, that it may not be extinguished; that is, it ought to
rise to the immortality which is in heaven. And as fire cannot burn and
be kept alive unless it be nourished(5) by some rich fuel(6) in which
it may have sustenance, so the fuel and food of the soul is
righteousness alone, by which it is nourished unto life. After these
things, God, having made man in the manner in which I have pointed out,
placed him in paradise,(7) that is, in a most fruitful and pleasant
garden, which He planted in the regions of the East with every kind of
wood and tree, that he might be nourished by their various fruits; and
being free from all labours.(8) might devote himself entirely to the
service of God his Father.
Then He gave to him fixed commands, by the
observance of which he might continue immortal; or if he transgressed
them, be punished with death. It was enjoined that he should not taste
of one tree only which was in the midst of the garden,(9) in which He
had placed the knowledge of good and evil. Then the accuser, envying
the works of God, applied all his deceits and artifices to beguile(10)
the man, that he might deprive him of immortality. And first he enticed
the woman by fraud to take the forbidden fruit, and through her
instrumentality he also persuaded the man himself to transgress the law
of God. Therefore, having obtained the knowledge of good and evil, he
began to be ashamed of his nakedness, and hid himself from the face of
God, which he was not before accustomed to do. Then God drove out the
man from the garden, having passed sentence upon the sinner, that he
might seek support for himself by labour. And He surrounded(11) the
garden itself with fire, to prevent the approach of the man until He
execute the last judgment on earth; and having removed death, recall
righteous men, His worshippers, to the same place; as the sacred
writers teach. and the Erythraean Sibyl, when she says: "But they who
honour the true God inherit everlasting life, themselves inhabiting
together paradise, the beautiful garden, for ever." But since
these are the last things,(12) we will treat of them in the last
part of this work. Now let us explain those which are first.
Death therefore followed man, according to the sentence of God,
which even the Sibyl teaches in her verse, saying:"Man made by the very
hands of God, whom the serpent treacherously beguiled that
he might come to the fate of death, and receive the
knowledge of good and evil." Thus the life of man became limited in
duration;(13) but still, however, long, inasmuch as it was extended to
a thousand(14) years. And when Varro was not ignorant of this, handed
down as it is in the sacred writings, and spread abroad by the
knowledge of all, he endeavoured to give reasons why the ancients were
supposed to have lived a thousand years. For he says that among the
Egyptians months are accounted(15) as years: so that the circuit of the
sun through the twelve signs of the zodiac does not make a year, but
the moon, which traverses that sign-bearing circle in the space of
thirty days; which argument is manifestly false. For no one then
exceeded the thousandth year. But now they who attain to the hundredth
year, which frequently happens,
63
undoubtedly live a thousand and two hundred months. And competent(1)
authorities report that men are accustomed to reach one hundred and
twenty years.(2) But because Varro did not know why or when the life of
man was shortened, he himself shortened it, since he knew that it was
possible for man to live a thousand and four hundred months.
CHAP. XIV.--OF NOAH THE INVENTOR OF WINE, WHO FIRST HAD KNOWLEDGE OF
THE STARS, AND OF THE ORIGIN OF FALSE RELIGIONS.
But afterwards God, when He saw the earth filled
with wickedness and crimes, determined to destroy mankind with a
deluge; but, however, for renewing the multitude, He chose one man,
who,(3) when all were corrupted, stood forth pre-eminent, as a
remarkable example of righteousness. He, when six hundred years old,
built an ark, as God had commanded him, in which he himself was saved,
together with his wife and three sons, and as many daughters-in-law,
when the water had covered all the loftiest mountains. Then when the
earth was dry, God, execrating the wickedness of the former age, that
the length of life might not again be a cause of meditating evils,
gradually diminished the age of man by each successive generation, and
placed a limit at a hundred and twenty years,(4) which it might not be
permitted to exceed. But he, when he went forth from the ark, as the
sacred writings inform us, diligently cultivated the earth, and planted
a vineyard with his own hand. From which circumstance they are refuted
who regard Bacchus as the author of wine. For he not only preceded
Bacchus, but also Saturn and Uranus, by many generations. And when he
had first taken the fruit from the vineyard, having become merry, he
drank even to intoxication, and lay naked. And when one of his sons,
whose name was Cham,(5) had seen this, he did not cover his father's
nakedness, but went out and told the circumstance to his brothers also.
But they, having taken a garment, entered with their faces turned
backwards, and covered their father.(6) And when their father became
aware of what had been done he disowned and sent away his son. But he
went into exile, and settled in a part of that land which is now called
Arabia; and that land was
called from him Chanaan, and his posterity Chanaanites. This was the
first nation which was ignorant of God, since its prince and founder
did not receive from his father the worship of God, being cursed by
him;(7) and thus he left to his descendants ignorance of the divine
nature.(8)
From this nation all the nearest people flowed as
the multitude increased. But the descendants of his father were called
Hebrews, among whom the religion of the true God was established.(9)
But from these also in after times, when their number was multiplied
exceedingly, since the mall extent of their settlements could not
contain them, then young men, either sent by their parents or of their
own accord, by the compulsion of poverty, leaving their own lands to
seek for themselves new settlements, were scattered in all directions,
and filled all the islands and the whole earth; and thus being torn
away from the stem of their sacred root, they established for
themselves at their own discretion new customs and institutions. But
they who occupied Egypt were the first of all who began to look up to
and adore the heavenly bodies. And because they did not shelter
themselves in houses on account of the quality of the atmosphere, and
the heaven is not overspread with any clouds in that country, they
observed the courses of the stars, and their obscurations,(10) while in
their frequent adorations they more carefully and freely beheld them.
Then afterwards, induced by certain prodigies, they invented monstrous
figures of animals, that they might worship them; the authors of which
we will presently disclose. But the others, who were scattered over the
earth, admiring the elements of the world, began to worship the heaven,
the sun, the earth, the sea, without any images and temples, and
offered sacrifices to them in the open air, until in process of time
they erected temples and statues to the most powerful kings, and
originated the practice of honouring them with victims and odours; and
thus wandering from the knowledge of God, they began to be heathens.
They err, therefore, who contend that the worship of the gods was from
the beginning of the world, and that heathenism was prior to the
religion of God: for they think that this was discovered afterwards,
because they are ignorant of the source and origin of the truth. Now
let us return to the beginning of the world.
64
CHAP. XV.--OF THE CORRUPTION OF ANGELS, AND THE TWO KINDS
OF DEMONS.
When, therefore, the number of men had begun to
increase, God in His forethought, lest the devil, to whom from the
beginning He had given power over the earth, should by his subtilty
either corrupt or destroy men, as he had done at first, sent angels for
the protection and improvement(1) of the human race; and inasmuch as He
had given these a free will, He enjoined them above all things not to
defile themselves with contamination from the earth, and thus lose the
dignity of their heavenly nature.(2) He plainly prohibited them from
doing that which He knew that they would do, that they might entertain
no hope of pardon. Therefore, while they abode among men, that most
deceitful ruler(3) of the earth, by his very association, gradually
enticed them to vices, and polluted them by intercourse with women.
Then, not being admitted into heaven on account of the sins into which
they had plunged themselves, they fell to the earth. Thus from angels
the devil makes them to become his satellites and attendants. But they
who were born from these, because they were neither angels nor men, but
bearing a kind of mixed(4) nature, were not admitted into hell, as
their fathers were not into heaven. Thus there came to be two kinds of
demons; one of heaven, the other of the earth. The latter are the
wicked(5) spirits, the authors of all the evils which are done, and the
same devil is their prince. Whence Trismegistus calls him the ruler of
the demons. But grammarians say that they are called demons, as though
demoenes,(6) that is, skilled and acquainted with matters: for they
think that these are gods. They are acquainted, indeed, with many
future events, but not all, since it is not permitted them entirely to
know the counsel of God; and therefore they are accustomed to
accommodate(7) their answers to ambiguous results. The poets both know
them to be demons, and so describe them. Hesiod thus speaks:--
"These are the demons according to the will of Zeus, Good, living on
the earth, the guardians of mortal men."
And this is said for this purpose, because God had sent them as
guardians to the human race; but they themselves also, though they are
the destroyers of men, yet wish themselves to appear as their
guardians, that they themselves may be worshipped, and God may not be
worshipped. The philosophers also discuss the subject of these beings.
For Plato attempted even to explain their natures in his "Banquet;" and
Socrates said that there was a demon continually about him, who had
become attached to him when a boy, by whose will and direction his life
was guided. The art also and power of the Magi altogether consists in
the influences(8) of these; invoked by whom they deceive the sight of
men with deceptive illusions,(9) so that they do not see those things
which exist, and think that they see those things which do not exist.
These contaminated and abandoned spirits, as I say, wander over the
whole earth, and contrive a solace for their own perdition by the
destruction of men. Therefore they fill every place with snares,
deceits, frauds, and errors; for they cling to individuals, and occupy
whole houses from door to door, and assume to themselves the name of
genii; for by this word they translate demons in the Latin language.
They consecrate these in their houses, to these they daily pour out(10)
libations of wine, and worship the wise demons as gods of the earth,
and as averters of those evils which they themselves cause and impose.
And these, since spirits are without substance(11) and not to be
grasped, insinuate themselves into the bodies of men; and secretly
working in their inward parts, they corrupt the health, hasten
diseases, terrify their souls with dreams, harass their minds with
phrenzies, that by these evils they may compel men to have recourse to
their aid.
CHAP. XVI.--THAT DEMONS HAVE NO POWER OVER THOSE WHO ARE ESTABLISHED IN
THE FAITH.
And the nature of all these deceits(12) is obscure to those who
are without the truth. For they think that those demons profit them
when they cease to injure, whereas they have no power except to
injure.(13) Some one may perchance say that they are therefore to be
worshipped, that they may not injure, since they have the power to
injure. They do indeed injure, but those only by whom they are feared,
whom the powerful and lofty hand of God does not protect, who are un-
65
initiated in the mystery(1) of truth. But they fear the righteous,(2)
that is, the worshippers of God, adjured by whose name they depart(3)
from the bodies of the possessed: for, being lashed by their words as
though by scourges, they not only confess themselves to be demons, but
even utter their own names--those which are adored in the
temples--which they generally do in the presence of their own
worshippers; not, it is plain, to the disgrace of religion, but(4) to
the disgrace of their own honour, because they cannot speak falsely to
God, by whom they are adjured, nor to the righteous, by whose voice
they are tortured. Therefore ofttimes having uttered the greatest
howlings, they cry out that they are beaten, and are on fire, and that
they are just on the point of coming forth: so much power has the
knowledge of God, and righteousness! Whom, therefore, can they injure,
except those whom they have in their own power? In short, Hermes
affirms that those who have known God are not only safe from the
attacks of demons, but that they are not even bound by fate. "The only
protection," he says, "is piety, for over a pious man neither evil
demon nor fate has any power: for God rescues the pious man from all
evil; for the one and only good thing among men is piety." And what
piety is, he testifies in another place, in these words: "For piety is
the knowledge of God." Asclepius also, his disciple, more fully
expressed the same sentiment in that finished discourse which he wrote
to the king. Each of them, in truth, affirms that the demons are the
enemies and harassers of men, and on this account Trismegistus calls
them wicked angels; so far was he from being ignorant that from
heavenly beings they were corrupted, and began to be earthly.
CHAP. XVII.--THAT ASTROLOGY, SOOTHSAYING, AND SIMILAR ARTS ARE THE
INVENTION OF DEMONS.
These were the inventors of astrology, and
soothsaying, and divination, and those productions which are called
oracles, and necromancy, and the art of magic, and whatever evil
practices besides these men exercise, either openly or in secret. Now
all these things are false of themselves, as the Erythraean Sibyl
testifies:--
"Since all these things are erroneous,
Which foolish men search after day by day."
But these same authorities by their countenance(5) cause it to be
believed that they are true. Thus they delude the credulity of men by
lying divination, because it is not expedient for them to lay open the
truth. These are they who taught men to make images and statues; who,
in order that they might turn away the minds of men from the worship of
the true God, cause the countenances of dead kings, fashioned and
adorned with exquisite beauty, to be erected and consecrated, and
assumed to themselves their names, as though they were assuming some
characters. But the magicians, and those whom the people truly call
enchanters,(6) when they practise their detestable arts, call upon them
by their true names, those heavenly names which are read in the sacred
writings. Moreover, these impure and wandering spirits, that they may
throw all things into confusion, and overspread the minds of men with
errors, interweave and mingle false things with true. For they
themselves feigned that there are many heavenly beings, and one king of
all, Jupiter; because there are many spirits of angels in heaven, and
one Parent and Lord of all, God. But they have concealed the truth
under false names, and withdrawn it from sight.
For God, as I have shown in the beginning,(7) does
not need a name, since He is alone; nor do the angels, inasmuch as they
are immortal, either suffer or wish themselves to be called gods: for
their one and only duty is to submit to the will of God, and not to do
anything at all except at His command. For we say that the world is so
governed by God, as a province is by its ruler; and no one would say
that his attendants(8) are his sharers in the administration of the
province, although business is carried on by their service. And yet
these can effect something contrary to the commands of the ruler,
through his ignorance; which is the result of man's condition. But that
guardian of the world and ruler of the universe, who knows all things,
from whose divine eyes nothing is concealed,(9) has alone with His Son
the power over all things; nor is there anything in the angels except
the necessity of obedience. Therefore they wish no honour to be paid to
them, since all their hononr is in God. But they who have revolted from
the service of God, because they are enemies of the truth, and
betrayers(10) of God attempt to claim for themselves the name and
worship of gods; not that they desire any hon-
66
our (for what honour is there to the lost?), nor that they may injure
God, who cannot be injured, but that they may injure men, whom they
strive to turn away from the worship and knowledge of the true Majesty,
that they may not be able to obtain immortality, which they themselves
have lost through their wickedness. Therefore they draw on darkness,
and overspread the truth with obscurity, that men may not know their
Lord and Father. And that they may easily entice them, they conceal
themselves in the temples, and are close at hand at all sacrifices; and
they often give prodigies, that men, astonished by them, may attach to
images a belief in their divine power and influence. Hence it is that
the stone was cut by the augur with a razor; that Juno of Veii answered
that she wished to remove to Rome; that Fortuna Muliebris(1) announced
the threatening danger; that the ship followed the hand of Claudia;
that Juno when plundered, and the Locrian Proserpine, and the Milesian
Ceres, punished the sacrilegious; that Hercules exacted vengeance from
Appius, and Jupiter from Atinius, and Minerva from Caesar. Hence it was
that the serpent sent for from Epidaurus freed the city of Rome from
pestilence. For the chief of the demons was himself carried thither in
his own form, without any dissembling; if indeed the ambassadors who
were sent for that purpose brought with them a serpent of immense size.
But they especially deceive in the case of oracles,
the juggleries of which the profane(2) cannot distinguish from the
truth; and therefore they imagine that commands,(3) and victories, and
wealth, and prosperous issues of affairs, are bestowed by them,--in
short, that the state has often been freed from imminent dangers by
their interposition;(4) which dangers they have both announced, and
when appeased with sacrifices, have averted. But all these things are
deceits. For since they have a presentiment(5) of the arrangements of
God, inasmuch as they have been His ministers, they interpose
themselves in these matters, that whatever things have been
accomplished or are in the course of accomplishment by God, they
themselves may especially appear to be doing or to have done; and as
often as any advantage is hanging over any people or city, according to
the purpose of God, either by prodigies, or dreams, or oracles, they
promise that they will bring it to pass, if temples, honours, and
sacrifices are given to them. And on the offering of these, when the
necessary(6) result comes to pass, they acquire for themselves the
greatest veneration. Hence temples are vowed, and new images
consecrated; herds of victims are slain; and when all these things are
done, yet the life and safety of those who have performed them are not
the less sacrificed. But as often as dangers threaten, they profess
that they are angry on account of some light and trifling cause; as
Juno was with Varro, because he had placed a beautiful boy on the
carriage(7) of Jupiter to guard the dress, and on this account the
Roman name was almost destroyed at Cannae. But if Juno feared a second
Ganymede, why did the Roman youth suffer punishment? Or if the gods
regard the leaders only, and neglect the rest of the multitude, why did
Varro alone escape who acted thus, and why was Paulus, who was
innocent,(8) slain? Assuredly nothing then happened to the Romans by
"the fates of the hostile Juno,"(9) when Hannibal by craft and valour
despatched two armies of the Roman people. For Juno did not venture
either to defend Carthage, where were her arms and chariot, or to
injure the Romans; for
"She had heard that sons of Troy
Were born her Carthage to destroy."(10)
But these are the delusions of those who, concealing themselves under
the names of the dead, lay snares for the living. Therefore, whether
the impending danger can be avoided, they wish it to appear that they
averted it, having been appeased; or if it cannot be avoided, they
contrive that it may appear to have happened through disregard(11) of
them. Thus they acquire to themselves authority and fear from men, who
are ignorant of them. By this subtilty and by these arts they have
caused the knowledge of the true and only God to fail(12) among all
nations. For, being destroyed by their own vices, they rage and use
violence that they may destroy others. Therefore these enemies of the
human race even devised human victims, to devour as many lives as
possible.
CHAP. XVIII.--OF THE PATIENCE AND VENGEANCE OF GOD, THE WORSHIP OF
DEMONS, AND FALSE RELIGIONS.
Some one will say, Why then does God permit these
things to be done, and not apply a remedy to such disastrous errors?
That evils may be at variance with good; that vices may be opposed to
virtues; that He may have some whom He may punish, and others whom He
67
may honour. For He has determined at the last times to pass judgment on
the living and the dead, concerning which judgment I shall speak in the
last book. He delays,(1) therefore, until the end of the times shall
come, when He may pour out His wrath with heavenly power and might, as
"Prophecies of pious seers
Ring terror in the 'wildered ears."(2)
But now He suffers men to err, and to be impious even towards Himself,
just, and mild, and patient as He is. For it is impossible that He in
whom is perfect excellence should not also be of perfect patience.
Whence some imagine, that God is altogether free from anger, because He
is not subject to affections, which are perturbations of the mind; for
every animal which is liable to affections and emotions is frail. But
this persuasion altogether takes away truth and religion. But let this
subject of discussing the anger of God be laid aside for the present;
because the matter is very copious, and to be more widely treated in a
work devoted to the subject. Whoever shall have worshipped and followed
these most wicked spirits, will neither enjoy heaven nor the light,
which are God's; but will fall into those things which we have spoken
of as being assigned in the distribution of things to the prince of the
evil ones himself,--namely, into darkness, and hell, and everlasting
punishment.
I have shown that the religious rites of the gods
are vain in a threefold manner: In the first place, because those
images which are worshipped are representations of men who are dead;
and that is a wrong and inconsistent thing, that the image of a man
should be worshipped by the image of God, for that which worships is
lower and weaker than that which is worshipped: then that it is an
inexpiable crime to desert the living in order that you may serve
memorials of the dead, who can neither give life nor light to any one,
for they are themselves without it: and that there is no other God but
one, to whose judgment and power every soul is subject. In the second
place, that the sacred images themselves, to which most senseless men
do service, are destitute of all perception, since they are earth. But
who cannot understand that it is unlawful for an upright animal to bend
itself that it may adore the earth? which is placed beneath our feet
for this purpose, that it may be trodden. upon, and not adored by us,
who have been
raised from it, and have received an elevated position beyond the other
living creatures, that we may not turn ourselves again downward,
nor cast this heavenly countenance to the earth, but may direct
our eyes to that quarter to which the condition of their nature has
directed, and that we may adore and worship nothing except the single
deity of our only Creator and Father, who made man of an erect figure,
that we may know that we are called forth to high and heavenly things.
In the third place, because the spirits which preside over the
religious rites themselves, being condemned and cast off by God,
wallow(3) over the earth, who not only are unable to afford any
advantage to their worshippers, since the power of all things is in the
hands of one alone, but even destroy them with deadly attractions and
errors; since this is their daily business, to involve men in darkness,
that the true God may not be sought by them. Therefore they are not to
be worshipped, because they lie under the sentence of God. For it is a
very great crime to devote(4) one's self to the power of those whom, if
you follow righteousness, you are able to excel in power, and to drive
out and put to flight by adjuration of the divine name. But if it
appears that these religious rites are vain in so many ways as I have
shown, it is manifest that those who either make prayers to the
dead,(5) or venerate the earth, or make over(6) their souls to unclean
spirits, do not act as becomes men, and that they will suffer
punishment for their impiety and guilt, who, rebelling against God, the
Father of the human race, have undertaken inexpiable rites, and
violated every sacred law.
CHAP. XIX.--OF THE WORSHIP OF IMAGES AND
EARTHLY OBJECTS.
Whoever, therefore, is anxious to observe the
obligations to which man is liable, and to maintain a regard for his
nature, let him raise himself from the ground, and, with mind lifted
up, let him direct his eyes to heaven: let him not seek God under his
feet, nor dig up from his footprints an object of veneration, for
whatever lies beneath man must necessarily be inferior to man; but let
him seek it aloft, let him seek it in the highest place: for nothing
can be greater than man, except that which is above man. But God is
greater than man: therefore He is above, and
68
not below; nor is He to be sought in the lowest, but rather in the
highest region. Wherefore it is undoubted that there is no religion
wherever there is an image.(1) For if religion consists of divine
things, and there is nothing divine except in heavenly things; it
follows that images are without religion, because there can be nothing
heavenly in that which is made from the earth. And this, indeed, may be
plain to a wise man from the very name.(2) For whatever is an
imitation, that must of necessity be false; nor can anything receive
the name of a true object which counterfeits the truth by deception and
imitation. But if all imitation is not particularly a serious matter,
but as it were a sport and jest, then there is no religion in images,
but a mimicry of religion. That which is true is therefore to be
preferred to all things which are false; earthly things are to be
trampled upon, that we may obtain heavenly things. For this is the
state of the case, that whosoever shall prostrate his soul, which has
its origin from heaven, to the shades(3) beneath, and the lowest
things, must fall to that place to which he has cast himself. Therefore
he ought to be mindful of his nature and condition, and always to
strive and aim at things above. And whoever shall do this, he will be
judged altogether wise, he just, he a man: he, in short, will be judged
worthy of heaven whom his Parent will recognise not as abject, nor cast
down to the earth after the manner of the beasts,(4) but rather
standing and upright as He made him.
CHAP. XX.--OF PHILOSOPHY AND THE TRUTH.
A great and difficult portion of the work which I
have undertaken, unless I am deceived, has been completed; and the
majesty of heaven supplying the power of speaking, we have driven away
inveterate errors. But now a greater and more difficult contest with
philosophers is proposed to us, the height of whose learning and
eloquence, as some massive structure, is opposed to me. For as in the
former(5) case we were oppressed by a multitude, and almost by the
universal agreement of all nations, so in this subject we are oppressed
by the authority of men excelling in every kind of praise. But who can
be ignorant that there is more weight in a smaller number of learned
men than in a greater number of ignorant persons?(6) But we must not
despair that, under the guidance of God and the truth, these also may
be turned aside from their opinion; nor do I think that they will be so
obstinate as to deny that they behold with sound and open eyes the sun
as he shines in his brilliancy. Only let that be true which they
themselves are accustomed to profess, that they are possessed with the
desire of investigation, and I shall assuredly succeed in causing them
to believe that the truth which they have long sought for has been at
length found, and to confess that it could not have been found by the
abilities of man.
69
THE DIVINE INSTITUTES
BOOK III.
OF THE FALSE WISDOM OF PHILOSOPHERS.
CHAP. I.--A COMPARISON OF THE TRUTH WITH ELOQUENCE: WHY THE
PHILOSOPHERS DID NOT ATTAIN TO IT. OF THE SIMPLE STYLE OF THE
SCRIPTURES.
SINCE. it is supposed that the truth still lies
hidden in obscurity--either through the error and ignorance of the
common people, who are the slaves of various and foolish superstitions,
or through the philosophers, who by the perverseness of their minds
confuse rather than throw light upon it--I could wish that the power of
eloquence had fallen to my lot, though not such as it was in Marcus
Tullius, for that was extraordinary and admirable, but in some degree
approaching it;(1) that, being supported as much by the strength of
talent as it has weight by its own force, the truth might at length
come forth, and having dispelled and refuted public errors, and the
errors of those who are considered wise, might introduce among the
human race a brilliant light. And I could wish that this were so, for
two reasons: either that men might more readily believe the truth when
adorned with embellishments, since they even believe falsehood, being
captivated by the adornment of speech and the enticement of
words; or, at all events, that the philosophers themselves might
be overpowered by us, most of all by their own arms, in which
they are accustomed to pride themselves and to place
confidence.
But since God has willed this to be the nature of the case, that simple
and undisguised truth should be more clear, because it has sufficient
ornament of itself, and on this account it is corrupted when
embellished(2) with adornings from without, but that falsehood
should please by means of a splendour not its own, because being
corrupt of itself it vanishes and melts away, unless it is set off(3)
and polished with decoration sought
from another source; I bear it with equanimity that a moderate degree
of talent has been granted to me. But it is not in reliance upon
eloquence, but upon the truth, that I have undertaken this work,--a
work, perhaps, too great to be sustained by my strength; which,
however, even if I should fail, the truth itself will complete, with
the assistance of God, whose office this is. For when I know that the
greatest orators have often been overcome by pleaders of moderate
ability, because the power of truth is so great that it defends itself
even in small things by its own clearness: why should I imagine that it
will be overwhelmed in a cause of the greatest importance by men who
are ingenious and eloquent, as I admit, but who speak false things; and
not that it should appear bright and illustrious, if not by our speech,
which is very feeble, and flows from a slight fountain, but by its own
light? Nor, if there have been philosophers worthy of admiration on
account of their literary erudition, should I also yield to them the
knowledge and learning of the truth, which no one can attain to by
reflection or disputation. Nor do I now disparage the pursuit of those
who wished to know the truth, because God has made the nature of man
most desirous of arriving at the truth; but I assert and maintain this
against them, that the effect did not follow their honest and
well-directed will, because they neither knew what was true in itself,
nor how, nor where, nor with what mind it is to be sought. And thus,
while they desire to remedy the errors of men, they have become
entangled in snares and the greatest errors. I have therefore been led
to this task of refuting philosophy by the very order of the subject
which I have undertaken.
For since all error arises either from false
religion or from wisdom,(4) in refuting error it is necessary to
overthrow both. For inasmuch as
70
it has been handed down to us in the sacred writings that the thoughts
of philosophers are foolish, this very thing iS to be proved by fact
and by arguments, that no one, induced by the honourable name of
wisdom, or deceived by the splendour of empty eloquence, may prefer to
give credence to human rather than to divine things. Which things,
indeed, are related in a concise and simple manner. For it was not
befitting that, when God was speaking to man, He should confirm His
words by arguments, as though He would not otherwise(1) be regarded
with confidence: but, as it was right, He spoke as the mighty Judge of
all things, to whom it belongs not to argue, but to pronounce sentence.
He Himself, as God, is truth. But we, since we have divine testimony
for everything, will assuredly show by how much surer arguments truth
may be defended, when even false things are so defended that they are
accustomed to appear true. Wherefore there is no reason why we should
give so much honour to philosophers as to fear their eloquence. For
they might speak well as men of learning; but they could not speak
truly, because they had not learned the truth from Him in whose power
it was. Nor, indeed, shall we effect anything great in convicting them
of ignorance, which they themselves very often confess. Since they are
not believed in that one point alone in which alone they ought to have
been believed, I will endeavour to show that they never spoke so truly
as when they uttered their opinion respecting their own ignorance.
CHAP. II.--OF PHILOSOPHY, AND HOW VAIN WAS ITS OCCUPATION IN SETTING
FORTH THE TRUTH.
Now, since the falsehood of superstitions(2) has
been shown in the two former books, and the origin itself of the whole
error has been set forth, it is the business of this book to show the
emptiness and falsehood of philosophy also, that, all error being
removed, the truth may be brought to light and become manifest. Let us
begin, therefore, from the common name of philosophy, that when the
head itself is destroyed, an easier approach may be open to us for
demolishing the whole body; if indeed that can be called a body, the
parts and members of which are at variance with one another, and are
not united together by any connecting link,(3) but, as it were,
dispersed and scattered, appear to palpitate rather than to live.
Philosophy is (as the name indicates, and they themselves define it)
the love of wisdom.
By what argument, then, can I prove that philosophy is not wisdom,
rather than by that derived from the meaning of the name itself? For he
who devotes himself to wisdom is manifestly not yet wise, but devotes
himself to the subject that he may be wise. In the other arts it
appears what this devotedness effects, and to what it tends: for when
any one by learning has attained to these, he is now called, not a
devoted follower of the profession, but an artificer. But it is said it
was on account of modesty that they called themselves devoted to
wisdom, and not wise. Nay, in truth, Pythagoras, who first invented
this name, since he had a little more wisdom than those of early times,
who regarded themselves as wise, understood that it was impossible by
any human study to attain to wisdom, and therefore that a perfect name
ought not to be applied to an incomprehensible and imperfect subject.
And, therefore, when he was asked what was his profession,(4) he
answered that he was a philosopher, that is, a searcher after wisdom.
If, therefore, philosophy searches after wisdom, it is not wisdom
itself, because it must of necessity be one thing which searches, and
another which is searched for; nor is the searching itself correct,
because it can find nothing.
But I am not prepared to concede even that
philosophers are devoted to the pursuit of wisdom, because by that
pursuit there is no attaining to wisdom. For if the power of finding
the truth were connected(5) with this pursuit, and if this pursuit were
a kind of road to wisdom, it would at length be found. But since so
much time and talent have been wasted in the search for it, and it has
not yet been gained, it is plain that there is no wisdom there.
Therefore they who apply themselves to philosophy do not devote
themselves to the pursuit of wisdom; but they themselves imagine that
they do so, because they know not where that is which they are
searching for, or of what character it is. Whether, therefore, they
devote themselves to the pursuit of wisdom or not, they are not wise,
because that can never be discovered which is either sought in an
improper manner, or not sought at all. Let us look to this very thing,
whether it is possible for anything to be discovered by this kind of
pursuit, or nothing.
CHAP. III.--OF WHAT SUBJECTS PHILOSOPHY CONSISTS, AND WHO WAS THE CHIEF
FOUNDER OF THE ACADEMIC SECT.
Philosophy appears to consist of two subjects,
knowledge and conjecture, and of nothing more. Knowledge cannot come
from the understanding, nor be apprehended by thought; because
71
to have knowledge in oneself as a peculiar property does not belong to
man, but to God. But the nature of mortals does not receive knowledge,
except that which comes from without. For on this account the divine
intelligence has opened the eyes and ears and other senses in the body,
that by these entrances knowledge might flow through to the mind. For
to investigate or wish to know the causes of natural things,--whether
the sun is as great as it appears to be, or is many times greater than
the whole of this earth; also whether the moon be spherical or concave;
and whether the stars are fixed to the heaven, or are borne with free
course through the air; of what magnitude the heaven itself is, of what
material it is composed; whether it is at rest and immoveable, or is
turned round with incredible swiftness; how great is the thickness of
the earth, or on what foundations it is poised and suspended,--to wish
to comprehend these things, I say, by disputation and conjectures, is
as though we should wish to discuss what we may suppose to be the
character of a city in some very remote country, which we have never
seen, and of which we have heard nothing more than the name. If we
should claim to ourselves knowledge in a matter of this kind, which
cannot be known, should we not appear to be mad, in venturing to affirm
that in which we may be refuted? How much more are they to be judged
mad and senseless, who imagine that they know natural things, which
cannot be known by man! Rightly therefore did Socrates, and the
Academics(1) who followed him, take away knowledge, which is not the
part of a disputant, but of a diviner. It remains that there is in
philosophy conjecture only; for that from which knowledge is absent, is
entirely occupied by conjecture. For every one conjectures that of
which he is ignorant. But they who discuss natural subjects, conjecture
that they are as they discuss them. Therefore they do not know the
truth, because knowledge is concerned with that which is certain,
conjecture with the uncertain.
Let us return to the example before mentioned. Come,
let us conjecture about the state and character of that city which is
unknown to us in all respects except in name. It is probable that it is
situated on a plain, with walls of stone, lofty buildings, many
streets, magnificent and highly adorned temples. Let us describe, if
you please, the customs and deportment of the citizens. But when we
shall have described these, another will make opposite statements;
and when he also shall have concluded, a third will arise, and others
after him; and they will make very different conjectures to those of
ours. Which therefore of all is more true? Perhaps none of them. But
all things have been mentioned which the nature of the circumstances
admits, so that some one of them must necessarily be true. But it will
not be known who has spoken the truth. It may possibly be that all have
in some degree erred in their description, and that all have in some
degree attained to the truth. Therefore we are foolish if we seek this
by disputation; for some one may present himself who may deride our
conjectures, and esteem us as mad, since we wish to conjecture the
character of that which we do not know. But it is unnecessary to go in
quest of remote cases, from which perhaps no one may come to refute us.
Come, let us conjecture what is now going on in the forum, what in the
senate-house. That also is too distant. Let us say what is taking place
with the interposition of a single wall;(2) no one can know this but he
who has heard or seen it. No one therefore ventures to say this,
because he will immediately be refuted not by words, but by the
presence of the fact itself. But this is the very thing which
philosophers do, who discuss what is taking place in heaven, but think
that they do that with impunity, because there is no one to refute
their errors. But if they were to think that some one was about to
descend who would prove them to be mad and false, they would never
discuss those subjects at all which they cannot possibly know. Nor,
however, is their shamelessness and audacity to be regarded as more
successful because they are not refuted; for God refutes them to whom
alone the truth is known, although He may seem to connive at
their conduct, and He reckons such wisdom of men as the greatest folly.
CHAP.IV.--THAT KNOWLEDGE IS TAKEN AWAY BY SOCRATES, AND CONJECTURE BY
ZENO.
Zeno and the Stoics, then, were right in repudiating conjecture. For to
conjecture that you know that which you do not know, is not the part of
a wise, but rather of a rash and foolish man. Therefore if nothing can
be known, as Socrates taught, or ought to be conjectured, as Zeno
taught, philosophy is entirely removed. Why should I say that it is not
only overthrown by these two, who were the chiefs of philosophy, but by
all, so that it now appears to have been long ago destroyed by its own
arms? Philosophy has been divided into many sects; and they all
entertain various sentiments. In which do we place the truth? It
certainly cannot be in
72
all. Let us point out some one; it follows that all the others will be
without wisdom. Let us pass through them separately; in the same
manner, whatever we shall give to one we shall take away from the
others. For each particular sect overturns all others, to confirm
itself and its own doctrines: nor does it allow wisdom to any other,
lest it should confess that it is itself foolish; but as it takes away
others, so is it taken away itself by all others. For they are
nevertheless philosophers who accuse it of folly. Whatever sect you
shall praise and pronounce true, that is censured by philosophers as
false. Shall we therefore believe one which praises itself and its
doctrine, or the many which blame the ignorance of each other? That
must of necessity be better which is held by great numbers, than that
which is held by one only. For no one can rightly judge concerning
himself, as the renowned poet testifies;(1) for the nature of men is so
arranged, that they see and distinguish the affairs of others better
than their own. Since, therefore, all things are uncertain, we must
either believe all or none: if we are to believe no one, then the wise
have no existence, because while they separately affirm different
things they think themselves wise; if all, it is equally true that
there are no wise men, because all deny the wisdom of each
individually. Therefore all are in this manner destroyed; and as those
fabled sparti(2) of the poets, so these men mutually slay one another,
so that no one remains of all; which happens on this account, because
they have a sword, but have no shield. If, therefore, the sects
individually are convicted of folly by the judgment of many sects, it
follows that all are found to be vain and empty; and thus philosophy
consumes and destroys itself. And since Arcesilas the founder of the
Academy understood this, he collected together the mutual censures of
all, and the confession of ignorance made by distinguished
philosophers, and armed himself against all. Thus he established a new
philosophy of not philosophizing. From this founder, therefore, there
began to be two kinds of philosophy: one the old one, which claims to
itself knowledge; the other a new one, opposed to the former, and which
detracts from it. Between these two kinds of philosophy I see that
there is disagreement, and as it were civil war. On which side shall we
place wisdom, which cannot be torn asunder?(3) If the nature of things
can be known, this troop of recruits will perish; if it cannot, the
veterans will be destroyed: if they shall be equal, nevertheless
philosophy, the guide of all, will still perish, because it is divided;
for nothing can be opposed to itself without its own destruction. But
if, as I have shown, there can be no inner and peculiar knowledge in
man on account of the frailty of the human condition, the party of
Arcesilas prevails. But not even will this stand firm, because it
cannot be the case that nothing at all is known.
CHAP. V.--THAT THE KNOWLEDGE OF
MANY THINGS IS NECESSARY.
For there are many things which nature itself, and
frequent use, and the necessity of life, compel us to know. Accordingly
you must perish, unless you know what things are useful for life, in
order that you may seek them; and what are dangerous, that you may shun
and avoid them. Moreover, there are many things which experience finds
out. For the various courses of the sun and moon, and the motions of
the stars, and the computation of times, have been discovered, and the
nature of bodies, and the strength of herbs by students of medicine,
and by the cultivators of the land the nature of soils, and signs of
future rains and tempests have been collected. In short, there is no
art which is not dependent on knowledge. Therefore Arcesilas
ought, if he had any wisdom, to have distinguished the things which
were capable of being known, and those which were incapable. But if he
had done this, he would have reduced himself to the common herd. For
the common people have sometimes more wisdom, because they are only so
far wise as is necessary. And if you inquire of them whether they know
anything or nothing, they will say that they know the things which they
know, and will confess that they are ignorant of what they are
ignorant. He was right, therefore, in taking away the systems of
others, but he was not right in laying the foundations of his own. For
ignorance of all things cannot be wisdom, the peculiar property of
which is knowledge. And thus, when he overcame the philosophers, and
taught that they knew nothing, he himself also lost the name of
philosopher, because his system is to know nothing. For he who blames
others because they are ignorant, ought himself to have knowledge; but
when he knows nothing, what perverseness or what insolence it is, to
constitute himself a philosopher on account of that very thing for
which he takes away the others! For it is in their power to answer
thus: If you convict us of knowing nothing, and therefore of being
unwise because we know nothing, does it follow that you are not wise,
because you confess that you know nothing? What progress, therefore,
did Arcesilas make, except that, having despatched all the
philosophers, he pierced himself also with the same sword?
73
CHAP. VI.--OF WISDOM, AND THE ACADEMICS, AND NATURAL
PHILOSOPHY.
Does wisdom therefore nowhere exist? Yes, indeed, it
was amongst them, but no one saw it. Some thought that all things could
be known: these were manifestly not wise. Others thought that nothing
could be known; nor indeed were these wise: the former, because they
attributed too much to man; the latter, because they attributed too
little. A limit was wanting to each on either side. Where, then, is
wisdom? It consists in thinking neither that you know all things, which
is the property of God; nor that you are ignorant of all things, which
is the part of a beast. For it is something of a middle character which
belongs to man, that is, knowledge united and combined with ignorance.
Knowledge in us is from the soul, which has its origin from heaven;
ignorance from the body, which is from the earth: whence we have
something in common with God, and with the animal creation. Thus, since
we are composed of these two elements, the one of which is endowed with
light, the other with darkness, a part of knowledge is given to us, and
a part of ignorance. Over this bridge, so to speak, we may pass without
any danger of falling; for all those who have inclined to either side,
either towards the left hand or the right, have fallen. But I will say
how each part has erred. The Academics argued from obscure subjects,
against the natural philosophers, that there was no knowledge; and
satisfied with the examples of a few incomprehensible subjects, they
embraced ignorance as though they had taken away the whole of
knowledge, because they had taken it away in part. But natural
philosophers, on the other hand, derived their argument from those
things which are open, and inferred that all things could be known,
and, satisfied with things which were manifest, retained knowledge; as
if they had defended it altogether, because they had defended it in
part. And thus neither the one saw what was clear, nor the others what
was obscure; but each party, while they contended with the greatest
ardour either to retain or to take away knowledge only, did not see
that there would be placed in the middle that which might guide them to
wisdom.
But Arcesilas, who teaches that there is no
knowledge,(1) when he was detracting from Zeno, the chief of the
Stoics, that he might altogether overthrow philosophy on the authority
of Socrates, undertook this opinion to affirm that nothing could be
known. And thus he disproved the judgment of the philosophers, who had
thought that the truth was drawn forth,(2) and
found out by their talents,--namely, because that wisdom was mortal,
and, having been instituted a few ages before, had now attained to its
greatest increase, so that it was now necessarily growing old and
perishing, the Academy(3) suddenly arose, the old age, as it were, of
philosophy, which might despatch it now withering. And Arcesilas
rightly saw that they are arrogant, or rather foolish, who imagine that
the knowledge of the truth can be arrived at by conjecture. But no one
can refute one speaking falsely, unless he who shall have previously
known what is true; but Arcesilas, endeavouring to do this without a
knowledge of the truth, introduced a kind of philosophy which we may
call unstable or inconstant.(4) For, that nothing may be known, it is
necessary that something be known. For if you know nothing at all, the
very knowledge that nothing can be known will be taken away. Therefore
he who pronounces as a sentiment that nothing is known,
professes, as it were, some conclusion already arrived at and known:
therefore it is possible for something to be known.
Of a similar character to this is that which is
accustomed to be proposed in the schools as an example of the kind of
fallacy called asystaton; that some one had dreamt that he should not
believe dreams. For if he did believe them, then it follows that he
ought not to believe them. But if he did not believe them, then
it follows that he ought to believe them. Thus, if nothing can be
known, it is necessary that this fact must be known, that nothing is
known. But if it is known that nothing can be known, the statement that
nothing can be known must as a consequence be false. Thus there is
introduced a tenet opposed to itself, and destructive of itself. But
the evasive(5) man wished to take away learning from the other
philosophers, that he might conceal it at his home. For truly he is not
for taking it from himself who affirms anything that he may take it
from others: but he does not succeed; for it shows itself, and betrays
its plunderer. How much more wisely and truly he would act, if he
should make an exception, and say that the causes and systems of
heavenly things only, or natural things, because they are hidden,
cannot be known, for there is no one to teach them; and ought not to be
inquired into. for they cannot be found out by inquiry! For if he
had brought forward this exception, he would both have admonished the
natural philosophers not to search into those things which exceeded the
limit of human reflection; and would have freed himself from the
ill-will arising from calumny, and would certainly
74
have left us something to follow. But now, since he has drawn us back
from following others, that we may not wish to know more than we are
capable of knowing, he has no less drawn us back from himself also. For
who would wish to labour lest he should know anything? or to undertake
learning of this kind that he may even lose ordinary knowledge? For if
this learning exists, it must necessarily consist of knowledge; if it
does not exist, who is so foolish as to think that that is worthy of
being learned, in which either nothing is learned, or something is even
unlearned? Wherefore, if all things cannot be known, as the natural
philosophers thought, nor nothing, as the Academics taught, philosophy
is altogether extinguished.
CHAP. VII.--OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY, AND THE CHIEF
GOOD.
Let us now pass to the other part of philosophy,
which they themselves call moral, in which is contained the method of
the whole of philosophy, since in natural philosophy there is only
delight, in this there is utility also. And since it is more dangerous
to commit a fault in arranging the condition of life and in forming the
character, greater diligence must be used, that we may know how we
ought to live. For in the former subject(1) some indulgence may be
granted: for whether they say anything, they bestow no advantage; or if
they foolishly rave, they do no injury. But in this subject there is no
room for difference of opinion, none for error. All must entertain the
same sentiments, and philosophy itself must give instructions as it
were with one mouth; because if any error shall be committed, life is
altogether overthrown. In that former part, as there is less danger, so
there is more difficulty; because the obscurity of the subject compels
us to entertain different and various opinions. But in this, as there
is more danger, so there is less difficulty; because the very use of
the subjects and daily experiments are able to teach what is truer and
better. Let us see, therefore, whether they agree, or what assistance
they give us for the better guidance of life. It is not necessary to
enlarge on every point; let us select one, and especially that which is
the chief and principal thing, in which the whole of wisdom centres and
depends.(2) Epicurus deems that the chief good consists in pleasure of
mind, Aristippus in pleasure of the body. Callipho and Dinomachus
united virtue with pleasure, Diodorus with the privation of pain,
Hieronymus placed the chief good in the absence of pain; the
Peripatetics, again, in the goods of the mind, the body, and fortune.
The chief good of Herillus is knowledge; that of Zeno, to live
agreeably to nature; that of certain Stoics, to follow virtue.
Aristotle placed the chief good in integrity and virtue. These are the
sentiments of nearly all. In such a difference of opinions, whom do we
follow? whom do we believe? All are of equal authority. If we are able
to select that which is better, it follows that philosophy is not
necessary for us; because we are already wise, inasmuch as we judge
respecting the opinions of the wise. But since we come for the sake of
learning wisdom, how can we judge, who have not yet begun to be wise?
especially when the Academic is close at hand, to draw us back by the
cloak, and forbid us to believe any one, without bringing forward that
which we may follow.
CHAP. VIII.--OF THE CHIEF GOOD, AND THE PLEASURES OF THE SOUL AND BODY,
AND OF VIRTUE.
What then remains, but that we leave raving and
obstinate wranglers, and come to the judge, who is in truth the giver
of simple and calm wisdom? which is able not only to mould us, and lead
us into the way, but also to pass an opinion on the controversies of
those men. This teaches us what is the true and highest good of man;
but before I begin to speak on this subject, all those opinions must be
refuted, that it may appear that no one of those philosophers was wise.
Since the inquiry is respecting the duty of man, the chief good of the
chief animal ought to be placed in that which it cannot have in common
with the other animals. But as teeth are the peculiar property of wild
beasts, horns of cattle, and wings of birds, so something peculiar to
himself ought to be attributed to man, without which he would lose the
fixed(3) order of his condition. For that which is given to all for the
purpose of life or generation, is indeed a natural good; but still it
is not the greatest, unless it be peculiar to each class. Therefore he
was not a wise man who believed that pleasure of the mind is the chief
good, since that, whether it be freedom from anxiety or joy, is common
to all. I do not consider Aristippus even worthy of an answer; for
since he is always rushing into pleasures of the body, and is only the
slave of sensual indulgences, no one can regard him as a man: for he
lived in such a manner that there was no difference between him and a
brute, except this only, that he had the faculty of speech. But if the
power of speaking were given to the ass, or the dog, or swine, and you
were to inquire from these why they so furiously pursue the females,
that they can scarcely be separated from them, and even neglect their
food and I drink; why they either drive away other males,
75
or do not abstain from the pursuit even when vanquished, but often,
when bruised by stronger animals, they are more determined in their
pursuit; why they dread neither rain nor cold; why they undertake
labour, and do not shrink from danger;--what other answer will they
give, but that the chief good is bodily pleasure?--that they eagerly
seek it, in order that they may be affected with the most agreeable
sensations; and that these are of so much importance, that, for the
sake of attaining them, they imagine that no labour, nor wounds, nor
death itself, ought to be refused by them? Shall we then seek precepts
of living from these men, who have no other feelings than those of the
irrational creatures?
The Cyrenaics say that virtue itself is to be
praised on this account, because it is productive of pleasure. True,
says the filthy dog, or the swine wallowing in the mire.(1) For it is
on this account that I contend with my adversary with the utmost
exertion of strength, that my valour may procure for me pleasure; of
which I must necessarily be deprived if I shall come off vanquished.
Shall we therefore learn wisdom from these men, who differ from cattle
and the brutes, not in feeling, but in language? To regard the absence
of pain as the chief good, is not indeed the part of Peripatetic and
Stoic, but of clinical philosophers. For who would not imagine that the
discussion was carried on by those who were ill, and under the
influence of some pain? What is so ridiculous, as to esteem that the
chief good which the physician is able to give? We must therefore feel
pain in order that we may enjoy good; and that, too, severely and
frequently, that afterwards the absence of pain may be attended with
greater pleasure. He is therefore most wretched who has never felt
pain, because he is without that which is good; whereas we used to
regard him as most happy, because he was without evil. He was not far
distant from this folly, who said that the entire absence of pain was
the chief good. For, besides the fact that every animal avoids pain,
who can bestow upon himself that good, towards the obtaining of which
we can do no more than wish? But the chief good cannot make any one
happy, unless it shall be always in his power; and it is not virtue,
nor learning, nor labour, which affords this to man, but nature herself
bestows it upon all living creatures. They who joined pleasure with
virtuous principle, wished to avoid this common blending together of
all, but they made a contradictory kind of good; since he who is
abandoned to pleasure must of necessity be destitute of virtuous
principle, and he who aims at principle must be destitute of pleasure.
The chief good of the Peripatetics may possibly
appear excessive, various, and--excepting those goods which belong to
the mind, and what they are is a great subject of dispute--common to
man with the beasts. For goods belonging to the body--that is, safety,
freedom from pain, health--are no less necessary for dumb creatures
than for man; and I know not if they are not more necessary for them,
because man can be relieved by remedies and services, the dumb animals
cannot. The same is true of those which they call the goods of fortune;
for as man has need of resources for the support of life, so have
they(2) need of prey and pasture. Thus, by introducing a good which is
not within the power of man, they made man altogether subject to the
power of another. Let us also hear Zeno, for he at times dreams of
virtue. The chief good, he says, is to live in accordance with nature.
Therefore we must live after the manner of the brutes. For in these are
found all the things which ought to be absent from man: they are eager
for pleasures, they fear, they deceive, they lie in wait, they kill;
and that which is especially to the point, they have no knowledge of
God. Why, therefore, does he teach me to live according to nature,
which is of itself prone to a worse course, and under the influence of
some more soothing blandishments plunges headlong into vices? Or if he
says that the nature of brutes is different from the nature of man,
because man is born to virtue, he says something to the purpose; but,
however, it will not be a definition of the chief good, because there
is no animal which does not live in accordance with its nature.
He who made knowledge the chief good, gave something
peculiar to man; but men desire I knowledge for the sake of something
else, and not for its own sake. For who is contented with knowing,
without seeking some advantage from his knowledge? The arts are learned
for the purpose of being put into exercise; but they are exercised
either for the support of life, or pleasure, or for glory. That,
therefore, is not the chief good which is not sought for on its own
account. What difference, therefore, does it make, whether we consider
knowledge to be the chief good, or those very things which knowledge
produces from itself, that is, means of subsistence, glory, pleasure?
And these things are not peculiar to man, and therefore they are not
the chief goods; for the desire of pleasure and of food does not exist
in man alone, but also in the brutes. How is it with regard to the
desire of glory? Is it not discovered in horses, since they exult in
victory, and are grieved when vanquished? "So great is their love of
praises, so great is their eagerness for victory."(3) Nor with-
76
out reason does that most excellent poet say that we must try "what
grief they feel when overcome, and how they rejoice in victory." But if
those things which knowledge produces are common to man with other
animals, it follows that knowledge is not the chief good. Moreover, it
is no slight fault of this definition that bare knowledge is set forth.
For all will begin to appear happy who shall have the knowledge of any
art, even those who shall know mischievous subjects; so that he who
shall have learned to mix poisons, is as happy as he who has learned to
apply remedies. I ask, therefore, to what subject knowledge is to be
referred. If to the causes of natural things, what happiness will be
proposed to me, if I shall know the sources of the Nile, or the vain
dreams of the natural philosophers respecting the heaven? Why should I
mention that on these subjects there is no knowledge, but mere
conjecture, which varies according to the abilities of men? It only
remains that the knowledge of good and evil things is the chief good.
Why, then, did he call knowledge the chief good more than wisdom, when
both words have the same signification and meaning? But no one has yet
said that the chief good is wisdom, though this might more properly
have been said. For knowledge is insufficient for the undertaking of
that which is good and avoiding that which is evil, unless virtue also
is added. For many of the philosophers, though they discussed the
nature of good and evil things, yet from the compulsion of nature lived
in a manner different from their discourse, because they were without
virtue. But virtue united with knowledge is wisdom.
It remains that we refute those also who judged
virtue itself to be the chief good, and Marcus Tullius was also of this
opinion; and in this they were very inconsiderate.(1) For virtue itself
is not the chief good, but it is the contriver and mother of the chief
good; for this cannot be attained without virtue. Each point is easily
understood. For I ask whether they imagine that it is easy to arrive at
that distinguished good, or that it is reached only with difficulty and
labour? Let them apply their ingenuity, and defend error. If it is
easily attained to, and without labour, it cannot be the chief good.
For why should we torment ourselves, why wear ourselves out with
striving day and night, seeing that the object of our pursuit is so
close at hand, that any one who wishes may grasp it without any effort
of the mind? But if we do not attain even to a common and moderate good
except by labour, since good things are by their nature arduous and
difficult,(2) whereas evil things have a
downward tendency, it follows that the greatest labour is necessary for
the attainment of the greatest good. And if this is most true, then
there is need of another virtue, that we may arrive at that virtue
which is called the chief good; but this is incongruous and absurd,
that virtue should arrive at itself by means of itself. If no good can
be reached unless by labour, it is evident that it is virtue by which
it is reached, since the force and office of virtue consist in the
undertaking and carrying through of labours. Therefore the chief good
cannot be that by which it is necessary to arrive at another. But they,
since they were ignorant of the effects and tendency of virtue, and
could discover nothing more honourable, stopped at the very name of
virtue, and said that it ought to be sought, though no advantage was
proposed from it; and thus they fixed for themselves a good which it
self stood in need of a good. From these Aristotle was not far removed,
who thought that virtue together with honour was the chief good; as
though it were possible for any virtue to exist unless it were
honourable, and as though it would not cease to be virtue if it had any
measure of disgrace. But he saw that it might happen that a bad opinion
is entertained respecting virtue by a depraved judgment, and therefore
he thought that deference should be paid to what in the estimation of
men constitutes a departure from what is right and good, because it is
not in our power that virtue should be honoured simply for its own
deserts. For what is honourable(3) character, except perpetual honour,
conferred on any one by the favourable report of the people? What,
then, will happen, if through the error and perverseness of men a bad
reputation should ensue? Shall we cast aside virtue because it is
judged to be base and disgraceful by the foolish? And since it is
capable of being oppressed and harassed, in order that it may be of
itself a peculiar and lasting good, it ought to stand in need of no
outward assistance, so as not to depend by itself upon its own
strength, and to remain stedfast. And thus no good is to be hoped by it
from man, nor is any evil to be refused.
CHAP. IX.--OF THE CHIEF GOOD, AND THE WORSHIP OF THE TRUE GOD, AND A
REFUTATION OF ANAXAGORAS.
I now come to the chief good of true wisdom, the
nature of which is to be determined in this manner: first, it must be
the property of man alone, and not belong to any other animal;
secondly, it must belong to the soul only, and
77
not be shared with the body; lastly, it cannot fall to the lot of any
one without knowledge and virtue. Now this limitation excludes and does
away with all the opinions of those whom I have mentioned; for their
sayings contain nothing of this kind. I will now say what this is, that
I may show, as I designed, that all philosophers were blind and
foolish, who could neither see, nor understand, nor surmise at any time
what was fixed as the chief good for man. Anaxagoras, when asked for
what purpose he was born, replied that he might look upon the heaven
and the sun. This expression is admired by all, and judged worthy of a
philosopher. But I think that he, being unprepared with an answer,
uttered this at random, that he might(1) not be silent. But if he had
been wise, he ought to have considered and reflected with himself; for
if any one is ignorant of his own condition, he cannot even he a man.
But let us imagine that the saying was not uttered on the spur of the
moment. Let us see how many and what great errors he Committed in three
words. First, he erred in placing the whole duty of man in the eyes
alone, referring nothing to the mind, but everything to the body. But
if he had been blind, would he lose the duty of a man, which cannot
happen without the ruin(2) of the soul? What of the other parts of the
body? Will they be destitute, each of its own duty? Why should I say
that more depends upon the ears than upon the eye, since learning and
wisdom can be gained by the ears only, but not by the eyes only? Were
you born for the sake of seeing the heaven and the sun? Who introduced
you to this(3) sight? or what does your vision contribute to the heaven
and the nature of things? Doubtless that you may praise this immense
and wonderful work. Therefore confess that God is the Creator of all
things, who introduced you into this world, as a witness and praiser of
His great work. You believe that it is a great thing to behold the
heaven and the sun: why, therefore, do you not give thanks to Him who
is the author of this benefit? why do you not measure with your mind
the excellence, the providence, and the power of Him whose works you
admire? For it must be, that He who created objects worthy of
admiration, is Himself much more to be admired. If any one had invited
you to dinner, and you had been well entertained, should you appear in
your senses, if you esteemed the mere pleasure more highly than the
author of the pleasure? So entirely do philosophers refer all things to
the body, and nothing at all to the mind, nor do they see beyond that
which fails under their eyes. But all
the offices of the body being put aside, the business of man is to be
placed in the mind alone. Therefore we are not born for this purpose,
that we may see those things which are created, but that we may
contemplate, that is, behold with our mind, the Creator of all things
Himself. Wherefore, if any one should ask a man who is truly wise for
what purpose he was born, he will answer without fear or hesitation,
that he was born for the purpose of worshipping God, who brought us
into being for his cause, that we may serve Him. But to serve God is
nothing else than to maintain and preserve justice by good works. But
he, as a man ignorant of divine things, reduced a matter of the
greatest magnitude to the least, by selecting two things only, which he
said were to be beheld by him. But if he had said that he was born to
behold the world, although he would comprise all things in this, and
would use an expression of greater(4) sound, yet he would not have
completed the duty of man; for as much as the soul excels the body, so
much does God excel the world, for God made and governs the world.
Therefore it is not the world which is to be contemplated by the eye,
for each is a body;(5) but it is God who is to be contemplated by the
soul: for God, being Himself immortal, willed that the soul also should
be everlasting. But the contemplation of God is the reverence and
worship of the common Parent of mankind. And if the philosophers were
destitute of this, and in their ignorance of divine things prostrated
themselves to the earth, we must suppose that Anaxagoras neither beheld
the heaven nor the sun, though he said that he was born that he might
behold them. The object proposed to man is therefore plain(6) and easy,
if he is wise; and to it especially belongs humanity.(7) For what is
humanity itself, but justice? what is justice, but piety? And piety(8)
is nothing else than the recognition of God as a parent.
CHAP.X.--IT IS THE PECULIAR PROPERTY OF MAN TO KNOW AND WORSHIP
GOD.
Therefore the chief good of man is in religion only;
for the other things, even those which are supposed to be peculiar to
man, are found in the other animals also. For when they discern and
distinguish their own voices(9) by peculiar marks among themselves,
they seem to converse: they also appear to have a kind of smile, when
with soothed ears, and contracted mouth, and with
78
eyes relaxed to sportiveness, they fawn upon man, or upon their own
mates and young. Do they not give a greeting which bears some
resemblance to mutual love and indulgence? Again, those creatures which
look forward to the future and lay up for themselves food, plainly have
foresight. Indications of reason are also found in many of them. For
since they desire things useful to themselves, guard against evils,
avoid dangers, prepare for themselves lurking-places standing open in
different places with various outlets, assuredly they have some
understanding. Can any one deny that they are possessed of reason,
since they often deceive man himself? For those which have the office
of producing honey, when they inhabit the place assigned to them,
fortify a camp, construct dwellings with unspeakable skill, and obey
their king; I know not if there is not in them perfect prudence. It is
therefore uncertain whether those things which are given to man are
common to him with other living creatures: they are certainly without
religion. I indeed thus judge, that reason is given to all animals, but
to the dumb creatures only for the protection of life, to man also for
its prolongation. And because reason itself is perfect in man, it is
named wisdom, which renders man distinguished in this respect, that to
him alone it is given to comprehend divine things. And concerning this
the opinion of Cicero is true: "Of so many kinds of animals," he says,
"there is none except man which has any knowledge of God; and among men
themselves, there is no nation either so uncivilized or so savage,
which, even if it is ignorant of due conceptions of the Deity, does not
know that some conception of Him ought to be entertained." From which
it is effected, that he acknowledges God, who, as it were, calls
to mind the source from which he is sprung. Those philosophers,
therefore, who wish to free the mind from all fear, take away even
religion, and thus deprive man of his peculiar and surpassing good,
which is distinct from living uprightly, and from everything connected
with man, because God, who made all living creatures subject to man,
also made man subject to Himself. What reason is there why they should
also maintain that the mind is to be turned in the same direction to
which the countenance is raised? For if we must look to the heaven, it
is undoubtedly for no other reason than on account of religion; if
religion is taken away, we have nothing to do with the heaven.
Therefore we must either look in that direction or bend down to the
earth. We are not able to bend down to the earth, even if we should
wish, since our posture is upright. We must therefore look up to the
heaven, to which the nature of the body calls us. And if it is admitted
that this must be done, it must either be done with this
view, that we may devote ourselves to religion, or that we may know the
nature of the heavenly objects. But we cannot by any means know the
nature of the heavenly objects, because nothing of that kind can be
found out by reflection, as I have before shown. We must therefore
devote ourselves to religion, and he who does not undertake this
prostrates himself to the ground, and, imitating the life of the
brutes, abdicates the office of man. Therefore the ignorant are more
wise; for although they err in choosing religion, yet they remember
their own nature and condition.
CHAP. XI.--OF
RELIGION, WISDOM, AND THE CHIEF GOOD.
It is agreed upon, therefore, by the general consent
of all mankind, that religion ought to be undertaken; but we have to
explain what errors are committed on this subject. God willed this to
be the nature of man, that he should be desirous and eager for two
things, religion and wisdom. But men are mistaken in this, that they
either undertake religion and pay no attention to wisdom, or they
devote themselves to wisdom alone, and pay no attention to religion,
though the one cannot be true without the other. The consequence is,
that they fall into a multiplicity of religions, but false ones,
because they have left wisdom, which could have taught them that there
cannot be many gods; or they devote themselves to wisdom, but a false
wisdom, because they have paid no attention to the religion of the
Supreme God, who might have instructed them to the knowledge of the
truth. Thus men who undertake either of these courses follow a devious
path, and one full of the greatest errors, inasmuch as the duty of man,
and all truth, are included in these two things which are inseparably
connected. I wonder, therefore, that there was none at all of the
philosophers who discovered the abode and dwelling-place of the chief
good. For they might have sought it in this manner. Whatever the
greatest good is, it must be an object proposed to all men. There is
pleasure, which is desired by all; but this is common also to man with
the beasts, and has not the force of the honourable, and brings a
feeling of satiety, and when it is in excess is injurious, and it is
lessened by advance of age, and does not fall to the lot of many: for
they who are without resources, who constitute the greater part of men,
must also be without pleasure. Therefore pleasure is not the chief
good; but it is not even a good. What shall we say of riches? This is
much more(1) true of them. For they fall to the lot of fewer men, and
that generally by chance; and they often fall to the indolent, and
79
sometimes by guilt, and they are desired by those who already possess
them. What shall we say of sovereignty itself? That does not constitute
the chief good: for all cannot reign, but it is necessary that all
should be capable of attaining the chief good.
Let us therefore seek something which is held forth
to all. Is it virtue? It cannot be denied that virtue is a good, and
undoubtedly a good for all men. But if it cannot be happy because its
power and nature consist in the endurance of evil, it assuredly is not
the chief good. Let us seek something else. But nothing can be found
more beautiful than virtue, nothing more worthy of a wise man. For if
vices are to be avoided on account of their deformity, virtue is
therefore to be desired on account of its beauty. What then? Can it be
that that which is admitted to be good and honourable should be
requited with no reward, and be so unproductive as to procure no
advantage from itself? That great labour and difficulty and struggling
against evils with which this life is filled, must of necessity produce
some great good. But what shall we say that it is? Pleasure? But
nothing that is base can arise from that which is honourable. Shall we
say that it is riches? or commands? But these things are frail and
uncertain.(1) Is it glory? or honour? or a lasting name? But all these
things are not contained in virtue itself, but depend upon the opinion
and judgment of others. For virtue is often hated and visited with
evil. But the good which arises from it ought to be so closely united
with it as to be incapable of being separated or disunited from it; and
it cannot appear to be the chief good in any other way than if it
belongs peculiarly to virtue, and is such that nothing can be added to
it or taken from it. Why should I say that the duties of virtue consist
in the despising of all these things? For not to long for, or desire,
or love pleasures, riches, dominions, and honours, and all those things
which are esteemed as goods, as others do overpowered by desire, that
assuredly is virtue. Therefore it effects something else more sublime
and excellent; nor does anything struggle against these present goods
but that which longs for greater and truer things. Let us not despair
of being able to find it, if we turn our thoughts in all directions;
for no slight or trifling rewards are sought.
CHAP. XII.--OF THE TWOFOLD CONFLICT OF BODY AND SOUL; AND OF DESIRING
VIRTUE ON ACCOUNT OF ETERNAL LIFE.
But our inquiry is as to the object for which we are
born: and thus we are able to trace out
what is the effect of virtue. There are two(2) parts of which man is
made up, soul and body. There are many things peculiar to the soul,
many peculiar to the body, many common to both, as is virtue itself;
and as often as this is referred to the body, it is called fortitude
for the sake of distinction. Since, therefore, fortitude is connected
with each, a contest is proposed to each, and victory held forth to
each from the contest: the body, because it is solid, and capable of
being grasped, must contend with objects which are solid and can be
grasped; but the soul, on the other hand, because it is slights and
subtle, and invisible, contends with those enemies who cannot be seen
and touched. But what are the enemies of the soul, but lusts, vices,
and sins? And if virtue shall have overcome and put to flight these,
the soul will be pure and free from stain. Whence, then, are we able to
collect what are the effects of fortitude of soul? Doubtless from that
which is closely connected with it, and resembles it, that is, from
fortitude of the body; for when this has come to any encounter and
contest, what else does it seek from victory but life? For whether you
contend with a man or beast, the contest is for safety. Therefore, as
the body obtains by victory its preservation from destruction, so the
soul obtains a continuation of its existence; and as the body, when
over come by its enemies, suffers death, so the soul, when overpowered
by vices, must die. What difference, therefore, will there be between
the contest carried on by the soul and that carried on by the body,
except that the body seeks for temporal, but the soul eternal life? If,
therefore, virtue is not happy by itself, since its whole force
consists, as I have said, in the enduring of evils; if it neglects all
things which are desired as goods; if in its highest condition it is
exposed to death, inasmuch as it often refuses life, which is desired
by others, and bravely undergoes death, which others fear; if it must
necessarily produce some great good from itself, because labours,
endured and overcome even until death, cannot fail of obtaining a
reward; if no reward, such as it deserves, is found on earth, inasmuch
as it despises all things which are frail and transitory, what else
remains but that it may effect some heavenly reward, since it treats
with contempt all earthly things, and may aim at higher things, since
it despises things that are humble? And this reward can be nothing else
but immortality.
With good reason, therefore, did Euclid, no obscure
philosopher, who was the founder of the system of the Megareans,
differing from the others, say that that was the chief good which
80
was unvarying and always the same. He certainly understood what is the
nature of the chief good, although he did not explain in what it
consisted; but it consists of immortality, nor anything else at all,
inasmuch as it alone is incapable of diminution, or increase, or
change. Seneca also unconsciously happened to confess that there is no
other reward of virtue than immortality. For in praising virtue in the
treatise which he wrote on the subject of premature death, he says:
"Virtue is the only thing which can confer upon us immortality, and
make us equal to the gods." But the Stoics also, whom he followed, say
that no one can be made happy without virtue. Therefore, the reward of
virtue is a happy life, if virtue, as it is rightly said, makes a happy
life. Virtue, therefore, is not, as they say, to be sought on its own
account, but on account of a happy life, which necessarily follows
virtue. And this argument might have taught them in what the chief good
consisted. But this present and corporeal life cannot be happy, because
it is subjected to evils through the body. Epicurus calls God happy and
incorruptible, because He is everlasting. For a state of happiness
ought to be perfect, so that there may be nothing which can harass, or
lessen, or change it. Nor can anything be judged happy in other
respects, unless it be incorruptible. But nothing is incorruptible but
that which is immortal. Immortality therefore is alone happy, because
it can neither be corrupted nor destroyed. But if virtue falls within
the power of man, which no one can deny, happiness also belongs to him.
For it is impossible for a man to be wretched who is endued with
virtue. If happiness falls within his power, then immortality, which is
possessed of the attribute of happiness, also belongs to him.
The chief good, therefore, is found to be
immortality alone, which pertains to no other animal or body; nor can
it happen to any one without the virtue of knowledge, that is, without
the knowledge of God and justice. And how true and right is the seeking
for this, the very desire of this life shows: for although it be but
temporary, and most full of labour, yet it is sought and desired by
all; for both old men and boys, kings and those of the lowest station,
in fine, wise as well as foolish, desire this. Of such value, as it
seemed to Anaxagoras, is the contemplation of the heaven and the light
itself, that men willingly undergo any miseries on this account. Since,
therefore, this short and laborious life, by the general consent not
only of men, but also of other animals, is considered a great good, it
is manifest that it becomes also a very great and perfect good if it is
without an end and free from all evil. In short, there never would have
been any one who would despise this life, however short it is, or
undergo death,
unless through the hope of a longer life. For those who voluntarily
offered themselves to death for the safety of their countrymen, as
Menoeceus did at Thebes, Codrus at Athens, Curtius and the two Mures at
Rome, would never have preferred death to the advantages of life,
unless they had thought that they should attain to immortality through
the estimation of their countrymen; and although they were ignorant of
the life of immortality, yet the reality itself did not escape their
notice. For if virtue despises opulence and riches because they are
frail, and pleasures because they are of brief continuance, it
therefore despises a life which is frail and brief, that it may obtain
one which is substantial and lasting. Therefore reflection itself,
advancing by regular order, and weighing everything, leads us to that
excellent and surpassing good, on account of which we are born. And if
philosophers had thus acted, if they had not preferred obstinately to
maintain that which they had once apprehended, they would undoubtedly
have arrived at this truth, as I have lately shown. And if this was not
the part of those who extinguish the heavenly souls together with the
body, yet those who discuss the immortality of the soul ought to have
understood that virtue is set before us on this account, that, lusts
having been subdued, and the desire of earthly things overcome, our
souls, pure and victorious, may return to God, that is, to their
original source. For it is on this account that we alone of living
creatures are raised to the sight of the heaven, that we may believe
that our chief good is in the highest place. Therefore we alone receive
religion, that we may know from this source that the spirit of man is
not mortal, since it longs for and acknowledges God, who is immortal.
Therefore, of all the philosophers, those who have
embraced either knowledge or virtue as the chief good, have kept the
way of truth, but have not arrived at perfection. For these are the two
things which together make up that which is sought for. Knowledge
causes us to know by what means and to what end we must attain; virtue
causes us to attain to it. The one without the other is of no avail;
for from knowledge arises virtue, and from virtue the chief good is
produced. Therefore a happy life, which philosophers have always
sought, and still do seek, has no existence either in the worship of
the gods or in philosophy; and on this account they were unable to find
it, because they did not seek the highest good in the highest place,
but in the lowest. For what is the highest but heaven, and God, from
whom the soul has its origin? And what is the lowest but the earth,
from which the body is made? Therefore, although some philosophers have
assigned the chief good, not to the body, but to the soul, yet,
inasmuch as they
81
have referred it to this life, which has its ending with the body, they
have gone back to the body, to which the whole of this time which is
passed on earth has reference. Therefore it was not without reason that
they did not attain to the highest good; for whatever looks to the body
only, and is without immortality, must necessarily be the lowest.
Therefore happiness does not fall to the condition of man in that
manner in which philosophers thought; but it so falls to him, not that
he should then be happy, when he lives in the body, which must
undoubtedly be corrupted in order to its dissolution; but then, when,
the soul being freed from intercourse with the body, he lives in the
spirit only. In this one thing alone can we be happy in this life, if
we appear to be unhappy; if, avoiding the enticements of pleasures, and
giving ourselves to the service of virtue only, we live in all labours
and miseries, which are the means of exercising and strengthening
virtue; if, in short, we keep to that rugged and difficult path which
has been opened for us to happiness. The chief good therefore which
makes men happy cannot exist, unless it be in that religion and
doctrine to which is annexed the hope of immortality.
CHAP. XIII.--OF THE IMMORTALITY OF THE SOUL, AND OF WISDOM, PHILOSOPHY,
AND ELOQUENCE.
The subject seems to require in this place, that
since we have taught that immortality is the chief good, we should
prove this also, that the soul is immortal. On which subject there is
great disputation among philosophers; nor have they who held true
opinions respecting the soul been able to explain or prove anything:
for, being destitute of divine knowledge, they neither brought forward
true arguments by which they might overcome, nor evidence by which they
might convince. But we shall treat of this question more conveniently
in the last book, when we shall have to discuss the subject of a happy
life. There remains that third part of philosophy, which they call
Logic, in which the whole subject of dialectics and the whole method of
speaking are contained. Divine learning does not stand in need of this,
because the seat of wisdom is not the tongue, but the heart; and it
makes no difference what kind of language you employ, for the question
is not about words,(1) but facts. And we are not disputing about the
grammarian or the orator, whose knowledge is concerned with the proper
manner of speaking, but about the wise man, whose learning is concerned
with the right manner of living. But if that system of natural
philosophy before mentioned is not necessary, nor this of logic,
because they are not able to render a man happy, it remains that the
whole force of philosophy is contained in the ethical part alone, to
which Socrates is said to have applied himself, laying aside the
others. And since I have shown that philosophers erred in this part
also, who did not grasp the chief good, for the sake of gaining which
we are born; it appears that philosophy is altogether false and empty,
since it does not prepare us for the duties of justice, nor strengthen
the obligations and settled course of man's life. Let them know,
therefore, that they are in error who imagine that philosophy is
wisdom; let them not be drawn away by the authority of any one; but
rather let them incline to the truth, and approach it. There is no room
for rashness here; we must endure the punishment of our folly to all
eternity, if we shall be deceived either by an empty character or a
false opinion. But man,(2) such as he is, if he trusts in himself, that
is, if he trusts in man, is (not to say foolish, in that he does not
see his own error) undoubtedly arrogant, in venturing to claim for
himself that which the condition of man does not admit of.
And how much that greatest author of the Roman
language is deceived, we may see from that sentiment of his; for when,
in his "Books on Offices,"(3) he had said that philosophy is nothing
else than the desire of wisdom, and that wisdom itself is the knowledge
of things divine and human, added: "And if any one censures the desire
Of this, I do not indeed understand what there is which he imagines
praiseworthy. For if enjoyment of the mind and rest from cares is
sought, what enjoyment can be compared with the pursuits of those who
are always inquiring into something which has reference to and tends to
promote a good and happy life? Or if any account is taken of
consistency and virtue, either this is the study(4) by which we may
attain them, or there is none at all. To say that there is no system in
connection with the greatest subjects, when none of the least is
without a system, is the part of men speaking inconsiderately, and
erring in the greatest subjects. But if there is any discipline of
virtue, where shall it be sought when you have departed from that kind
of learning?" For my own part, although I endeavoured to attain in some
degree to the means of acquiring learning, on account of my desire to
teach others, yet I have never been eloquent, inasmuch as I never even
engaged in
82
public speaking; but the goodness of the cause cannot fail of itself to
make me eloquent, and for its clear and copious defence the knowledge
of divinity and the truth itself are sufficient. I could wish,
therefore, that Cicero might for a short time rise from the dead, that
a man of such consummate eloquence might be taught by an insignificant
person who is devoid of eloquence, first, what that is which is deemed
worthy of praise by him who blames that study which is called
philosophy; and in the next place, that it is not that study by which
virtue and justice are learned, nor any other, as he thought; and
lastly, that since there is a discipline of virtue, he might be taught
where it is to be sought, when you have laid aside that kind of
learning, which he did not seek for the sake of hearing and learning.
For from whom could he hear when no one knew it? But, as his usual
practice was in pleading causes, he wished to press his opponent by
questioning, and thus to lead him to confession, as though he were
confident that no answer could be given to show that philosophy was not
the instructress of virtue. And in the Tusculan disputations he openly
professed this, turning his speech to philosophy, as though he was
showing himself off by a declamatory style of speaking. "O philosophy,
thou guide of life," he says; "O thou investigator of virtue, and
expeller of vices; what could not only we, but the life of men, have
effected at all without thee? Thou hast been the inventor of laws, thou
the teacher of morals and discipline;"--as though, indeed, she could
perceive anything by herself, and he were not rather to be praised who
gave her. In the same manner he might have given thanks to food and
drink, because without these life could not exist; yet these, while
they minister to sense, confer no benefit. But as these things are the
nourishment of the body, so wisdom is of the soul.
CHAP. XIV.--THAT LUCRETIUS AND OTHERS HAVE ERRED, AND CICERO HIMSELF,
IN FIXING THE ORIGIN OF WISDOM.
Lucretius, accordingly, acts more correctly in
praising him who was the first discoverer of wisdom; but he acts
foolishly in this, that he supposed it to be discovered by a man,--as
though that man whom he praises had found it lying somewhere as flutes
at the fountain,(1) according to the legends of the poets. But if he
praised the inventor of wisdom as a god,--for thus he speaks:(2)--
"No one, I think, who is formed of mortal body. For if we must speak,
as the acknowledged majesty of the subject itself demands, he was a
god, he was a god, most noble Memmius,"--
yet God ought not to have been praised on this account, because He
discovered wisdom, but because He created man, who might be capable of
receiving wisdom. For he diminishes the praise who praises a part only
of the whole. But he praised Him as a man; whereas He ought to have
been esteemed as a God on this very account, because He found out
wisdom. For thus he speaks:(3)--
"Will it not be right that this man should be enrolled among the gods?"
From this it appears, either that he wished to praise Pythagoras, who
was the first, as I have said,(4) to call himself a philosopher; or
Thales of Miletus, who is reported to have been the first who discussed
the nature of things. Thus, while he seeks to exalt, he has depressed
the thing itself. For it is not great if it could have been discovered
by man. But he may be pardoned as a poet. But that same accomplished
orator, that same consummate philosopher, also censures the Greeks,
whose levity he always accuses, and yet imitates. Wisdom itself, which
at one time he calls the gift, at another time the invention, of the
gods, he fashions after the manner of the poets, and praises on account
of its beauty. He also grievously complains that there have been some
who disparaged it. "Can any one," he says, "dare to censure the parent
of life, and to defile himself with this guilt of parricide, and to be
so impiously ungrateful?"
Are we then parricides, Marcus Tullius, and in your
judgment worthy to be sewed(5) up in a bag, who deny that philosophy is
the parent of life? Or you, who are so impiously ungrateful towards God
(not this god whose image you worship as he sits in the Capitol, but
Him who made the world and created man, who bestowed wisdom also among
His heavenly benefits), do you call her the teacher of virtue or the
parent of life, having learned(6) from whom, one must be in much
greater uncertainty than he was before? For of what virtue is she the
teacher? For philosophers to the present time do not explain where she
is situated. Of what life is she the parent? since the teachers
themselves have been worn out by old age and death before they have
determined upon the befitting course of life. Of what truth can you
hold her forth as an explorer? since you often testify that, in so
great a multitude of philosophers, not a single wise man has yet
existed. What, then, did that mistress of life teach you? Was it to
assail with reproaches the most powerful consul,(7) and by
83
your envenomed speeches to render him the enemy of his country? But let
us pass by those things, which may be excused under the name of
fortune. You applied yourself, in truth, to the study of philosophy,
and so, indeed, that no one ever applied himself more diligently; since
you were acquainted with all the systems of philosophy, as you yourself
are accustomed to oast, and elucidated the subject itself in Latin
writings, and displayed yourself as an imitator of Plato. Tell us,
therefore, what you have learned, or in what sect you have discovered
the truth. Doubtless it was in the Academy which you followed and
approved. But this teaches nothing, excepting that you know your own
ignorance.(1) Therefore your own books refute you, and show the
nothingness of the learning which may be gained from philosophy for
life. These are your words: "But to me we appear not only blind to
wisdom, but dull and obtuse to those very things which may appear in
some degree to be discerned." If, therefore, philosophy is the teacher
of life, why did you appear to yourself blind, and dull, and obtuse?
whereas you ought, under her teaching, both to perceive and to be wise,
and to be engaged in the clearest light. But how you confessed the
truth of philosophy we learn from the letters addressed to your son, in
which you advise him that the precepts of philosophy ought to be known,
but that we must live as members of a community.(2)
What can be spoken so contradictory? If the precepts
of philosophy ought to be known, it is on this account that they ought
to be known, in order to our living well and wisely. Or if we must live
as members of a community, then philosophy is not wisdom, if it is
better to live in accordance with society than with philosophy. For if
that which is called philosophy be wisdom, he assuredly lives foolishly
who does not live according to philosophy. But if he does not live
foolishly who lives in accordance with society, it follows that he who
lives according to philosophy lives foolishly. By your own judgment,
therefore, philosophy is condemned of folly and emptiness. And you
also, in your Consolation, that is, not in a work of levity and mirth,
introduced this sentiment respecting philosophy: "But I know not what
error possesses us, or deplorable ignorance of the truth." Where, then,
is the guidance of philosophy? or what has that parent of life taught
you, if you are deplorably ignorant of the truth? But if this
confession of error and ignorance has been extorted almost against your
will from your innermost breast, why do you not at length acknowledge
to yourself the truth, that philosophy which, though it teaches
nothing, you extolled with praises to the heavens, cannot be the
teacher of virtue?
CHAP. XV.--THE ERROR OF SENECA IN PHILOSOPHY, AND HOW THE SPEECH OF
PHILOSOPHERS IS AT VARIANCE WITH THEIR LIFE.
Under the influence of the same error (for who could
keep the right course when Cicero is in error?), Seneca said:
"Philosophy is nothing else than the right method of living, or the
science of living honourably, or the art of passing a good life. We
shall not err in saying that philosophy is the law of living well and
honourably. And he who spoke of it as a rule of life, gave to it that
which was its due." He evidently did not refer to the common name of
philosophy; for, since this is diffused into many sects and systems,
and has nothing certain--nothing, in short, respecting which all agree
with one mind and one voice,--what can be so false as that philosophy
should be called the rule of life, since the diversity of its precepts
hinders the right way and causes confusion? or the law of living well,
when its subjects are widely discordant? or the science of passing
life, in which nothing else is effected by its repeated contradictions
than general(3) uncertainty? For I ask whether he thinks that the
Academy is philosophy or not? I do not think that he will deny it. And
if this is so, none of these things, therefore, is in agreement with
philosophy; which renders all things uncertain, abrogates law, esteems
art as nothing, subverts method, distorts rule, entirely takes away
knowledge. Therefore all those things are false, because they are
inconsistent with a system which is always uncertain, and up to this
time explaining nothing. Therefore no system, or science, or law of
living well, has been established, except in this the only true and
heavenly wisdom, which had been unknown to philosophers. For that
earthly wisdom, since it is false, becomes varied and manifold, and
altogether opposed to itself. And as there is but one founder and ruler
of the world, God, and as truth is one; so wisdom must be one and
simple, because, if anything is true and good, it cannot be perfect
unless it is the only one of its kind. But if philosophy were able to
form the life, no others but philosophers would be good, and all those
who had not learned it would be always bad. But since there are, and
always have been, innumerable persons who are or have been good without
any learning, but of philosophers there has seldom been one who has
done anything praiseworthy in his life; who is there, I pray, who does
not see that those men are not teachers
84
of virtue, of which they themselves are destitute? For if any one
should diligently inquire into their character, he will find that they
are passionate, covetous, lustful, arrogant, wanton, and, concealing
their vices under a show of wisdom, doing those things at home which
they had censured in the schools.(1)
Perhaps I speak falsely for the sake of bringing an
accusation. Does not Tullius both acknowledge and complain of the same
thing? "How few," he says, "of philosophers are found of such a
character, so constituted in soul and life, as reason demands! how few
who think true instruction not a display of knowledge, but a law of
life! how few who are obedient to themselves, and submit to their own
decrees! We may see some of such levity and ostentation, that it would
be better for them not to have learned at all; others eagerly desirous
of money, others of glory; many the slaves of lusts, so that their
speech wonderfully disagrees with their life." Cornelius Nepos also
writes to the same Cicero: "So far am I from thinking that philosophy
is the teacher of life and the completer of happiness, that I consider
that none have greater need of teachers of living than many who are
engaged in the discussion of this subject. For I see that a great part
of those who give most elaborate precepts in their school
respect-modesty and self-restraint, live at the same time in the
unrestrained desires of all lusts." Seneca also, in his Exhortations,
says: "Many of the philosophers are of this description, eloquent to
their own condemnation: for if you should hear them arguing against
avarice, against lust and ambition, you would think that they were
making a public disclosure(2) of their own character, so entirely do
the censures which they utter in public flow back upon themselves; so
that it is right to regard them in no other light than as physicians,
whose advertisements(3) contain medicines, but their medicine chests
poison. Some are not ashamed of their vices; but they invent defences
for their baseness, so that they may appear even to sin with honour."
Seneca also says: "The wise man will even do things which he will not
approve of, that he may find means of passing to the accomplishment of
greater things; nor will he abandon good morals, but will adapt them to
the occasion; and those things which others employ for glory or
pleasure, he will employ for the sake of action." Then he says shortly
afterwards: "All things which the luxurious and the ignorant do, the
wise man also will do, but not in the same manner, and with the same
purpose. But it makes no difference with what intention you act, when
the action itself is vicious; because acts are seen, the intention is
not seen."
Aristippus, the master of the Cyrenaics, had a
criminal intimacy with Lais, the celebrated courtesan; and that grave
teacher of philosophy defended this fault by saying, that there was a
great difference between him and the other lovers of Lais, because he
himself possessed Lais, whereas others were possessed by Lais. O
illustrious wisdom, to be imitated by good men! Would you, in truth,
entrust your children to this man for education, that they might learn
to possess a harlot? He said that there was some difference between
himself and the dissolute, that they wasted their property, whereas he
lived in indulgence without any cost. And in this the harlot was
plainly the wiser, who had the philosopher as her creature, that all
the youth, corrupted by the example and authority of the teacher, might
flock together to her without any shame. What difference therefore did
it make, with what intention the philosopher betook himself to that
most notorious harlot, when the people and his rivals saw him more
depraved than all the abandoned? Nor was it enough to live in this
manner, but he began also to teach lusts; and he transferred his habits
from the brothel to the school, contending that bodily pleasure was the
chief good. Which pernicious and shameful doctrine has its origin not
in the heart of the philosopher, but in the bosom of the harlot.
For why should I speak of the Cynics, who practised
licentiousness in public? What wonder if they derived their name and
title from dogs,(4) since they also imitated their life? Therefore
there is no instruction of virtue in this sect, since even those who
enjoin more honourable things either themselves do not practise what
they advise; or if they do (which rarely happens), it is not the system
which leads them to that which is right, but nature which often impels
even the unlearned to praise.
CHAP. XVI.--THAT THE PHILOSOPHERS WHO GIVE GOOD INSTRUCTIONS LIVE
BADLY, BY THE TESTIMONY OF CICERO; THEREFORE WE SHOULD NOT SO MUCH
DEVOTE OURSELVES TO THE STUDY OF PHILOSOPHY AS TO WISDOM.
But when they give themselves up to perpetual sloth,
and undertake no exercise of virtue, and pass their whole life in the
practice of speaking, in what light ought they to be regarded rather
than as triflers? For wisdom, unless it is engaged on some action on
which it may exert its force, is empty and false; and Tullius rightly
85
gives the preference, above teachers of philosophy, to those men
employed in civil affairs, who govern the state, who found new cities
or maintain with equity those already founded, who preserve the safety
and liberty of the citizens either by good laws or wholesome counsels,
or by weighty judgments. For it is right to make men good rather than
to give precepts about duty to those shut up in corners, which precepts
are not observed even by those who speak them; and inasmuch as they
have withdrawn themselves from true actions, it is manifest that they
invented the system of philosophy itself, for the purpose of exercising
the tongue, or for the sake of pleading. But they who merely teach
without acting, of themselves detract from the weight of their own
precepts; for who would obey, when they who give the precepts
themselves teach disobedience? Moreover, it is a good thing to give
right and honourable precepts; but unless you also practise them it is
a deceit, and it is inconsistent and trifling to have goodness not in
the heart, but on the lips.
It is not therefore utility, but enjoyment, which
they seek from philosophy. And this Cicero indeed testified. "Truly,"
he says, "all their disputation, although it contains most abundant
fountains of virtue and knowledge, yet, when compared with their
actions and accomplishments, I fear lest it should seem not to have
brought so much advantage to the business of men as enjoyment to their
times of relaxation." He ought not to have feared, since he spoke the
truth; but as if he were afraid lest he should be arraigned by the
philosophers on a charge of betraying a mystery, he did not venture
confidently to pronounce that which was true, that they do not dispute
for the purpose of teaching, but for their own enjoyment in their
leisure; and since they are the advisers of actions, and do not
themselves act at all, they are to be regarded as mere talkers.(1) But
assuredly, because they contributed no advantage to life, they neither
obeyed their own decrees, nor has any one been found, through so many
ages, who lived in accordance with their laws. Therefore philosophy(2)
must altogether be laid aside, because we are not to devote
ourselves to the pursuit of wisdom, for this has no limit or
moderation; but we must be wise, and that indeed quickly. For a second
life is not granted to us, so that when we seek wisdom in this life we
may be wise in that; each result must be brought about in this life. It
ought to be quickly found, in order that it may be quickly taken up,
lest any part of life should pass away, the end of which is uncertain.
Hortensius in Cicero, contending against philosophy, is pressed by a
clever argument; inasmuch as, when he said that men ought not to
philosophize, he seemed nevertheless to philosophize, since it is the
part of the philosophers to discuss what ought and what ought not to be
done in life. We are free and exempt from this calumny, who take away
philosophy, because it is the invention of human thought; we defend
wisdom, because it is a divine tradition, and we testify that it ought
to be taken up by all. He, when he took away philosophy without
introducing anything better, was supposed to take away wisdom; and on
that account was more easily driven from his opinion, because it is
agreed upon that man is not born to folly, but to wisdom.
Moreover, the argument which the same Hortensius
employed has great weight also against philosophy,--namely, that it may
be understood from this, that philosophy is not wisdom, since its
beginning and origin are apparent. When, he says, did philosophers
begin to exist? Thales, as I imagine, was the first, and his age was
recent. Where, then, among the more ancient men did that love of
investigating the truth lie hid? Lucretius also says:(3)--
"Then, too, this nature and system of things has been discovered
lately, and I the very first of all have only now been found able to
transfer it into native words."
And Seneca says: "There are not yet a thousand years since the
beginnings of wisdom were undertaken." Therefore mankind for many
generations lived without system. In ridicule of which, Persius
says:(4)--
"When wisdom came to the city,
Together with pepper and palms;"
as though wisdom had been introduced into the city together with
savoury merchandise.(5) For if it is in agreement with the nature of
man, it must have had its commencement together with man; but if it is
not in agreement with it, human nature would be incapable of receiving
it. But, inasmuch as it has received it, it follows that wisdom has
existed from the beginning: therefore philosophy, inasmuch as it has
not existed from the beginning, is not the same true wisdom. But, in
truth, the Greeks, because they had not attained to the sacred letters
of truth, did not know how wisdom was corrupted. And, therefore, since
they thought that human life was destitute of wisdom, they invented
philosophy; that is, they wished by discussion to tear up the truth
which was lying hid and unknown to them: and this employment, through
ignorance of the truth, they thought to be wisdom.
86
CHAP. XVII.--HE PASSES FROM PHILOSOPHY TO THE PHILOSOPHERS, BEGINNING
WITH EPICURUS; AND HOW HE REGARDED LEUCIPPUS AND DEMOCRITUS AS AUTHORS
OF ERROR.
I have spoken on the subject of philosophy itself as
briefly as I could; now let us come to the philosophers, not that we
may contend with these, who cannot maintain their ground, but that we
may pursue those who are in flight and driven from our battle-field.
The system of Epicurus was much more generally followed than those of
the others; not because it brings forward any truth, but because the
attractive name of pleasure invites many.(1) For every one is naturally
inclined to vices. Moreover, for the purpose of drawing the multitude
to himself, he speaks that which is specially adapted to each character
separately. He forbids the idle to apply himself to learning; he
releases the covetous man from giving largesses to the people; he
prohibits the inactive man from undertaking the business of the state,
the sluggish from bodily exercise, the timid from military service. The
irreligious is told that the gods pay no attention to the conduct of
men; the man who is unfeeling and selfish is ordered to give nothing to
any one, for that the wise man does everything on his own account. To a
man who avoids the crowd, solitude is praised. One who is too sparing,
learns that life can be sustained on water and meal. If a man hates his
wife, the blessings of celibacy are enumerated to him; to one who has
bad children, the happiness of those who are without children is
proclaimed; against unnatural(2) parents it is said that there is no
bond of nature. To the man who is delicate and incapable of endurance,
it is said that pain is the greatest of all evils; to the man of
fortitude, it is said that the wise man is happy even under tortures.
The man who devotes himself to the pursuit of influence and distinction
is enjoined to pay court to kings; he who cannot endure annoyance is
enjoined to shun the abode of kings. Thus the crafty man collects an
assembly from various and differing characters; and while he lays
himself out to please all, he is more at variance with himself than
they all are with one another. But we must explain from what source the
whole of this system is derived, and what origin it has.
Epicurus saw that the good are always subject to
adversities, poverty, labours, exile, loss of dear friends. On
the contrary, he saw that the wicked were happy; that they were exalted
with influence, and loaded with honours; he saw that
innocence was unprotected, that crimes were committed with impunity: he
saw that death raged without any regard to character, without any
arrangement or discrimination of age; but that some arrived at old age,
while others were carried off in their infancy; that some died when
they were now robust and vigorous, that others were cut off by an
untimely death in the first flower of youth; that in wars the better
men were especially overcome and slain. But that which especially moved
him, was the fact that religious men were especially visited with
weightier evils, whereas he saw that less evils or none at all fell
upon those who altogether neglected the gods, or worshipped them in an
impious manner; and that even the very temples themselves were often
set on fire by lightning. And of this Lucretius complains,(3) when he
says respecting the god:--
"Then he may hurl lightnings, and often throw down his temples, and
withdrawing into the deserts, there spend his rage in practising his
bolt, which often passes the guilty by, and strikes dead the innocent
and unoffending."
But if he had been able to collect even a small particle of truth, he
would never say that the god throws down his own temples, when he
throws them down on this account, because they are not his. The
Capitol, which is the chief seat of the Roman city and religion, was
struck with lightning and set on fire not once only, but frequently.
But what was the opinion of clever men respecting this is evident from
the saying of Cicero, who says that the flame came from heaven, not to
destroy that earthly dwelling-place of Jupiter, but to demand a loftier
and more magnificent abode. Concerning which transaction, in the books
respecting his consulship, he speaks to the same purport as Lucretius:--
"For the father thundering on high, throned in the lofty Olympus,
himself assailed his own citadels and famed temples, and cast fires
upon his abode in the Capitol.
In the obstinacy of their folly, therefore, they not only did not
understand the power and majesty of the true God, but they even
increased the impiety of their error, in endeavouring against all
divine law to restore a temple so often condemned by the judgment of
Heaven.
Therefore, when Epicurus reflected on these things,
induced as it were by the injustice of these matters (for thus it
appeared to him in his ignorance of the cause and subject), he thought
that there was no providence.(4) And having persuaded himself of this,
he undertook also to defend it, and thus he entangled himself in
inextricable errors. For if there is no providence,
87
how is it that the world was made with such order and arrangement? He
says: There is no arrangement, for many things are made in a different
manner from that in which they ought to have been made. And the divine
man found subjects of censure. Now, if I had leisure to refute these
things separately, I could easily show that this man was neither wise
nor of sound mind. Also, if there is no providence, how is it that the
bodies of animals are arranged with such foresight, that the various
members, being disposed in a wonderful manner, discharge their own
offices individually? The system of providence, he says, contrived
nothing in the production of animals; for neither were the eyes made
for seeing, nor the ears for hearing, nor the tongue for speaking, nor
the feet for walking; inasmuch as these were produced before it was
possible to speak, to hear, to see, and to walk. Therefore these were
not produced for use; but use was produced from them. If there is no
providence, why do rains fall, fruits spring up, and trees put forth
leaves? These things, he says, are not always done for the sake of
living creatures, inasmuch as they are of no benefit to providence; but
all things must be produced of their own accord. From what source,
therefore, do they arise,(1) or how are all things which are carried on
brought about? There is no need he says, of supposing a providence; for
there are seeds floating through the empty void, and from these,
collected together without order, all things are produced and take
their form. Why, then, do we not perceive or distinguish them? Because,
he says, they have neither any colour, nor warmth, nor smell; they are
also without flavour and moisture; and they are so minute, that they
cannot be cut and divided.
Thus, because he had taken up a false principle at
the commencement, the necessity of the subjects which followed led him
to absurdities. For where or from whence are these atoms? Why did no
one dream of them besides Leucippus only? from whom Democritus,(2)
having received instructions, left to Epicurus the inheritance of his
folly. And if these are minute bodies, and indeed solid, as they say,
they certainly are able to fall under the notice of the eyes. If the
nature of all things is the same, how is it that they compose various
objects? They meet together, he says, in varied order and position as
the letters which, though few in number, by variety of arrangement make
up innumerable words. But it is urged the letters have a variety of
forms. And so, he says, have these first principles; for they are
rough, they are furnished with hooks, they are smooth. Therefore they
can be cut and divided, if there is in them any
part which projects. Bat if they are smooth and without hooks, they
cannot cohere. They ought therefore to he hooked, that they may be
linked together one with another. But since they are said to be so
minute that they cannot be cut asunder by the edge of any weapon, how
is it that they have hooks or angles? For it must be possible for
these to be torn asunder, since they project. In the next place, by
what mutual compact, by what discernment, do they meet together, so
that anything may be constructed out of them? If they are without
intelligence, they cannot come together in such order and arrangement;
for nothing but reason can bring to accomplishment anything in
accordance with reason. With how many arguments can this trifling be
refuted! But I must proceed with my subject. This is he
"Who surpassed in intellect the race of man, and quenched the light of
all, as the ethereal sun arisen quenches the stars."(3)
Which verses I am never able to read without laughter. For this was not
said respecting Socrates or Plato, who are esteemed as kings of
philosophers, but concerning a man who, though of sound mind and
vigorous health, raved more senselessly than any one diseased. And thus
the most vain poet, I do not say adorned, but overwhelmed and crushed,
the mouse with the praises of the lion. But the same man also releases
us from the fear of death, respecting which these are his own exact
words:--
"When we are in existence, death does not exist; when death exists, we
have no existence: therefore death is nothing to us."
How cleverly he has deceived us! As though it were death now completed
which is an object of fear, by which sensation has been already taken
away, and not the very act of dying, by which sensation is being taken
from us. For there is a time in which we ourselves even yet(4) exist,
and death does not yet exist; and that very time appears to be
miserable, because death is beginning to exist, and we are ceasing to
exist.
Nor is it said without reason that death is not
miserable. The approach of death is miserable; that is, to waste away
by disease, to endure the thrust, to receive the weapon in the body, to
be burnt with fire, to be torn by the teeth of beasts. These are the
things which are feared, not because they bring death, but because they
bring great pain. But rather make out that pain is not an evil. He says
it is the greatest of all evils.
88
How therefore can I fail to fear, if that which precedes or brings
about death is an evil? Why should I say that the argument is false,
inasmuch as souls do not perish? But, he says, souls do perish; for
that which is born with the body must perish with the body. I have
already stated that I prefer to put off the discussion of this subject,
and to reserve it for the last part of my work, that I may refute this
persuasion of Epicurus, whether it was that of Democritus or
Dicaearchus, both by arguments and divine testimonies. But perhaps he
promised himself impunity in the indulgence of his vices; for he was an
advocate of most disgraceful pleasure, and said that man was born for
its enjoyment.(1) Who, when he hears this affirmed, would abstain from
the practice of vice and wickedness? For; if the soul is doomed to
perish, let us eagerly pursue riches, that we may be able to enjoy all
kinds of indulgence; and if these are wanting to us, let us take them
away from those who have them by stealth, by stratagem, or by force,
especially if there is no God who regards the actions of men: as long
as the hope of impunity shall favour us, let us plunder and put to
death.(2) For it is the part of the wise man to do evil, if it is
advantageous to him, and safe; since, if there is a God in heaven, He
is not angry with any one. It is also equally the part of the foolish
man to do good; because, as he is not excited with anger, so he is not
influenced by favour. Therefore let us live in the indulgence of
pleasures in every possible way; for in a short time we shall not exist
at all. Therefore let us suffer no day, in short, no moment of time, to
pass away from us without pleasure; lest, since we ourselves are doomed
to perish, the life which we have already spent should itself also
perish.
Although he does not say this in word, yet he
teaches it in fact. For when he maintains that the wise man does
everything for his own sake, he refers all things which he does to his
own advantage. And thus he who hears these disgraceful things, will
neither think that any good tiring ought to be done, since the
conferring of benefits has reference to the advantage of another; nor
that he ought to abstain from guilt, because the doing of evil is
attended with gain. If any chieftain of pirates or leader of robbers
were exhorting his men to acts of violence, what other language could
he employ than to say the same things which Epicurus says: that the
gods take no notice; that they are not affected with anger nor
kind feeling; that the punishment of a future state is not to be
dreaded, because souls die after
death, and that there is no future state of punishment at all; that
pleasure is the greatest good; that there is no society among men; that
every one consults for his own interest; that there is no one who loves
another, unless it be for his own sake; that death is not to be feared
by a brave man, nor any pain; for that he, even if he should be
tortured or burnt, should say that he does not regard it. There is
evidently sufficient cause why any one should regard this as the
expression of a wise man, since it can most fittingly be applied to
robbers!
CHAP. XVIII.--THE PYTHAGOREANS AND STOICS, WHILE THEY HOLD THE
IMMORTALITY OF THE SOUL, FOOLISHLY PERSUADE A VOLUNTARY DEATH.
Others, again, discuss things contrary to these,
namely, that the soul survives after death; and these are chiefly the
Pythagoreans and Stoics. And although they are to be treated with
indulgence because they perceive the truth, yet I cannot but blame
them, because they fell upon the truth not by their opinion, but by
accident. And thus they erred in some degree even in that very matter
which they rightly perceived. For, since they feared the argument by
which it is inferred that the soul must necessarily die with the body,
because it is born with the body, they asserted that the soul is not
born with the body, but rather introduced into it, and that it migrates
from one body to another. They did not consider that it was possible
for the soul to survive the body, unless it should appear to have
existed previously to the body. There is therefore an equal and almost
similar error on each side. But the one side are deceived with respect
to the past, the other with respect to the future. For no one saw that
which is most true, that the soul is both created and does not die,
because they were ignorant why that came to pass, or what was the
nature of man. Many therefore of them, because they suspected that the
soul is immortal, laid violent hands upon themselves, as though they
were about to depart to heaven. Thus it was with Cleanthes(3) and
Chrysippus,(4) with Zeno,(5) and Empedocles,(6) who in the dead of
night cast himself into a cavity of the burning AEtna, that when he had
suddenly disappeared it might be believed that he had departed to the
gods; and thus also of the Romans Cato died, who through the
whole of his life was an imitator of Socratic
89
ostentation. For Democritus, was of another persuasion. But, however,
"By his own spontaneous act he offered up his head to death;"(2)
and nothing can be more wicked than this. For if a homicide is guilty
because he is a destroyer of man, he who puts himself to death is under
the same guilt, because he puts to death a man. Yea, that crime may be
considered to be greater, the punishment of which belongs to God alone.
For as we did not come into this life of our own accord; so, on the
other hand, we can only withdraw from this habitation of the body which
has been appointed for us to keep, by the command of Him who placed us
in this body that we may inhabit it, until He orders us to depart from
it; and if any violence is offered to us, we must endure it with
equanimity, since the death of an innocent person cannot be unavenged,
and since we have a great Judge who alone always has the power of
taking vengeance in His hands.
All these philosophers, therefore, were homicides;
and Cato himself, the chief of Roman wisdom, who, before he put himself
to death, is said to have read through the treatise of Plato which he
wrote on the immortality of the soul, and was led by the authority of
the philosopher to the commission of this great crime; yet he, however,
appears to have had some cause for death in his hatred of slavery. Why
should I speak of the Ambraciot,(3) who, having read the same treatise,
threw himself into the sea, for no other cause than that he believed
Plato?--a doctrine altogether detestable and to be avoided, if it
drives men from life. But if Plato had known and taught by whom, and
how, and to whom and on account of what actions, and at what time,
immortality is given, he would neither have driven Cleombrotus nor Cato
to a voluntary death, but he would have trained them to live with
justice. For it appears to me that Cato sought a cause for death, not
so much that he might escape from Caesar, as that he might obey the
decrees of the Stoics, whom he followed, and might make his name
distinguished by some great action; and I do not see what evil could
have happened to him if he had lived. For Caius Caesar, such was his
clemency, had no other object, even in the very heat of civil war, than
to appear to deserve well of the state, by preserving two excellent
citizens, Cicero and Cato. But let us return to those who praise death
as a benefit. You complain of life as though you had lived, or had ever
settled with yourself why you were born at all. May not therefore the
true and common Father of all justly find fault with that saying of
Terence:(4)--
"First, learn in what life consists; then, if you shall be dissatisfied
with life, have recourse to death."
You are indignant that you are exposed to evils; as though you deserved
anything good, who are ignorant of your Father. Lord, and King; who,
although you behold with your eyes the bright light, are nevertheless
blind in mind, and lie in the depths of the darkness of ignorance. And
this ignorance has caused that some have not been ashamed to say, that
we are born for this cause, that we may suffer the punishment of our
crimes; but I do not see what can be more senseless than this. For
where or what crimes could we have committed when we did not even
exist? Unless we shall happen to believe that foolish old man,(5) who
falsely said that he had lived before, and that in his former
life he had been Euphorbus. He, I believe, because he was
born of an ignoble race, chose for himself a family from the poems of
Homer. O wonderful and remarkable memory of Pythagoras! O miserable
forgetfulness on the part of us all, since we know not who we were in
our former life! But perhaps it was caused by some error, or favour,
that he alone did not touch the abyss of Lethe, or taste the water of
oblivion; doubtless the trifling old man (as is wont to be the case
with old women who are free from occupation) invented fables as it were
for credulous infants. But if he had thought well of those to whom he
spoke these things; if he had considered them to be men, he would never
have claimed to himself the liberty of uttering such perverse
falsehoods. But the folly of this most trifling man is deserving of
ridicule. What shall we do in the case of Cicero, who, having said in
the beginning of his Consolation that men were born for the sake of
atoning for their crimes, afterwards repeated the assertion, as though
rebuking him who does not imagine that life is a punishment? He was
right, therefore, in saying beforehand that he was held by error and
wretched ignorance of the truth.
CHAP. XIX.--CICERO AND OTHERS OF THE WISEST MEN TEACH THE
IMMORTALITY OF THE SOUL, BUT IN AN UNBELIEVING MANNER; AND THAT A GOOD
OR AN EVIL DEATH MUST BE WEIGHED FROM THE PREVIOUS LIFE.
But those who assert the advantage of death, because
they know nothing of the truth, thus reason: If there is nothing after
death, death is
90
not an evil; for it takes away the perception of evil. But if the soul
survives, death is even an advantage; because immortality follows. And
this sentiment is thus set forth by Cicero concerning the Laws:(1) "We
may congratulate ourselves, since death is about to bring either a
better state than that which exists in life, or at any rate not a
worse. For if the soul is in a state of vigour without the body, it is
a divine life; and if it is without perception, assuredly there is no
evil." Cleverly argued, as it appeared to himself, as though there
could be no other state. But each conclusion is false. For the sacred
writings(2) teach that the soul is not annihilated; but that it is
either rewarded according to its righteousness, or eternally punished
according to its crimes. For neither is it right, that he who has lived
a life of wickedness in prosperity should escape the punishment which
he deserves; nor that he who has been wretched on account of his
righteousness, should be deprived of his reward. And this is so true,
that Tully also, in his Consolation, declared that the righteous and
the wicked do not inhabit the same abodes. For those same wise men, he
says, did not judge that the same course was open for all into the
heaven; for they taught that those who were contaminated by vices and
crimes were thrust down into darkness, and lay in the mire; but that,
on the other hand, souls that were chaste, pure, upright, and
uncontaminated, being also refined by the study and practice of virtue,
by a light and easy course take their flight to the gods, that is, to a
nature resembling their own. But this sentiment is posed to the former
argument. For that is based on the assumption that every man at his
birth is presented with immortality. What distinction, therefore, will
there be between virtue and guilt, if it makes no difference whether a
man be Aristides or Phalaris, whether he be Cato or Catiline? But a man
does not perceive this opposition between sentiments and actions,
unless he is in possession of the truth. If any one, therefore, should
ask me whether death is a good or an evil, I shall reply that its
character depends upon the course of the life. For as life itself is a
good if it is passed virtuously, but an evil if it is spent viciously,
so also death is to be weighed in accordance with the past actions of
life. And so it comes to pass, that if life has been passed in the
service of God, death is not an evil, for it is a translation to
immortality. But if not so, death must necessarily be an evil, since it
transfers men, as I have said, to everlasting punishment.(3)
What, then, shall we say, but that they are in error
who either desire death as a good, or flee from life as an evil? unless
they are most unjust, who do not weigh the fewer evils against the
greater number of blessings. For when they pass all their lives in a
variety of the choicest gratifications, if any bitterness has chanced
to succeed to these, they desire to die; and they so regard it as to
appear never to have fared well, if at any time they happen to fare
ill. Therefore they condemn the whole of life, and consider it as
nothing else than filled with evils. Hence arose that foolish
sentiment, that this state which we imagine to be life is death, and
that that which we fear as death is life; and so that the first good is
not to be born, that the second is an early death. And that this
sentiment may be of greater weight, it is attributed to Silenus.(4)
Cicero in his Consolation says: "Not to be born is by far the best
thing, and not to fall upon these rocks of life. But the next thing is,
if you have been born, to die as soon as possible, and to flee from the
violence of fortune as from a conflagration." That he believed this
most foolish expression appears from this, that he added something of
his own for its embellishment. I ask, therefore, for whom he thinks it
best not to be born, when there is no one at all who has any
perception; for it is the perception which causes anything to be good
or bad. In the next place, why did he regard the whole of life as
nothing else than rocks, and a conflagration; as though it were either
in our power not to be born, or life were given to us by fortune, and
not by God, or as though the course of life appeared to bear any
resemblance to a conflagration? The saying of Plato is not dissimilar,
that he gave thanks to nature, first that he was born a human being
rather than a dumb animal; in the next place, that he was a man rather
than a woman; that he was a Greek rather than a barbarian;(5) lastly,
that he was an Athenian, and that he was born in the time of Socrates.
It is impossible to say what great blindness and errors are produced by
ignorance of the truth would altogether contend that nothing in the
affairs of men was ever spoken more foolishly. As though, if he had
been born a barbarian, or a woman, or, in fine, an ass, he would be the
same Plato, and not that very being which had been produced. But he
evidently believed Pythagoras, who, in order that he might prevent men
from feeding on animals, said that souls passed from the bodies of men
to the bodies of other animals; which is both foolish and impossible.
It is foolish, because it was unnecessary to introduce souls that have
long existed into new bod
91
ies, when the same Artificer who at one time had made the first, was
always able to make fresh ones; it is impossible, because the soul
endued with right reason can no more change the nature of its
condition, than fire can rush downwards, or, like a river, pour its
flame obliquely.(1) The wise man therefore imagined, that it might come
to pass that the soul which was then in Plato might be shut up in some
other animal, and might be endued with the sensibility of a man, so as
to understand and grieve that it was burthened with an incongruous
body. How much more rationally would he have acted, if he had said that
he gave thanks because he was born with a good capacity, and capable of
receiving instruction, and that he was possessed of those resources
which enabled him to receive a liberal education! For what benefit was
it that he was born at Athens? Have not many men of distinguished
talent and learning lived in other cities, who were better individually
than all the Athenians? How many thousands must we believe that there
were, who, though born at Athens, and in the times of Socrates, were
nevertheless unlearned and foolish? For it is not the walls or the
place in which any one was born that can invest a man with wisdom. Of
what avail was it to congratulate himself that he was born in the times
of Socrates? Was Socrates able to supply talent to learners? It did not
occur to Plato that Alcibiades also, and Critias, were constant hearers
of the same Socrates, the one of whom was the most active enemy of his
country, the other the most cruel of all tyrants.
CHAP. XX.--SOCRATES HAD MORE KNOWLEDGE IN PHILOSOPHY THAN OTHER MEN,
ALTHOUGH IN MANY THINGS HE ACTED FOOLISHLY.
Let us now see what there was so great in Socrates
himself, that a wise man deservedly gave thanks that he was born in his
times. I do not deny that he was a little more sagacious than the
others who thought that the nature of things could be comprehended by
the mind. And in this I judge that they were not only senseless,
but also impious; because they wished to send their inquisitive eyes
into the secrets of that heavenly providence. We know that there are at
Rome, and in many cities, certain sacred things which it is considered
impious for men to look upon. Therefore they who are not permitted to
pollute those objects abstain from looking upon them; and if by error
or some accident a man has happened to see them, his guilt is expiated
first by his punishment, and afterwards by a repetition of sacrifice.
What can you do in the case of those who wish to pry into unpermitted
things? Truly they are much more wicked who seek to profane the secrets
of the world and this heavenly temple with impious disputations, than
those who entered the temple of Vesta, or the Good Goddess, or Ceres.
And these shrines, though it is not lawful for men to approach them,
were yet constructed by men. But these men not only escape the charge
of impiety, but, that which is much more unbecoming, they gain the fame
of eloquence and the glory of talent. What if they were able to
investigate anything? For they are as foolish in asserting as they are
wicked in searching out; since they are neither able to find out
anything, nor, even if they had found out anything, to defend it. For
if even by chance they have seen the truth--a thing which often
happens--they so act that it is refuted by others as false. For no one
descends from heaven to pass sentence on the opinions of individuals;
wherefore no one can doubt that those who seek after these things are
foolish, senseless, and insane.
Socrates therefore had something of human wisdom,(2)
who, when he understood that these things could not possibly be
ascertained, removed himself from questions of this kind; but I fear
that he so acted in this alone. For many of his actions are not only
undeserving of praise, but also most deserving of censure, in which
things he most resembled those of his own class. Out of these I will
select one which may be judged of by all. Socrates used this well-known
proverb: "That which is above us is nothing to us." Let us therefore
fall down upon the earth, and use as feet those hands which have been
given us for the production of excellent works. The heaven is nothing
to us, to the contemplation of which we have been raised;(3) in fine,
the light itself can have no reference to us; undoubtedly the cause of
our sustenance is from heaven. But if he perceived this, that we ought
not to discuss the nature of heavenly things, he was unable even to
comprehend the nature of those things which he had beneath his feet.
What then? did he err in his words? It is not probable; but he
undoubtedly meant that which he said, that we are not to devote
ourselves to religion; but if he were openly to say this, no one would
suffer it.
For who cannot perceive that this world, completed
with such wonderful method, is governed by some providence, since there
is nothing which can exist without some one to direct it? Thus, a house
deserted by its inhabitant fails to decay; a ship without a pilot goes
to the bottom; and a body abandoned by the soul wastes away. Much less
can we suppose that so great a fabric could either have been
constructed without an
92
Artificer, or have existed so long without a Ruler. But if he wished to
overthrow those public superstitions, I do not disapprove of this; yea,
I shall rather praise it, if he shall have found anything better to
take their place. But the same man swore(1) by a dog and a goose. Oh
buffoon (as Zeno the Epicurean(2) says), senseless, abandoned,
desperate man, if he wished to scoff at religion; madman, if he did
this seriously, so as to esteem a most base animal as God! For who can
dare to find fault with the superstitions oft the Egyptians, when
Socrates confirmed them at Athens by his authority? But was it not a
mark of consummate vanity, that before his death he asked his friends
to sacrifice for him a cock which he had vowed to AEsculapius? He
evidently feared lest he should be put upon his trial before
Rhadamanthus, the judge, by AEsculapius on account of the vow. I should
consider him most mad if he had died under the influence of disease.
But since he did this in his sound mind, he who thinks that he was wise
is himself of unsound mind. Behold one in whose times the wise man
congratulates himself as having been born!
CHAP. XXI.--OF THE SYSTEM OF PLATO, WHICH WOULD LEAD TO THE OVERTHROW
OF STATES.
Let us, however, see what it was that he learned
from Socrates, who, having entirely rejected natural philosophy, betook
himself to inquiries about virtue and duty. And thus I do not doubt
that he instructed his hearers in the precepts of justice. Therefore,
under the teaching of Socrates, it did not escape the notice of Plato,
that the force of justice consists in equality, since all are born in
an equal condition. Therefore (he says) they must have nothing private
or their own; but that they may be equal, as the method of justice
requires, they must possess all things in common. This is capable of
being endured, as long as it appears to be spoken of money. But how
impossible and how unjust this is, I could show by many things. Let us,
however, admit its possibility. For grant that nil arc wise, and
despise money. To what, then, did that community lead him? Marriages
also, be says, ought to be in common; so that many men may flock
together like dogs to the same woman, and he who shall be superior in
strength may succeed in obtaining her; or if they are patient as
philosophers, they may await their turns, as in a brothel. Oh the
wonderful equality of Plato! Where, then, is the virtue of
chastity? where conjugal fidelity?
And if you take away these, all justice is taken away. But he also says
that states would be prosperous, if either philosophers were their
kings, or their kings were philosophers. But if you were to give the
sovereignty to this man of such justice and equity, who had deprived
some of their own property, and given to some the property of others,
he would prostitute the modesty of women; a thing which was never done,
I do not say by a king, but not even by a tyrant.
But what motive did he advance for this most
degrading advice? The state will be in harmony, and bound together with
the bonds of mutual love, if all shall be the husbands, and fathers,
and wives, and children of all. What a confusion of the human race is
this? How is it possible for affection to be preserved where there is
nothing certain to be loved? What man will love a woman, or what woman
a man, unless they shall always have lived together,--unless
devotedness of mind, and faith mutually preserved, shall have made
their love indivisible? But this virtue has no place in that
promiscuous pleasure. Moreover, if all are the children of all, who
will be able to love children as his own, when he is either ignorant or
in doubt whether they are his own? Who will bestow honour upon any one
as a father, when he does not know from whom he was born? From which it
comes to pass, that he not only esteems a stranger as a father, but
also a father as a stranger. Why should I say that it is possible for a
wife to be common, but impossible for a son, who cannot be conceived
except from one? The community, therefore, is lost to him alone, nature
herself crying out against it. It remains that it is only for the sake
of concord that he would have a community of wives. But there is no
more vehement cause of discords, than the desire of one woman by many
men. And in this Plato might have been admonished, if not by reason,
yet certainly by example, both of the dumb animals, which fight most
vehemently on this account, and of men, who have always carried on most
severe wars with one another on account of this matter.
CHAP. XXII.--OF THE PRECEPTS OF PLATO, AND CENSURES OF THE
SAME.
It remains that the community of which we have
spoken admits of nothing else but adulteries and lusts, for the utter
extinction of which virtue is especially necessary. Therefore he did
not find the concord which he sought, because he did not see whence it
arises. For justice has no weight in outward circumstances, not even in
the body,(3) but it is altogether employed on the mind of man. He,
therefore, who wishes to
93
place men on an equality, ought not to take away marriage and wealth,
but arrogance, pride, and haughtiness, that those who are powerful and
lifted up on high may know that they are on a level even with the most
needy. For insolence and injustice being taken from the rich, it will
make no difference whether some are rich and others poor, since they
will be equal in spirit, and nothing but reverence towards God can
produce this result. He thought, therefore, that he had found justice,
whereas he had altogether removed it, because it ought not to be a
community of perishable things, but of minds. For if justice is the
mother(1) of all virtues, when they are severally taken away, it is
also itself overthrown. But Plato took away above all things frugality,
which has no existence when there is no property of one's own which can
be possessed; he took away abstinence, since there will be nothing
belonging to another from which one can abstain; he took away
temperance and chastity, which are the greatest virtues in each sex; he
took away self-respect, shame, and modesty, if those things which are
accustomed to be judged base and disgraceful begin to be accounted
honourable and lawful. Thus, while he wishes to confer virtue upon all,
he takes it away from all. For the ownership of property contains the
material both of vices and of virtues, but a community of goods
contains nothing else than the licentiousness of vices. For men who
have many mistresses can be called nothing else than luxurious and
prodigal. And likewise women who are in the possession of many men,
must of necessity be not adulteresses, because they have no fixed
marriage, but prostitutes and harlots. Therefore he reduced human life,
I do not say to the likeness of dumb animals, but of the herds and
brutes. For almost all the birds contract marriages, and are united in
pairs, and defend their nests, as though their marriage-beds, with
harmonious mind, and cherish their own young, because they are well
known to them; and if you put others in their way, they repel them. But
this wise man, contrary to the custom of men, and contrary to nature,
chose more foolish objects of imitation; and since he saw that the
duties of males and females were not separated in the case of other
animals, he thought that women also ought to engage in warfare, and
take a share in the public counsels, and undertake magistracies, and
assume commands. And therefore he assigned to them horses and arms: it
follows that he should have assigned to men wool and the loom, and the
carrying of infants. Nor did he see the impossibility of what he said,
from the fact that no nation has existed in the world so foolish or so
vain as to live in this manner.(2)
CHAP. XXIII.--OF THE ERRORS OF CERTAIN PHILOSOPHERS, AND OF THE SUN AND
MOON.
Since, therefore, the leading men among the
philosophers are themselves discovered to be of such emptiness, what
shall we think of those lesser s ones, who are accustomed never to
appear to themselves so wise, as when they boast of their contempt of
money? Brave spirit! But I wait to see their conduct, and what are the
results of that contempt. They avoid as an evil, and abandon the
property handed down to them from their parents. And lest they should
suffer shipwreck in a storm, they plunge headlong of their own accord
in a cairn, being resolute not by virtue, but by perverse fear; as
those who, through fear of being slain by the enemy, slay themselves,
that by death they may avoid death. So these men, without honour and
without influence, throw away the means by which they might have
acquired the glory of liberality. Democritus is praised because he
abandoned his fields, and suffered them to become public pastures. I
should approve of it, if he had given them. But nothing is done wisely
which is useless and evil if it is done by all. But this negligence is
tolerable. What shall I say of him who changed his possessions into
money, which he threw into the sea? I doubt whether he was in his
senses, or deranged. Away, he says, ye evil desires, into the deep. I
will cast you away, lest I myself should be cast away by you. If you
have so great a contempt for money, employ it in acts of kindness and
humanity, bestow it upon the poor; this, which you are about to throw
away, may be a succour to many, so that they may not die through
famine, or thirst, or nakedness. Imitate at least the madness and fury
of Tuditanus;(4) scatter abroad your property to be seized by the
people. You have it in your power both to escape the possession of
money, and yet to lay it out to advantage; for whatever has been
profitable to many is securely laid out.
But who approves of the equality of faults as laid
down by Zeno? But let us omit that which is always received with
derision by all. This is sufficient to prove the error of this madman,
that he places pity among vices and diseases. He deprives us of an
affection, which involves almost the whole course of human life. For
since the nature of man is more feeble than that of the other animals,
which divine provi-
94
dence has armed with natural means of protection,(1) either to endure
the severity of the seasons or to ward off attacks from their bodies,
because none of these things has been given to man, he has received in
the place of all these things the affection of pity, which is truly
called humanity, by which we might mutually protect each other. For if
a man were rendered savage by the sight of another man, which we see
happen in the case of those animals which are of a solitary(2) nature,
there would be no society among men, no care or system in the building
of cities; and thus life would not even be safe, since the weakness of
men would both be exposed to the attacks of the other animals, and they
would rage among themselves after the manner of wild beasts. Nor is his
madness less in other things.
For what can be said respecting him who asserted
that snow was black? How naturally it followed, that he should also
assert that pitch was white! This is he who said that he was born for
this purpose, that he might behold the heaven and the sun, who beheld
nothing on the earth when the sun was shining. Xenophanes most
foolishly believed mathematicians who said that the orb of the moon was
eighteen times larger than the earth; and, as was consistent with this
folly, he said that within the concave surface of the moon there was
another earth, and that there another race of men live in a similar
manner to that in which we live on this earth. Therefore these lunatics
have another moon, to hold forth to them a light by night, as this does
to us. And perhaps this globe of ours may be a moon to another earth
below this.(3) Seneca says that there was one among the Stoics who used
to deliberate whether he should assign to the sun also its own
inhabitants; he acted foolishly in doubting. For what injury would he
have inflicted if he had assigned them? But I believe the heat deterred
him, so as not to imperil so great a multitude; lest, if they should
perish through excessive heat, so great a calamity should be said to
have happened by his fault.
CHAP. XXIV.--OF THE ANTIPODES, THE HEAVEN,
AND THE STARS.
How is it with those who imagine that there are
antipodes(4) opposite to our footsteps? Do they say anything to the
purpose? Or is there any one so senseless as to believe that there are
men whose footsteps are higher than their heads? or that the things
which with us are in a recumbent position, with them hang in an
inverted direction? that the crops and trees grow downwards? that the
rains, and snow, and hail fall upwards to the earth? And does any one
wonder that hanging gardens s are mentioned among the seven wonders of
the world, when philosophers make hanging fields, and seas, and cities,
and mountains? The origin of this error must also be set forth by us.
For they are always deceived in the same manner. For when they have
assumed anything false in the commencement of their investigations, led
by the resemblance of the truth, they necessarily fall into those
things which are its consequences. Thus they fall into many ridiculous
things; because those things which are in agreement with false things,
must themselves be false. But since they placed confidence in the
first, they do not consider the character of those things which follow,
but defend them in every way; whereas they ought to judge from those
which follow, whether the first are true or false.
What course of argument, therefore, led them to the
idea of the antipodes? They saw the courses of the stars travelling
towards the west; they saw that the sun and the moon always set towards
the same quarter, and rise from the same. But since they did not
perceive what contrivance regulated their courses, nor how they
returned from the west to the east, but supposed that the heaven itself
sloped downwards in every direction, which appearance it must present
on account of its immense breadth, they thought that the world is round
like a ball, and they fancied that the heaven revolves in accordance
with the motion of the heavenly bodies; and thus that the stars and
sun, when they have set, by the very rapidity of the motion of the
world(6) are borne back to the east. Therefore they both constructed
brazen orbs, as though after the figure of the world, and engraved upon
them certain monstrous images, which they said were constellations. It
followed, therefore, from this rotundity of the heaven, that the earth
was enclosed in the midst of its curved surface. But if this were so,
the earth also itself must be like a globe; for that could not possibly
be anything but round, which was held enclosed by that which was round.
But if the earth also were round, it must necessarily happen that it
should present the same appearance to all parts of the heaven; that is.
that it should raise aloft mountains, extend plains, and have level
seas. And if this were so, that last consequence also followed, that
there would be no part of the earth uninhabited by men and the other
animals. Thus the rotundity of the earth leads, in addition, to the
invention of those suspended antipodes.
95
But if you inquire from those who defend these
marvellous fictions, why all things do not fall into that lower part of
the heaven, they reply that such is the nature of things, that
heavy bodies are borne to the middle, and that they are all joined
together towards the middle, as we see spokes in a wheel; but that the
bodies which are light, as mist, smoke, and fire, are borne away from
the middle, so as to seek the heaven. I am at a loss what to say
respecting those who, when they have once erred, consistently persevere
in their folly, and defend one vain thing by another; but that I
sometimes imagine that they either discuss philosophy for the sake of a
jest, or purposely and knowingly undertake to defend falsehoods, as if
to exercise or display their talents on false subjects. But I should be
able to prove by many arguments that it is impossible for the heaven to
be lower than the earth, were is not that this book must now be
concluded, and that some things still remain, which are more
necessary for the present work. And since it is not the work of a
single book to run over the errors of each individually, let it
be sufficient to have enumerated a few, from which the nature of the
others may be understood.
CHAP. XXV.--OF LEARNING PHILOSOPHY, AND WHAT GREAT QUALIFICATIONS ARE
NECESSARY FOR ITS PURSUIT.
We must now speak a few things concerning philosophy
in general, that having strengthened our cause we may conclude. That
greatest imitator of Plato among our writers thought that philosophy
was not for the multitude, because none but learned men could attain to
it. "Philosophy," says Cicero,(1) "is contented with a few judges, of
its own accord designedly avoiding the multitude." It is not therefore
wisdom, if it avoids the concourse of men; since, if wisdom is given to
man, it is given to all without any distinction, so that there is no
one at all who cannot acquire it. But they so embrace virtue, which is
given to the human race, that they alone of all appear to wish to enjoy
that which is a public good; being as envious as if they should wish to
bind or tear out the eyes of others that they may not see the sun. For
what else is it to deny wisdom to men, than to take away from their
minds the true and divine light? But if the nature of man is capable of
wisdom, it was befitting that both workmen, and country people, and
women, and all, in short, who bear the human form, should be taught to
he wise; and that the people should be brought together from every
language, and condition, and sex, and age. Therefore it is a very
strong argument that philosophy neither tends to wisdom, nor is
of itself wisdom, that its mystery is only made known by the beard and
cloak of the philosophers.(2) The Stoics, moreover, perceived this, who
said that philosophy was to be studied both by slaves and women;
Epicurus also, who invites those who are altogether unacquainted with
letters to philosophy; and Plato also, who wished to compose a state of
wise men.
They attempted, indeed, to do that which truth
required; but they were unable to proceed beyond words. First, because
instruction in many arts is necessary for an application to philosophy.
Common learning must be acquired on account of practice in reading,
because in so great a variety of subjects it is impossible that all
things should be learned by hearing, or retained in the memory. No
little attention also must be given to the grammarians, in order that
you may know the right method of speaking. That must occupy many years.
Nor must there be ignorance of rhetoric, that you may be able to utter
and express the things which you have learned. Geometry also, and
music, and astronomy, are necessary, because these arts have some
connection with philosophy; and the whole of these subjects cannot be
learned by women, who must learn within the years of their maturity the
duties which are hereafter about to be of service to them for domestic
uses; nor by servants, who must live in service during those years
especially in which they are able to learn; nor by the poor, or
labourers, or rustics, who have to gain their daily support by labour.
And on this account Tully says that philosophy is averse from the
multitude. But yet Epicurus will receive the ignorant.(3) How, then,
will they understand those things which are said respecting the first
principles of things, the perplexities and intricacies of which are
scarcely attained to by men of cultivated minds?
Therefore, in subjects which are involved in
obscurity, and confused by a variety of intellects, and set off by the
studied language of eloquent men, what place is there for the unskilful
and ignorant? Lastly, they never taught any women to study philosophy,
except Themiste(4) only, within the whole memory of man; nor slaves,
except Phaedo(5) only, who is said, when living in oppressive slavery,
to have been ransomed and taught by Cebes. They also enumerate Plato
and Diogenes: these, however, were not slaves, though they had fallen
into servitude, for they
96
had been taken captive. A certain Aniceris is said to have ransomed
Plato for eight sesterces. And on this account Seneca severely rebuked
the ransomer himself, because he set so small value upon Plato. He was
a madman, as it seems to me, who was angry with a man because he did
not throw away much money; doubtless he ought to have weighed gold as
though to ransom the corpse of Hector, or to have insisted upon the
payment of more money than the seller demanded. Moreover, they taught
none of the barbarians, with the single exception of Anacharsis the
Scythian, who never would have dreamed of philosophy had he not
previously learned both language and literature.
CHAP. XXVI.--IT IS DIVINE INSTRUCTION ONLY WHICH BESTOWS WISDOM; AND OF
WHAT EFFICACY THE LAW OF GOD IS.
That, therefore, which they perceived to be justly
required by the demands of nature, but which they were themselves
unable to perform, and saw that the philosophers could not effect, is
accomplished only by divine instruction; for that only is wisdom.
Doubtless they were able to persuade any one who do not even persuade
themselves of anything; or they will crush the desires, moderate the
anger, and restrain the lusts of any one, when they themselves both
yield to vices, and acknowledge that they are overpowered by nature.
But what influence is exerted on the souls of men by the precepts of
God, because of their simplicity and truth, is shown by daily proofs.
Give me a man who is passionate, scurrilous, and unrestrained; with a
very few words of God,
"I will render him as gentle as a sheep."(1)
Give me one who is grasping, covetous, and tenacious; I will presently
restore him to you liberal, and freely bestowing his money with full
hands. Give me a man who is afraid of pain and death; he shall
presently despise crosses, and fires, and the bull of Phalaris.(2) Give
me one who is lustful, an adulterer a glutton; you shall presently see
him sober, chaste, and temperate. Give me one who is cruel and
bloodthirsty: that fury shall presently be changed into true clemency.
Give me a man who is unjust, foolish, an evil-doer; forthwith he shall
be just, and wise, and innocent for by one laver(3) all his
wickedness shall be taken away. So great is the power of divine wisdom,
that, when infused into the breast of man, by one impulse it once for
all expels folly, which is the mother of faults, for the
effecting of which there is no need of payment, or books, or nightly
studies. These results are accomplished gratuitously, easily, and
quickly, if only the ears are open and the breast thirsts for wisdom.
Let no one fear: we do not sell water, nor offer the sun for a reward.
The fountain of God, most abundant and most full, is open to all; and
this heavenly light rises for all,(4) as many as have eyes. Did any of
the philosophers effect these things, or is he able to effect them if
he wishes? For though they spend their lives in the study of
philosophy, they are neither able to improve any other person nor
themselves (if nature has presented any obstacle). Therefore their
wisdom, doing its utmost, does not eradicate, but hide vices. But a few
precepts of God so entirely change the whole man, and having put off
the old man, render him new, that you would not recognise him as the
same.
CHAP. XXVII.--HOW LITTLE THE PRECEPTS OF PHILOSOPHERS CONTRIBUTE TO
TRUE WISDOM. WHICH YOU WILL FIND IN RELIGION ONLY.
What, then? Do they enjoin nothing similar? Yes,
indeed, many things; and they frequently approach the truth. But those
precepts have no weight, because they are human, and are without a
greater, that is, that divine authority. No one therefore believes
them, because the hearer imagines himself to be a man, just as he is,
who enjoins them. Moreover, there is no certainty with them, nothing
which proceeds from knowledge. But since all things are done by
conjecture, and many differing and various things are brought forward,
it is the part of a most foolish man to be willing to obey their
precepts. since it is doubted whether they are true or false; and
therefore no one obeys them, because no one wishes to labour for an
uncertainty. The Stoics say that it is virtue which can alone produce a
happy life. Nothing can be said with greater truth. But what if he
shall be tormented, or afflicted with pain? Will it be possible for any
one to be happy in the hands of the executioners? But truly pain
inflicted upon the body is the material of virtue; therefore he is not
wretched even in tortures. Epicurus speaks much more strongly. The wise
man, he says, is always happy; and even when shut up in the bull of
Phalaris he will utter this speech: "It is pleasant, and I do not care
for it." Who would not laugh at him? Especially, because a man who is
devoted to pleasure took upon himself the character of a man of
fortitude, and that to an immoderate degree; for it is impossible that
any one should esteem tortures of the body as pleasures, since it is
sufficient for discharging the office of virtue that one sustains and
endures them. What do you, Stoics, say? What do
97
you, Epicurus? The wise man is happy even when be is tortured. If it is
on account of the glory of his endurance, he will not enjoy it, for
perchance he will die under the tortures. If it is on account of the
recollection of the deed, either he will not perceive it if souls shall
perish, or, if he shall perceive it, he will gain nothing from it.
What other advantage is there then in virtue? what
happiness of life? Is it that a man may die with equanimity? You
present to me the advantage of a single hour, or perhaps moment, for
the sake of which it may not be expedient to be worn out by miseries
and labours throughout the whole of life. But how much time does death
occupy? on the arrival of which it now makes no difference whether you
shall have undergone it with equanimity or not. Thus it happens that
nothing is sought from virtue but glory. But this is either superfluous
and short-lived, or it will not follow from the depraved judgments of
men. Therefore there is no fruit from virtue where virtue is subject to
death and decay. Therefore they who said these things saw a certain
shadow(1) of virtue: they did not see virtue itself. For they had their
eyes fixed on the earth, nor did they raise their countenances on high
that they might behold her
"Who showed herself from the quarters of heaven."(2)
This is the reason why no one obeys their precepts; inasmuch as they
either train men to vices, if they defend pleasure; or if they uphold
virtue, they neither threaten sin with any punishment, except that of
disgrace only, nor do they promise any reward to virtue, except that of
honour and praise only, since they say that virtue is to be sought for
its own sake, and not on account of any other object. The wise man
therefore is happy under tortures; but when he suffers torture on
account of his faith, on account of justice, or on account of God, that
endurance of pain will render him most happy. For it is God alone who
can honour virtue, the reward of which is immortality alone. And they
who do not seek this, nor possess religion, with which eternal life is
connected, assuredly do not know the power of virtue, the reward of
which they are ignorant; nor look towards heaven, as they themselves
imagine that they do, when they inquire into subjects which do not
admit of investigation, since there is no other cause for looking
towards heaven, unless it be either to undertake religion, or to
believe that one's soul is immortal. For if any one understands that
God is to be worshipped, or has the hope of immortality set before him,
his mind(3) is in heaven; and although he may not behold it with his
eyes, yet he does behold it with the eye of his soul. But they who do
not take up religion are of the earth, for religion is from heaven; and
they who think that the soul perishes together with the body, equally
look down towards the earth: for beyond the body, which is earth, they
see nothing further, which is immortal. It is therefore of no profit
that man is so made, that with upright body he looks towards heaven,
unless with mind raised aloft he discerns God, and his thoughts are
altogether engaged upon the hope of everlasting life.
CHAP. XXVIII.--OF TRUE RELIGION AND OF NATURE. WHETHER FORTUNE IS A
GODDESS, AND OF PHILOSOPHY.
Wherefore there is nothing else in life on which our
plan and condition can depend but the knowledge of God who created us,
and the religious and pious worship of Him; and since the philosophers
have wandered from this, it is plain that they were not wise. They
sought wis-dom, indeed; but because they did not seek it in a right
manner, they sunk down to a greater distance, and fell into such great
errors, that they did not even possess common wisdom. For they were not
only unwilling to maintain religion, but they even took it away; while,
led on by the appearance of false virtue, they endeavour to free the
mind from all fear: and this overturning of religion gains the name of
nature. For they, either being ignorant by whom the world was made, or
wishing to persuade men that nothing was completed by divine
intelligence, said that nature was the mother of all things, as though
they should say that all things were produced of their own accord: by
which word they altogether confess their own ignorance. For nature,
apart from divine providence and power, is absolutely nothing. But if
they call God nature, what perverseness is it, to use the name of
nature rather than of God!(4) But if nature is the plan, or necessity,
or condition of birth, it is not by itself capable of sensation; but
there must necessarily be a divine mind, which by its foresight
furnishes the beginning of their existence to all things. Or if nature
is heaven and earth. and everything which is created. nature is not
God, but the work of God.
By a similar error they believe in the existence of
fortune, as a goddess mocking the affairs of then with various
casualties, because they know not from what source things good and evil
hap-
98
pen to them. They think that they are brought together to do battle
with her; nor do they assign any reason by whom and on what account
they are thus matched; but they only boast that they are every moment
carrying on a contest for life and death with fortune. Now, as many as
have consoled any persons on account of the death and removal of
friends, have censured the name of fortune with the most severe
accusations; nor is there any disputation of theirs on the subject of
virtue, in which fortune is not harassed. M. Tullius, in his
Consolation, says that he has always fought against fortune, and that
she was always overpowered by him when he had valiantly beaten back the
attacks of his enemies; that he was not subdued by her even then, when
he was driven from his home and deprived of his country; but then, when
he lost his dearest daughter, he shamefully confesses that he is
overcome by fortune. I yield, he says, and raise my hand.(1) What is
more wretched than this man, who thus lies prostrate? He acts
foolishly, he says; but it is one who professes that he is wise. What,
then, does the assumption of the name imply? What that contempt of
things which is laid claim to with magnificent words? What that dress,
so different from others? Or why do you give precepts of wisdom at all,
if no one has yet been found who is wise? And does any one bear
ill-will to us because we deny that philosophers are wise, when they
themselves confess that they neither have knowledge nor wisdom?
For if at any time they have so failed that they are not even able to
feign anything, as their practice is in other cases, then in truth they
are reminded of their ignorance; and, as though in madness, they spring
up and exclaim that they are blind and foolish. Anaxagoras pronounces
that all things are overspread with darkness. Empedocles complains that
the paths of the senses are narrow, as though for his reflections he
had need of a chariot and four horses. Democritus says that the truth
lies sunk in a well so deep that it has no bottom; foolishly, indeed,
as he says other things. For the truth is not, as it were, sunk in a
well to which it was permitted him to descend, or even to fall, but, as
it were, placed on the highest top of a lofty mountain, or in heaven,
which is most true. For what reason is there why he should say that it
is sunk below rather than that it is raised aloft? unless by chance he
preferred to place the mind also in the feet, or in the bottom of the
heels, rather than in the breast or in the head.
So widely removed were they from the truth itself,
that even the posture of their own body did not admonish them, that the
truth must be sought for by them in the highest place.(2) From this
despair arose that confession of Socrates, in which he said that he
knew nothing but this one thing alone, that he knew nothing. From this
flowed the system of the Academy, if that is to be called a system in
which ignorance is both learnt and taught. But not even those who
claimed for themselves knowledge were able consistently to defend that
very thing which they thought that they knew. For since they were not
in agreement(3) with one another, through their ignorance of divine
things they were so inconsistent and uncertain, and often asserting
things contrary to one another, that you are unable to determine and
decide what their meaning was. Why therefore should you fight against
those men who perish by their own sword? Why should you labour to
refute those whom their own speech refutes and presses?(4) Aristotle,
says Cicero, accusing the ancient philosophers, declares that they are
either most foolish or most vainglorious, since they thought that
philosophy was perfected by their talents; but that he saw, because a
great addition had been made in a few years, that philosophy would be
complete in a short time. What, then, was that time? In what manner,
when, or by whom, was philosophy completed? For that which he said,
that they were most foolish in supposing that philosophy was made
perfect by their talents, is true; but he did not even himself speak
with sufficient discretion, who thought that it had either been begun
by the ancients, or increased by those who were more recent, or that it
would shortly be brought to perfection by those of later times. For
that can never be investigated which is not sought by its own way.
CHAP. XXIX.--OF FORTUNE AGAIN, AND VIRTUE.
But let us return to the subject which we laid
aside. Fortune, therefore, by itself, is nothing; nor must we so regard
it as though it had any perception, since fortune is the sudden and
unexpected occurrence of accidents. But philosophers, that they may not
sometimes fail to err, wish to be wise in a foolish matter; and say
that she is not a goddess, as is generally believed, but a god.
Sometimes, however, they call this god nature, sometimes fortune,
"because he brings about," says the same Cicero, "many things
unexpected by us, on account of our want of intelligence and our
ignorance of causes." Since, therefore, they are ignorant of the causes
on account of which anything is done, they must also be ignorant of him
who does them. The
99
same writer, in a work of great seriousness, in which he was giving to
his son precepts of life drawn from philosophy, says, "Who can be
ignorant that the power of fortune is great on either side? For both
when we meet with a prosperous breeze from her we gain the issues which
we desire, and when she has breathed contrary to us we are dashed on
the rocks."(1) First of all, he who says that nothing can be known,
spoke this as though he himself and all men had knowledge. Then he who
endeavours to render doubtful even the things which are plain, thought
that this was plain, which ought to have been to him especially
doubtful; for to a wise man it is altogether false. Who, he says, knows
not? I indeed know not. Let him teach me, if he can, what that
power is, what that breeze, and what the contrary breath. It is
disgraceful, therefore, for a man of talent to say that, which if you
were to deny it, he would be unable to prove. Lastly, he who says that
the assent must be withheld because it is the part of a foolish man
rashly to assent to things which are unknown to him, he, I say,
altogether believed the opinions of the vulgar and uninstructed, who
think that it is fortune which gives to men good and evil things. For
they represent her image with the horn of plenty and with a rudder, as
though she both gave wealth and had the government of human affairs.
And to this opinion Virgil(2) assented, who calls fortune omnipotent;
and the historian(3) who says, But assuredly fortune bears sway in
everything. What place, then, remains for the other gods? Why is she
not said to reign by herself, if she has more power than others; or why
is she not alone worshipped, if she has power in all things? Or if she
inflicts evils only, let them bring forward some cause why, if she is a
goddess, she envies men, and desires their destruction, though she is
religiously worshipped by them; why she is more favourable to the
wicked and more unfavourable to the good; why she plots, afflicts,
deceives, exterminates; who appointed her as the perpetual harasser of
the race of men; why, in short, she has obtained so mischievous a
power, that she renders all things illustrious or obscure according to
her caprice rather than in accordance with the truth. Philosophers, I
say, ought rather to have inquired into these things, than rashly to
have accused fortune, who is innocent: for although she has some
existence, yet no reason can be brought forward by them why she should
be as hostile to men as she is supposed to be. Therefore all those
speeches in which they rail at the injustice of fortune, and in
opposition to fortune arrogantly boast of their own virtues, are
nothing else but the ravings of thoughtless levity.
Wherefore let them not envy us, to whom God has
revealed the truth: who, as we know that fortune is nothing, so also
know that there is a wicked and crafty spirit who is unfriendly to the
good, and the enemy of righteousness, who acts in opposition to God;
the cause of whose enmity we have explained in the second book.(4) He
therefore lays plots against all; but those who are ignorant of God he
hinders by error, he overwhelms with folly, he overspreads with
darkness, that no one may be able to attain to the knowledge of the
divine name, in which alone are contained both wisdom and
everlasting life. Those, on the other hand, who know God, he assails
with wiles and craft, that he may ensnare them with desire and lust,
and when they are corrupted by the blandishments of sin, may impel them
to death; or, if he shall have not succeeded by stratagem, he attempts
to cast them down by force and violence. For on this
account he was not at once thrust down by God to punishment at
the original transgression, that by his malice he may exercise
man to virtue: for unless this is in constant agitation, unless it is
strengthened by continual harassing, it cannot be perfect, inasmuch as
virtue is dauntless and unconquered patience in enduring evils. From
which it comes to pass that there is no virtue if an adversary is
wanting. When, therefore, they perceived the force of this perverse
power opposed to virtue, and were ignorant of its name, they invented
for themselves the senseless name of fortune; and how far this is
removed from wisdom, Juvenal declares in these verses:(5)--
"No divine power is absent if there is prudence; but we make you a
goddess, O Fortune, and place you in heaven."
It was folly, therefore, and error, and blindness, and, as Cicero
says,(6) ignorance of facts and causes, which introduced the names of
Nature and Fortune. But as they are ignorant of their adversary, so
also they do not indeed know virtue the knowledge of which is derived
from the idea of an adversary. And if this is joined with wisdom, or,
as they say, is itself also wisdom, they must be ignorant in what
subjects it is contained. For no one can possibly be furnished with
true arms if he is ignorant of the enemy against whom he must be armed;
nor can he overcome his adversary, who in fighting does not attack his
real enemy, but a shadow. For he will be overthrown, who, having his at-
100
tention fixed on another object, shall not previously have foreseen or
guarded against the blow aimed at his vitals.
CHAP. XXX.--THE CONCLUSION OF THE THINGS BEFORE SPOKEN; AND BY WHAT
MEANS WE MUST PASS FROM THE VANITY OF THE PHILOSOPHERS TO TRUE WISDOM,
AND THE KNOWLEDGE OF THE TRUE GOD, IN WHICH ALONE ARE VIRTUE AND
HAPPINESS.
I have taught, as far as my humble talents
permitted, that the philosophers held a course widely deviating from
the truth. I perceive, however, how many things I have omitted, because
it was not my province to enter into a disputation against
philosophers. But it was necessary for me to make a digression to this
subject, that I might show that so many and great intellects have
expended themselves in vain on false subjects, lest any one by chance
being shut out by corrupt superstitions, should wish to betake himself
to them as though about to find some certainty. Therefore the only
hope, the only safety for man, is placed in this doctrine, which we
defend. All the wisdom of man consists in this alone, the knowledge and
worship of God: this is our tenet, this our opinion. Therefore with all
the power of my voice I testify, I proclaim. I declare: Here, here is
that which all philosophers have sought throughout their whole life;
and yet, they have not been able to investigate, to grasp, and to
attain to it, because they either retained a religion which was
corrupt, or took it away altogether. Let them therefore all depart, who
do not instruct human life, but throw it into confusion. For what
do they teach? or whom do they instruct, who have not yet instructed
themselves? whom are the sick able to heal, whom can the blind guide?
Let us all, therefore, who have any regard for wisdom, betake ourselves
to this subject. Or shall we wait until Socrates knows something? or
Anaxagoras finds light in the darkness? or until Democritus draws forth
truth from the well? or Empedocles extends the paths of his soul? or
until Arcesilas and Carneades see, and feel, and perceive?
Lo, a voice from heaven teaching the truth, and
displaying to us a light brighter than the sun itself.(1) Why are we
unjust to ourselves, and delay to take up wisdom, which learned men,
though they wasted their lives in its pursuit, were never able to
discover. Let him who wishes to be wise and happy hear the voice of
God, learn righteousness, understand the mystery of his birth, despise
human affairs, embrace divine things, that he may gain that chief good
to which he was born. Having overthrown all false religions, and having
refuted all the arguments, as many as it was customary or possible to
bring forward in their defence; then, having proved the systems of
philosophy to be false, we must now come to true religion and wisdom,
since, as I shall teach, they are both connected together; that we may
maintain it either by arguments, or by examples, or by competent
witnesses, and may show that the folly with which those worshippers of
gods do not cease to upbraid us, has no existence with us, but lies
altogether with them. And although, in the former books, when I was
contending against false religions, and in this, when I was
overthrowing false wisdom, I showed where the truth is, yet the next
book will more plainly indicate what is true religion and what true
wisdom.
101
THE DIVINE INSTITUTES
BOOK IV.
OF TRUE WISDOM AND RELIGION.
CHAP. I.--OF THE FORMER RELIGION OF MEN, AND HOW ERROR WAS SPREAD OVER
EVERY AGE, AND OF THE SEVEN WISE MEN OF GREECE.
WHEN I reflect, O Emperor Constantine, and often
revolve in my mind the original condition of men, it is accustomed to
appear alike wonderful and unworthy that, by the folly of one age
embracing various superstitions, and believing in the existence of many
gods, they suddenly arrived at such ignorance of themselves, that the
truth being taken away from their eyes, the religion of the true God
was not observed, nor the condition of human nature, since men did not
seek the chief good in heaven, but on earth. And on this account
assuredly the happiness of the ancient ages was changed. For, having
left God, the parent and founder of all things, men began to worship
the senseless works(1) of their own hands. And what were the effects of
this corruption, or what evils it introduced, the subject itself
sufficiently declares. For, turning away from the chief good, which is
blessed and everlasting on this account, because it cannot be seen,(2)
or touched, or comprehended, and from the virtues which are in
agreement with that good, and which are equally immortal, gliding down
to these corrupt and frail gods, and devoting themselves to those
things by which the body only is adorned, and nourished, and delighted,
they sought eternal death for themselves, together with their gods and
goods relating to the body, because all bodies are subject to death.
Superstitions of this kind, therefore, were followed by injustice and
impiety, as must necessarily be the case. For men ceased to raise their
countenances to the heaven; but, their minds being depressed downwards,
clung to goods of the earth, as they did to earth-born
superstitions. There followed the disagreement of mankind, and
fraud, and all wickedness; because, despising eternal and incorruptible
goods, which alone ought to be desired by man, they rather chose
temporal and short-lived things, and greater trust was placed by men in
evil, inasmuch as they preferred vice to virtue, because it had
presented itself as nearer at hand.(3)
Thus human life, which in former ages had been
occupied with the clearest light, was overspread with gloom and
darkness; and in conformity with this depravity, when wisdom was taken
away, then at length men began to claim for themselves the name of
wise. For at the time when all were wise, no one was called by that
name. And would that this name, once common to all the class, though
reduced to a few, still retained its power! For those few might perhaps
be able, either by talent, or by authority, or by continual
exhortations, to free the people from vices and errors. But so entirely
had wisdom died out, that it is evident, from the very arrogance of the
name, that no one of those who were so called was really wise. And yet,
before the discovery of this philosophy, as it is termed, there are
said to have been seven,(4) who, because they ventured to inquire into
and discuss natural subjects, deserved to be esteemed and called wise
men.
O wretched and calamitous age, in which through the
whole world there were only seven who were called by the name of men,
for no one can justly be called a man unless he is wise! But if all the
others besides themselves were foolish, even they themselves were not
wise, because no one can be truly wise in the judgment of the foolish.
So far were they removed from wisdom, that not even afterwards, when
learning increased, and many and great intellects were always intent
upon this very subject, could the
102
truth be perceived and ascertained. For, after the renown of those
seven wise men, it is incredible with how great a desire of inquiring
into the truth all Greece was inflamed. And first of all, they
thought(1) the very name of wisdom arrogant, and did not call
themselves wise men, but desirous of wisdom. By which deed they both
condemned those who had rashly arrogated to themselves the name of wise
men, of error and folly, and themselves also of ignorance, which indeed
they did not deny. For wherever the nature of the subject had, as it
were, laid its hands upon their minds, so that they were unable to give
any account, they were accustomed to testify that, they knew nothing,
and discerned nothing.
Wherefore they are found to be much wiser, who in some degree saw
themselves, than those who had believed that they were wise.
CHAP. II.--WHERE WISDOM IS TO BE FOUND; WHY PYTHAGORAS AND PLATO DID
NOT APPROACH THE JEWS.
Wherefore, if they were not wise who were so called,
nor those of later times, who did not hesitate to confess their want of
wisdom, what remains but that wisdom is to be sought elsewhere, since
it has not been found where it was sought. But what can we suppose to
have been the reason why it was not found, though sought with the
greatest earnestness and labour by so many intellects, and during so
many ages, unless it be that philosophers sought for it out of their
own limits? And since they traversed and explored all parts, but
nowhere found any wisdom, and it must of necessity be somewhere, it is
evident that it ought especially to be sought there where the title of
folly(2) appears; under the covering of which God hides the treasury of
wisdom and truth, lest the secret of His divine work should be exposed
to view.(3) Whence I am accustomed to wonder that, when Pythagoras, and
after him Plato, inflamed with the love of searching out the truth, had
penetrated as far as to the Egyptians, and Magi, and Persians, that
they might become acquainted with their religious rites and
institutions (for they suspected that wisdom was concerned with
religion), they did not approach the Jews only, in whose possession
alone it then was, and to whom they might have gone more easily. But I
think that they were turned away from them by divine providence, that
they might not know the truth, because it was not yet permitted for the
religion of the true God and righteousness to become known to men of
other nations.(4) For God had determined, as the last time drew
near,(5) to send from heaven a great leader,(6) who should reveal to
foreign nations that which was taken away from a perfidious(7) and
ungrateful people. And I will endeavour to discuss the subject in this
book, if I shall first have shown that wisdom is so closely united with
religion, that the one cannot be separated from the other.
CHAP. III.--WISDOM AND RELIGION CANNOT BE SEPARATED: THE LORD OF NATURE
MUST NECESSARILY BE THE FATHER OF EVERY ONE.
The worship of the gods, as I have taught in the
former book, does not imply wisdom; not only because it gives up man,
who is a divine animal, to earthly and frail things, but because
nothing is fixed in it which may avail for the cultivation of the
character and the framing of the life; nor does it contain any
investigation of the truth, but only the rite of worship, which does
not consist in the service of the mind, but in the employment of the
body. And therefore that is not to be deemed true religion, because it
instructs and improves men by no precepts of righteousness and virtue.
Thus philosophy, inasmuch as it does not possess true religion, that
is, the highest piety, is not true wisdom. For if the divinity which
governs this world supports mankind with incredible beneficence, and
cherishes it as with paternal indulgence, wishes truly that gratitude
should be paid, and honour given to itself, man cannot preserve his
piety if he shall prove ungrateful for the heavenly benefits; and this
is certainly not the part of a wise man. Since, therefore, as I have
said, philosophy and the religious system of the gods are separated,
and far removed from each other; seeing that some are professors of
wisdom, through whom it is manifest that there is no approach to the
gods, and that others are priests of religion, through whom wisdom is
not learned; it is manifest that the one is not true wisdom, and that
the other is not true religion. Therefore I philosophy was not able to
conceive the truth, nor was the religious system of the gods able
to give an account of itself, since it is without it.
But where wisdom is joined by an inseparable connection with
religion, both must necessarily be true; because in our worship we
ought to be wise, that is, to know the proper object and mode of
worship, and in our wisdom to worship, that is, to complete our
knowledge by deed and action.
Where, then, is wisdom joined with religion? There,
indeed, where the one God is worshipped, where life and every action is
referred to one
103
source, and to one supreme authority: in short, the teachers of wisdom
are the same, who are also the priests of God.(1) Nor, however, let it
affect any one, because it often has happened, and may happen, that
some philosopher may undertake a priesthood of the gods; and when this
happens, philosophy is not, however, joined with religion; but
philosophy will both be unemployed amidst sacred rites, and religion
will be unemployed when philosophy shall be treated of. For that system
of religious rites is dumb, not only because it relates to gods who are
dumb, but also because its observance is by the hand and the fingers,
not by the heart and tongue, as is the case with ours, which is true.
Therefore religion is contained in wisdom, and wisdom in religion. The
one, then, cannot be separated from the other; because wisdom is
nothing else but the worship of the true God with just and pious
adoration. But that the worship of many gods is not in accordance with
nature, may be inferred and conceived even by this argument: that every
god who is worshipped by man must, amidst the solemn rites and prayers,
be invoked as father, not only for the sake of honour, but also of
reason; because he is both more ancient than man, and because he
affords life, safety, and sustenance, as a father does. Therefore
Jupiter is called father by those who pray to him, as is
Saturnus, and Janus, and Liber, and the rest in order; which
Lucilius(2) laughs at in the council of the gods: "So that there
is none of us who is not called excellent father of the gods; so that
father Neptunus, Liber, father Saturnus, Mars, Janus, father
Quirinus, are called after one name." But if nature does not permit
that one man should have many fathers (for he is produced from one
only), therefore the worship of many gods is contrary to nature, and
contrary to piety.
One only, therefore, is to be worshipped, who can
truly be called Father. He also must of necessity be Lord, because as
He has power to indulge, so also has He power to restrain. He is to be
called Father on this account, because He bestows upon us many and
great things; and Lord on this account, because He has the greatest
power of chastising and punishing. But that He who is Father is also
Lord, is shown even by reference to civil law.(3) For who will be able
to bring up sons, unless he has the power of a lord over them? Nor
without reason is he called father of a household,(4) although he only
has sons: for it is plain that the name of father embraces also
slaves(5), because "household" follows; and the name of "household"
comprises also sons, because the name of "father" precedes: from which
it is evident, that the same person is both father of his slaves s and
lord of his sons. Lastly, the son is set at liberty as if he were a
slave; and the liberated slave receives the name(6) of his patron, as
if he were a son. But if a man is named father of a household, that it
may appear that he is possessed of a double power, because as a father
he ought to indulge, and as a lord to restrain, it follows that he who
is a son is also a slave, and that he who is a father is also a lord.
As, therefore, by the necessity of nature, there cannot be more than
one father, so there can only be one lord. For what will the slave do
if many lords(7) shall give commands at variance with each other?
Therefore the worship of many gods is contrary to reason and to nature,
since there cannot be many fathers or lords; but it is necessary to
consider the gods both as fathers and lords.
Therefore the truth cannot be held where the same
man is subject to many fathers and lords, where the mind, drawn in
different directions to many objects, wanders to and fro, hither and
thither. Nor can religion have any firmness, when it is without a fixed
and settled dwelling-place. Therefore there can be no true worship of
many gods; just as that cannot be called matrimony, in which one woman
has many husbands, but she will either be called a harlot or an
adulteress. For when a woman is destitute of modesty, chastity, and
fidelity, she must of necessity be without virtue. Thus also the
religious system of the gods is unchaste and unholy, because it is
destitute of faith, for that unsettled and uncertain honour has no
source or origin.
CHAP. IV.--OF WISDOM LIKEWISE, AND RELIGION, AND OF THE RIGHT OF FATHER
AND LORD.
By these things it is evident how closely connected
are wisdom and religion. Wisdom relates to sons, and this relation
requires love; religion to servants, and this relation requires fear.
For as the former are bound to love and honour their father, so are the
latter bound to respect and venerate their lord. But with respect to
God, who is one only, inasmuch as He sustains the twofold character
both of Father and Lord, we are bound both to love Him, inasmuch as we
are sons, and to fear Him, inasmuch
104
as we are servants.(1) Religion, therefore, cannot be divided from
wisdom, nor can wisdom be separated from religion; because it is the
same God, who ought to be understood, which is the part of wisdom, and
to be honoured, which is the part of religion. But wisdom precedes,
religion follows; for the knowledge of God comes first, His worship is
the result of knowledge. Thus in the two names there is but one
meaning, though it seems to be different in each case. For the one is
concerned with the understanding, the other with action. But, however,
they resemble two streams flowing from one fountain. But the fountain
of wisdom and religion is God; and if these two streams shall turn
aside from Him, they must be dried up: for they who are ignorant of Him
cannot be wise or religious.
Thus it comes to pass that philosophers, and those
who worship many gods, either resemble disinherited sons or runaway
slaves, because the one do not seek their father, nor the other their
master. And as they who are disinherited do not attain to the
inheritance of their father, nor runaway slaves impunity, so neither
will philosophers receive immortality, which is the inheritance of the
heavenly kingdom, that is, the chief good, which they especially seek;
nor will the worshippers of gods escape the penalty of everlasting
death, which is the punishment of the true Master against those who are
deserters(2) of His majesty and name. But that God is Father and also
Lord was unknown to both, to the worshippers of the gods as well as to
the professors of wisdom themselves: inasmuch as they either thought
that nothing at all was to be worshipped; or they approved of false
religions or, although they understood the strength and power of the
Supreme God (as Plato, who says that there is one God, Creator of the
world, and Marcus Tullius, who acknowledges that man has been produced
by the Supreme God in an excellent condition), nevertheless they did
not render the worship due to Him as to the supreme Father, which was
their befitting and necessary duty. But that the gods cannot be fathers
or lords, is declared not only by their multitude, as I have shown
above,(3) but also by reason: because it is not reported that man was
made by gods, nor is it found that the gods themselves preceded the
origin of man, since it appears that there were men on the earth before
the birth of Vulcan, and Liber, and Apollo, and Jupiter himself. But
the creation of man is not accustomed to be assigned to Saturnus, nor
to his father Coelus.
But if none of those who are worshipped is said to
have originally formed and created man, it follows that none of these
can be called the father of man, and so none of them can be God.
Therefore it is not lawful to worship those by whom man was not
produced, for he could not be produced by many. Therefore the one and
only God ought to be worshipped, who was before Jupiter, and Saturnus,
and Coelus himself, and the earth. For He must have fashioned man, who,
before the creation of man, finished the heaven and the earth. He alone
is to be called Father who created us; He alone is to be considered
Lord who rules, who has the true and perpetual power of life and death.
And he who does not adore Him is a foolish servant, who flees from or
does not know his Master; and an undutiful son, who either hates or is
ignorant of his true Father.
CHAP. V.--THE ORACLES OF THE PROPHETS MUST BE LOOKED INTO; AND OF THEIR
TIMES, AND THE TIMES OF THE JUDGES AND KINGS.
Now, since I have shown that wisdom and religion
cannot be separated, it remains that we speak of religion itself, and
wisdom. I am aware, indeed, how difficult it is to discuss heavenly
subjects; but still the attempt must be ventured, that the truth may be
made clear and brought to light, and that many may be freed from error
and death, who despise and refuse the truth, while it is concealed
under a covering of folly. But before I begin to speak of God and His
works, I must first speak a few things concerning the prophets, whose
testimony I must now use, which I have refrained from doing in the
former books. Above all things, he who desires to comprehend the truth
ought not only to apply his mind to understand the utterances of the
prophets, but also most diligently to inquire into the times during
which each one of them existed, that he may know what future events
they predicted, and after how many years their predictions were
fulfilled.(4) Nor is there any difficulty in making these computations;
for they testified under what king each of them received the
inspiration of the Divine Spirit. And many have written and published
books respecting the times, making their commencement from the
prophet Moses, who lived about seven hundred years before the Trojan
war. But he, when he had governed the people for forty years, was
succeeded by Joshua, who held the chief place twenty-seven years.
After this they were under the government of judges
during three hundred anti seventy years.
105
Then their condition was changed, and they began to have kings; and
when they had ruled during four hundred and fifty years, until the
reign of Zedekiah, the Jews having been besieged by the king of
Babylon, and carried into captivity,(1) endured a long servitude,
until, in the seventieth year afterwards, the captive Jews were
restored to their own lands and settlements by Cyrus the elder, who
attained the supreme power over the Persians, at the time when
Tarquinius Superbus reigned at Rome. Wherefore, since the whole series
of times may be collected both from the Jewish histories and from those
of the Greeks and Romans, the times of the prophets individually may
also be collected; the last of whom was Zechariah, and it is agreed on
that he prophesied in the time of King Darius, in the second year of
his reign, and in the eighth month. Of so much greater antiquity(2) are
the prophets found to be than the Greek writers. And I bring forward
all these things, that they may perceive their error who endeavour to
refute Holy Scripture, as though it were new and recently composed,
being ignorant from what fountain the origin of our holy religion
flowed. But if any one, having put together arid examined the times,
shall duly lay the foundation of learning, and fully ascertain the
truth, he will also lay aside his error when he has gained the
knowledge of the truth.
CHAP. VI.--ALMIGHTY GOD BEGAT HIS SON; AND THE TESTIMONIES OF THE
SIBYLS AND OF TRISMEGISTUS CONCERNING HIM.
God, therefore, the contriver and founder of
all things, as we have said in the second hook, before He
commenced this excellent work of the world, begat a pure and
incorruptible Spirit, whom He called His Son. And although He had
afterwards created by Himself innumerable other beings, whom we call
angels, this first-begotten, however, was the only one whom He
considered worthy of being called by the divine name, as being pewerful
in His Father's excellence and majesty. But that there is a Son
of the Most High God, who is possessed of the greatest power, is
shown not only by the unanimous utterances of the prophets, but also by
the declaration of Trismegistus and the predictions of the Sibyls.
Hermes, in the book which is entitled The Perfect Word, made use of
these words: "The Lord and Creator of all things, whom we have thought
right to call God, since He made the second God visible and sensible.
But I use the term sensible, not because He Himself perceives (for the
question is not
whether He Himself perceives), but because He leads(3) to perception
and to intelligence. Since, therefore, He made Him first, and alone,
and one only, He appeared to Him beautiful, and most full of all good
things; and He hallowed Him, and altogether loved Him as His own Son."
The Erythraean Sibyl, in the beginning of her poem, which she commenced
with the Supreme God, proclaims the Son of God as the leader and
commander of all, in these verses:--
"The nourisher and creator of all things, who placed the sweet breath
in all, and made God the leader of all."
And again, at the end of the same poem:--
"But whom God gave for faithful men to honour."
And another Sibyl enjoins that He ought to be known:--
"Know Him as your God, who is the Son of God."
Assuredly He is the very Son of God, who by that most wise King
Solomon, full of divine inspiration, spake these things which we have
added:(4) "God founded(5) me in the beginning of His ways, in His work
before the ages. He set me up in the beginning, before He made the
earth, and before He established the depths, before the fountains of
waters came forth: the Lord begat me before all the hills; He made the
regions, and the uninhabitable(6) boundaries under the heaven. When He
prepared the heaven, I was by Him: and when He separated His own seat,
when He made the strong clouds above the winds, and when He
strengthened the mountains, and placed them under heaven; when He laid
the strong foundations of the earth, I was with Him arranging all
things. I was He in whom He delighted: I was daily delighted, when He
rejoiced, the world being completed." But on this account Trismegistus
spoke of Him as "the artificer of God," and the Sibyl calls Him
"Counsellor," because He is endowed by God the Father with such wisdom
and strength, that God employed both His wisdom and hands in the
creation of the world.
CHAP. VII.--OF THE NAME OF SON, AND WHENCE HE IS CALLED JESUS AND
CHRIST.
Some one may perhaps ask who this is who is so
powerful, so beloved by God, and what name He has, who was not only
begotten at first before the world,(7) but who also arranged it by His
106
wisdom and constructed it by His might. First of all, it is befitting
that we should know that His name is not known even to the angels who
dwell in heaven, but to Himself only, and to God the Father; nor will
that name be published, as the sacred writings relate, before that the
purpose of God shall be fulfilled. In the next place, we must know that
this name cannot be uttered by the mouth of man, as Hermes teaches,
saying these things: "Now the cause of this cause is the will of the
divine good which produced God, whose name cannot be uttered by the
mouth of man." And shortly afterwards to His Son: "There is, O Son, a
secret word of wisdom, holy respecting the only Lord of all things, and
the God first perceived(1) by the mind, to speak of whom is beyond the
power of man." But although His name, which the supreme Father gave Him
from the beginning, is known to none but Himself, nevertheless He has
one name among the angels, and another among men since He is called
Jesus(2) among men: for Christ is not a proper name, but a title of
power and dominion; for by this the Jews were accustomed to call their
kings. But the meaning of this name must be set forth, on account of
the error of the ignorant, who by the change of a letter are accustomed
to call Him Chrestus.(3) The Jews had before been directed to compose a
sacred oil, with which those who were called to the priesthood(4) or to
the kingdom might be anointed. And as now the robe of purple(5) is a
sign of the assumption of royal dignity among the Romans, so with them
the anointing with the holy oil conferred the title and power of king.
But since the ancient Greeks used the word
<greek>kriesqai</greek> to express the art of anointing,
which they now express by <greek>aleifesqai</greek>, as the
verse of Homer shows,
"But the attendants washed, and anointed(6) them with oil;"
on this account we call Him Christ, that is, the Anointed, who in
Hebrew is called the Messias. Hence in some Greek writings, which are
badly translated(7) from the Hebrew, the word eleimmenos(8) is found
written, from the word aleiphesthai,(9) anointing. But, however, by
either name a king is signified: not that He has obtained this earthly
kingdom, the time for receiving which
has not yet arrived, but that He sways a heavenly and eternal kingdom,
concerning which we shall speak in the last book. But now let us speak
of His first nativity.
CHAP. VIII.--OF THE BIRTH OF JESUS IN THE SPIRIT AND IN THE FLESH: OF
SPIRITS AND THE TESTIMONIES OF PROPHETS.
For we especially testify that He was twice born,
first in the spirit, and afterwards in the flesh. Whence it is thus
spoken by Jeremiah:(10) "Before I formed Thee in the womb I knew Thee."
And likewise by the same: "Who was blessed before He was born;"(11)
which was the case with no one else but Christ. For though He was the
Son of God from the beginning,(12) He was born again(13) a second
time(14) according to the flesh: and this twofold birth of His has
introduced great terror into the minds of men, and overspread with
darkness even those who retained the mysteries of true religion. But we
will show this plainly and clearly, that they who love wisdom may be
more easily and diligently instructed. He who hears the Son of God
mentioned ought not to conceive in his mind so great impiety as to
think that God begat Him by marriage and union with a woman, which none
does but an animal possessed of a body, and subject to death. But with
whom could God unite Himself, since He is alone? or since His power was
so great, that He accomplished whatever He wished, assuredly He did not
require the co-operation .s of another for procreation. Unless by
chance we shall [profanely] imagine, as Orpheus supposed, that God is
both male and female, because otherwise He would have been unable to
beget, unless He had the power of each sex, as though He could have
intercourse with Himself, or without such intercourse be unable to
produce.
But Hermes also was of the same opinion, when he
says that He was "His own father," and "His own mother."(16) But if
this were so, as He is called by the prophets father, so also He would
be called mother. In what manner, then, did He beget Him? First of all,
divine operations cannot be known or declared(17) by any one; but
nevertheless the sacred writings teach us, in which it is laid down(18)
that this Son of God is the speech, or even the reason(19) of God, and
also
107
that the other angels are spirits(1) of God. For speech is breath sent
forth with a voice signifying something. But, however, since breath and
speech are sent forth from different parts, inasmuch as breath proceeds
from the nostrils, speech from the mouth, the difference between the
Son of God and the other angels is great. For they proceeded from God
as silent spirits, because they were not created to teach(2) the
knowledge of God, but for His service. But though He is Himself also a
spirit, yet He proceeded from the mouth of God with voice and sound, as
the Word, on this account indeed, because He was about to make use of
His voice to the people; that is, because He was about to be a teacher
of the knowledge of God, and of the heavenly mystery(3) to be revealed
to man: which word also God Himself first spoke, that through Him He
might speak to us, and that He might reveal to us the voice and will of
God.
With good reason, therefore, is He called the Speech
and the Word of God, because God, by a certain incomprehensible energy
and power of His majesty, enclosed the vocal spirit proceeding from His
mouth, which he had not conceived in the womb, but in His mind, within
a form which has life through its own perception and wisdom, and He
also fashioned other spirits of His into angels. Our spirits(4) are
liable to dissolution, because we are mortal: but the spirits of God
both live, and are lasting, and have perception; because He Himself is
immortal, and the Giver both of perception(5) and life. Our
expressions, although they are mingled with the air, and fade away, yet
generally remain comprised in letters; how much more must we believe
that the voice of God both remains for ever, and is accompanied with
perception and power, which it has derived from God the Father,
as a stream from its fountain! But if any one wonders that God could be
produced from God by a putting forth of the voice and breath, if
he is acquainted with the sacred utterances of the prophets he
will cease to wonder. That Solomon and his father David were most
powerful kings, and also prophets, may perhaps be known even to those
who have not applied themselves to the sacred writings; the one of
whom, who reigned subsequently to the other, preceded the
destruction of the city of Troy by one hundred and forty years. His
father, the writer of sacred hymns, thus speaks in the thirty-second
Psalm:(6) "By the word of God we, re the heavens made firm; and all
their power(7) by the breath of His mouth." And also again in the
forty-fourth Psalm:(8) "My heart hath given utterance to a good word; I
speak of my doings towards the king;" testifying, in truth, that the
works of God are known to no other than to the Son alone, who is the
Word of God, and who must reign for ever. Solomon also shows that it is
the Word of God, and no other,(9) by whose hands these works of the
world were made. "I," He says, "came forth out of the mouth of the Most
High before all creatures: I caused the light that faileth not to arise
in the heavens, and covered the whole earth with a cloud. I have dwelt
in the height, and my throne is in the pillar of the cloud."(10) John
also thus taught: "In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with
God, and the Word was God. The same was in the beginning with God. All
things were made by Him, and without Him was not anything made."(11)
CHAP. IX.--OF THE WORD OF GOD.
But the Greeks speak of Him as the Logos,(12) more
befittingly than we do as the word, or speech: for Logos signifies both
speech and reason, inasmuch as He is both the voice and the wisdom of
God. And of this divine speech not even the philosophers were ignorant,
since Zeno represents the Logos as the arranger of the established
order of things, and the framer of the universe: whom also He calls
Fate, and the necessity of things, and God, and the soul of Jupiter, in
accordance with the custom, indeed, by which they are wont to regard
Jupiter as God. But the words are no obstacle, since the sentiment is
in agreement with the truth. For it is the spirit of God which he named
the soul of Jupiter. For Trismegistus, who by some means or other
searched into almost all truth, often described the excellence and
majesty of the word, as the instance before mentioned declares, in
which he acknowledges that there is an ineffable and sacred speech, the
relation of which exceeds the measure of man's ability. I have spoken
briefly, as I have been able, concerning the first nativity. Now I must
more fully discuss the second, since this is the subject most
controverted, that we may hold forth the light of understanding to
those who desire to know the truth.
108
CHAP. X.--OF THE ADVENT OF JESUS; OF THE FORTUNES OF THE JEWS, AND
THEIR GOVERNMENT, UNTIL THE PASSION OF THE LORD.
In the first place, then, men ought to know that the
arrangements of the Most High God have so advanced from the beginning,
that it was necessary, as the end of the world(1) approached, that the
Son of God should descend to the earth, that He might build a temple
for God, and teach righteousness; but, however, not with the might of
an angel or with heavenly power, but in the form of man and in the
condition of a mortal, that when He had discharged the office of His
ministry,(2) He might be delivered into the hands of wicked men, and
might undergo death, that, having subdued this also by His might, He
might rise again, and bring to man, whose nature He had put on(3) and
represented, the hope of overcoming death, and might admit him to the
rewards of immortality. And that no one may be ignorant of this
arrangement, we will show that all things were foretold which we see
fulfilled in Christ. Let no one believe our assertion unless I shall
show that the prophets before a long series of ages published that it
should come to pass at length that the Son of God should be born as a
man, and perform wonderful deeds, and sow(4) the worship of God
throughout the whole earth, and at last be crucified, and on the third
day rise again. And when I shall have proved all these things by the
writings of those very men who treated with violence their God who had
assumed a mortal body, what else will prevent it from being
manifest that true wisdom is conversant with this religion only? Now
the origin of the whole mystery is to be related.
Our ancestors,(5) who were chiefs of the Hebrews,
when they were distressed by famine and want, passed over into Egypt,
that they might obtain a supply of corn; and sojourning there a long
time, they were oppressed with an intolerable yoke of slavery. Then God
pitied them, and led them out, and freed them from the hand of the king
of the Egyptians, after four hundred and thirty(6) years, under the
leadership of Moses, through whom the law was afterwards given to
them by God; and in this leading out God displayed the power of His
majesty. For He made His people to pass through the midst of the
Red
Sea, His angel(7) going before and dividing the water, so that the
people might walk over the dry land, of whom it might more truly be
said (as the poet says(8)), that "the wave, closing over him after the
appearance of a mountain, stood around him." And when he heard of this,
the tyrant of the Egyptians followed with this great host of his men,
and rashly entering the sea which still lay open, was destroyed,
together with his whole army, by the waves returning(9) to their place.
But the Hebrews, when they had entered into the wilderness, saw many
wonderful deeds. For when they suffered thirst, a rock having been
struck with a rod, a fountain of water sprung forth and refreshed the
people. And again, when they were hungry, a shower(10) of heavenly
nourishment descended. Moreover, also, the wind(11) brought quails into
their camp, so that they were not only satisfied with heavenly bread,
but also with more choice banquets. And yet, in return for these divine
benefits, they did not pay honour to God; but when slavery had been now
removed from them, and their thirst and hunger laid aside, they fell
away into luxury, and transferred their minds to the profane rites of
the Egyptians. For when Moses, their leader, had ascended into
the mountain, and there tarried forty days, they made the head(12) of
an ox in gold, which they call Apis,(13) that it might go before them
as a standard.(14) With which sin and crime God was offended, and
justly visited the impious and ungrateful people with severe
punishments, and made them subject to the law(15) which He had given by
Moses.
But afterwards, when they had settled in a desert
part of Syria, the Hebrews(16) lost their ancient name; and since the
leader of their host(17) was Judas, they were called Jews,(18) and the
land which they inhabited Judaea. And at
109
first, indeed, they were not subject to the dominion of Kings, but
civil Judges presided over the people and the law: they were not,
however, appointed only for a year, as the Roman consuls, but supported
by a perpetual jurisdiction. Then, the name of Judges being taken away,
the kingly power was introduced. But during the government of the
Judges the people had often undertaken corrupt religious rites; and
God, offended by them, as often brought them into bondage to n
strangers, until again, softened by the repentance of the people,
He freed them from bondage. Likewise under the Kings, being
oppressed by wars with their neighbours on account of their
iniquities, and at last taken captive and led to Babylon, they
suffered punishment for their impiety by oppressive slavery, until
Cyrus came to the kingdom, who immediately restored the Jews by an
edict. Afterwards they had tetrarchs until the time of Herod, who was
in the reign of Tiberius Caesar; in whose fifteenth year, in the
consulship of the two Gemini, on the 23d of March,(1) the Jews
crucified Christ. This series of events, this order, is contained in
the secrets of the sacred writings. But I will first show for what
reason Christ came to the earth, that the foundation and the system of
divine religion may be manifest.
CHAP. XI.--OF THE
CAUSE OF THE INCARNATION OF CHRIST.
When the Jews often resisted wholesome precepts, and
departed from the divine law, going astray to the impious worship of
false gods, then God filled just and chosen men with the Holy Spirit,
appointing them as prophets in the midst of the people, by whom He
might rebuke with threatening words the sins of the ungrateful people,
and nevertheless exhort them to repent of their wickedness; for unless
they did this, and, laying aside their vanities, return to their God,
it would come to pass that He would change His covenant,(2) that is,
bestow(3) the inheritance of eternal life upon foreign nations, and
collect to Himself a more faithful people out of those who were
aliens(4) by birth. But they, when rebuked by the prophets, not only
rejected their words; but being offended because they were upbraided
for their sins, they slew the prophets themselves with studied(5)
tortures: all which things are sealed up and preserved in the sacred
writings. For the prophet Jeremiah says:(6) "I
sent to you my servants the prophets; I sent them before the morning
light; but ye did not hearken, nor incline your ears to hear, when I
spake unto you: let every one of you turn from his evil way, and from
your most corrupt affections; and ye shall dwell in the land which I
gave to you and to your fathers for ever.(7) Walk ye not after strange
gods, to serve them; and provoke me not to anger with the works of your
hands, that I should destroy you." The prophet Ezra(8) also, who was in
the times of the same Cyrus by whom the Jews were restored, thus
speaks: They rebelled against Thee, and cast Thy law behind their
backs, and slew Thy prophets which testified against them, that they
might turn unto Thee."
The prophet Elias also, in the third book of
Kings:(9) "I have been very jealous(10) for the Lord God of hosts,
because the children of Israel have forsaken Thee, thrown down Thine
altars, and slain Thy prophets with the sword; and I only am left, and
they seek my life to take it away." On account of these impieties of
theirs He cast them off for ever;(11) and so He ceased to send to them
prophets. But He commanded His own Son, the first-begotten,(12) the
maker of all things, His own counsellor, to descend from heaven, that
He might transfer the sacred religion of God to the Gentiles,(13) that
is, to those who were ignorant of God, and might teach them
righteousness, which the perfidious people had cast aside· And
He had long before threatened that He would do this, as the prophet
Malachi(14) shows, saying: "I have no pleasure in you, saith the Lord,
and I will not accept an offering from your hands; for from the rising
of the sun even unto its setting, my name shall be great(15) among the
Gentiles." David also in the seventeenth Psalm(16) says: "Thou wilt
make me the head of the heathen; a people whom I have not known shall
serve me" Isaiah(17) also thus speaks: "I come to gather all nations
and tongues; and they shall come and see my glory; and I will send
among them a sign, and I will send those that escape of them unto the
nations which are afar off, which have not heard my fame; and they
shall declare my glory among
110
the Gentiles." Therefore, when God wished to send to the earth one who
should measure(1) His temple, He was unwilling to send him with
heavenly power and glory, that the people who had been ungrateful
towards God might be led into the greatest error, and suffer punishment
for their crimes, since they had not received their Lord and God, as
the prophets had before foretold that it would thus happen. For Isaiah
whom the Jews most cruelly slew, cutting him asunder with a saw,(2)
thus speaks:(3) "Hear, O heaven; and give ear, O earth: for the Lord
hath spoken, I have begotten sons, and lifted(4) them up on high, and
they have rejected me. The ox knoweth his owner, and the ass his
master's stall; but Israel hath not known, my people has not
understood." Jeremiah also says, in like manner:(5) "The turtle and the
swallow hath known her time, and the sparrows of the field have
observed(6) the tithes of their coining: but my people have not known
the judgment of the Lord. How do you say, We are wise, and the law of
the Lord is with us? The meting out(7) is in vain; the scribes are
deceived and confounded: the wise men are dismayed and taken, for they
have rejected the word of the Lord."
Therefore (as I had begun to say), when God had
determined to send to men a teacher of righteousness, He commanded Him
to be born again a second time in the flesh, and to be made in the
likeness of man himself, to whom he was about to be a guide, and
companion, and teacher. But since God is kind and merciful(8) to His
people, He sent Him to those very persons whom He hated,(9) that He
might not close the way of salvation against them for ever, but might
give them a free opportunity of following God, that they might both
gain the reward of life if they should follow Him (which many of them
do, and have done), and that they might incur the penalty of death by
their fault if they should reject their King. He ordered Him therefore
to be born again among them, and of their seed, lest, if He should be
born of another nation, they might be able to allege a just excuse from
the law for their rejection of Him; and at the same time, that there
might be no nation at all under heaven to which the hope of immortality
should be denied.
CHAP. XII.--OF THE BIRTH OF JESUS FROM THE VIRGIN; OF HIS LIFE, DEATH,
AND RESURRECTION, AND THE TESTIMONIES OF THE PROPHETS RESPECTING THESE
THINGS.
Therefore the Holy Spirit of God, descending from
heaven, chose the holy Virgin, that He might enter into her womb.(10)
But she, I being filled by the possession(11) of the Divine Spirit,
conceived; and without any intercourse with a man, her virgin womb was
suddenly impregned. But if it is known to all that certain animals are
accustomed to conceive(12) by the wind and the breeze, why should any
one think it wonderful when we say that a virgin was made fruitful by
the Spirit of God, to whom whatever He may wish is easy? And this might
have appeared incredible, had not the prophets many ages previously
foretold its occurrence. Thus Solomon speaks:(13) "The womb of a virgin
was strengthened, and conceived; and a virgin was made fruitful, and
became a mother in great pity." Likewise the prophet Isaiah,(14) whose
words are these: "Therefore God Himself shall give you a sign: Behold,
a virgin shall conceive, and bear a son; and ye shall call His name
Emmanuel." What can be more manifest than this? This was read by the
Jews, who denied Him. If any one thinks that these things are invented
by us, let him inquire of them, let him take especially from them: the
testimony is sufficiently strong to prove the truth, when it is alleged
by enemies themselves, But He was never called Emmanuel, but Jesus, who
in Latin is called Saving, or Saviour,(15) because He comes bringing
salvation to all nations. But by this name the prophet declared that
God incarnate was about to come to men. For Emmanuel signifies God with
us; because when He was born of a virgin, men ought to confess
that God was with them, that is, on the earth and in mortal flesh.
Whence David(16) says in the eighty-fourth Psalm, "Truth has sprung out
of the earth;" because God, in whom is truth, hath taken a body of
earth, that He might open a way of salvation to those of the earth. In
like manner Isaiah also:(17) "But they disbelieved, and vexed His Holy
111
Spirit; and He was turned to be their enemy. And He Himself fought
against them, and He remembered the days of old,(1) who raised up from
the earth a shepherd of the sheep." But who this shepherd was about to
be, he declared in another place,(2) saying: "Let the heavens rejoice,
and let the clouds put on righteousness; let the earth open, and put
forth a Saviour. For I the Lord have begotten Him." But the Saviour is,
as we have said before, Jesus. But in another place the same prophet
also thus proclaimed:(3) "Behold, unto us a child is born, unto us a
Son is given, whose dominion is upon His shoulders, and His name is
called Messenger of great counsel." For on this account He was sent by
God the Father, that He might reveal to all the nations which are under
heaven the sacred mystery of the only true God, which was taken away
from the perfidious people, who ofttimes sinned against God. Daniel
also foretold similar things:(4) "I saw," he said, "in a vision of the
night, and, behold, one like the Son of man coming with the clouds of
heaven, and He came even to the Ancient of days. And they who stood by
brought Him near(5) s before Him. And there was given unto Him a
kingdom, and glory, and dominion; and all people, tribes, and languages
shall serve Him: and His dominion is everlasting, which shall never
pass away, and His kingdom shall not be destroyed." How then do the
Jews both confess and expect the Christ of God? who rejected Him on
this account, because He was born of man. For since it is so arranged
by God that the same Christ should twice come to the earth, once to
announce to the nations the one God, then again to reign, why do they
who did not believe in His first advent believe in the second?
But the prophet comprises both His advents in few
words. Behold, he says, one like the Son of man coming with the clouds
of heaven. He did not say, like the Son of God, but the Son of man,
that he might show that He had(6) to be clothed with flesh on the
earth, that having assumed the form of a man and the condition of
mortality, He might teach men righteousness; and when, having completed
the commands of God, He had revealed the truth to the nations, He might
also suffer death, that He might overcome and lay open(7) the other
world also, and thus at length rising again, He might proceed to His
Father borne aloft on a cloud.(8) For the prophet said in addition: And
came even to the Ancient of days, and was presented to Him. He called
the Most High God the Ancient of days, whose age and origin cannot be
comprehended; for He alone was from generations, and He will be always
to generations.(9) But that Christ, after His passion and resurrection,
was about to ascend to God the Father, David bore witness in these
words in the cixth Psalm:(10) "The Lord said unto my Lord, Sit Thou at
my right hand, until I make Thine enemies Thy footstool." Whom could
this prophet, being himself a king, call his Lord, who sat at the right
hand of God, but Christ the Son of God, who is King of kings and Lord
of lords? And this is more plainly shown by Isaiah,(11) when he says:
"Thus saith the Lord God to my Lord Christ, whose right hand I have
holden; I will subdue nations before Him, and will break the
strength of kings. I will open before Him gates, and the cities shall
not be closed. I will go before Thee, and will make the mountains
level; and I will break in pieces the gates of brass, and shatter the
bars of iron; and I will give Thee the hidden and invisible
treasures, that Thou mayest know that I am the Lord God, which call
Thee by Thy name, the God of Israel." Lastly, on account of the
goodness and faithfulness which He displayed towards God on earth,
there was given to Him a kingdom, and glory, and dominion; and all
people, tribes, and languages shall serve Him; and His dominion is
everlasting, and that which shall never pass away, and His kingdom
shall not be destroyed. And this is understood in two ways: that even
now He has an everlasting dominion, when all nations and all
languages adore His name, confess His majesty, follow His teaching, and
imitate His goodness: He has power and glory, in that all tribes of the
earth obey His precepts. And also, when He shall come again with
majesty and glory to judge every soul, and to restore the righteous to
life, then He shall truly have the government of the whole earth: then,
every evil having been removed from the affairs of men, a golden age
(as the poets call it), that is, a time of righteousness and peace,
will arise. But we will speak of these things more fully in the last
book, when we shall speak of His second advent; now let us treat of His
first advent, as we began.
CHAP. XIII.--OF JESUS, GOD AND MAN; AND THE TESTIMONIES OF THE PROPHETS
CONCERNING HIM.
Therefore the Most High God, and Parent of all, when
He had purposed to transfer(12) His
112
religion, sent from heaven a teacher of righteousness, that in Him or
through Him He might give a new law to new worshippers; not as He had
before done, by the instrumentality of man. Nevertheless it was His
pleasure that He should be born as a man, that in all things He might
be like His supreme Father· For God the Father Himself, who is
the origin and source of all things, inasmuch as He is without parents,
is most truly named by Trismegistus "fatherless" and "motherless,"(1)
because He was born from no one. For which reason it was befitting that
the Son also should be twice born, that He also might become
"fatherless" and "motherless." For in His first nativity, which was
spiritual, He was "motherless," because He was begotten by God the
Father alone, without the office of a mother. But in His second, which
was in the flesh, He was born of a virgin's womb without the office of
a father, that, bearing a middle substance between God and man, He
might be able, as it were, to take by the hand this frail and weak
nature of ours, and raise it to immortality. He became both the Son of
God through the Spirit, and the Son of man through the flesh,--that is,
both God and man. The power of God was displayed in Him, from the works
which He performed; the frailty of the man, from the passion which He
endured: on what account He undertook it I will mention a little later.
In the meantime, we learn from the predictions of the prophets that He
was both God and man-- composed(2) of both natures. Isaiah testifies
that He was God in these words:(3) "Egypt is wearied,(4) and the
merchandise of Ethiopia, and the Sabaeans, men of stature, shall come
over unto Thee, and shall be Thy servants: and they shall walk behind
Thee; in chains they shall fall down unto Thee, and shall make
supplication unto Thee, Since God is in Thee, and there is no other God
besides Thee. For Thou art God, and we knew Thee not, the God of
lsrael, the Savour. They shall all be confounded and ashamed who oppose
Thee, and shall fall into confusion." In like manner the prophet
Jeremiah(5) thus speaks: "This is our God, and there shall none other
be compared unto Him. He hath found out all the way of knowledge, and
hath given it unto Jacob His servant, and to Israel His beloved.
Afterward He was seen upon earth, and dwelt among
men."
David also, in the forty-fourth Psalm:(6) "Thy throne, O God, is for
ever and ever; a sceptre of righteousness is the sceptre of Thy
kingdom. Thou hast loved righteousness, and hated wickedness l
therefore God, Thy God, hath anointed Thee with the oil of gladness."
By which word he also shows His name, since (as I have shown above) He
was called Christ from His anointing. Then, that He was also man,
Jeremiah teaches, saying:(7) "And He is a man, and who hath known Him?"
Also Isaiah:(8) "And God shall send to them a man, who shall save them,
shall save them by judging." But Moses also, in Numbers,(9) thus
speaks: "There shall arise a star out of Jacob, and a man(10) shall
spring forth from Israel." On which account the Milesian Apollo,(11)
being asked whether He was God or man, replied in this manner:
"He was mortal as to His body, being wise with wondrous works;
but being taken with arms under Chaldean judges, with nails and
the cross He endured a bitter end." In the first verse he spoke
the truth, but he skilfully deceived him who asked the question,
who was entirely ignorant of the mystery of the truth. For he appears
to have
denied that He was God. But when he acknowledges that He was
mortal as to the flesh, which we also declare, it follows that as to
the spirit He was God, which we affirm. For why would it have been
necessary to make mention of the flesh, since it was sufficient to say
that He was mortal? But being pressed by the truth, he could not deny
the real state of the case; as that which he says, that He was wise.
What do you reply to this, Apollo? If he is wise,
then his system of instruction is wisdom, and no other; and they are
wise who follow it, and no others. Why then are we commonly esteemed as
foolish, and visionary, and senseless, who follow a Master who is wise
even by the confession of the gods themselves? For in that he said that
He wrought wonderful deeds, by which He especially claimed faith is His
divinity, he now appears to assent to us, when he says the same things
in which we boast. But, however, he recovers himself, and again has
recourse to demoniacal frauds. For when he had been compelled to speak
the truth, he now appeared to be a betrayer of the gods and of himself,
unless he had, by a deceptive falsehood, concealed that which the truth
had extorted from him. He says, therefore, that He did indeed perform
won-
113
derful works, yet not by divine power, but by magic. What wonder if
Apollo thus persuaded men ignorant of the truth, when the Jews also,
worshippers (as they seemed to be) of the Most High God, entertained
the same opinion, though they had every day before their eyes those
mira- cles which the prophets had foretold to them as about to
happen, and yet they could not be induced by the contemplation of such
powers to believe that He whom they saw was God? On this account,
David, whom they especially read above the other prophets, in the
twenty-seventh Psalm(1) thus condemns them: "Render to them their
desert, because they regard not the works of the Lord." Both David
himself and other prophets announced that of the house of this very
David, Christ should be born according to the flesh. Thus it is written
in Isaiah:(2) "And in that day there shall be a root of Jesse, and He
who shall arise to rule over the nations, in Him shall the Gentiles
trust; and His rest shall be glorious." And in another place:(3) "There
shall come forth a rod out of the stem of Jesse, and a blossom(4) shall
grow out of his root; and the Spirit of God shall rest upon Him, the
spirit of wisdom and understanding, the spirit of counsel and of might,
the spirit of knowledge and of piety; and He shall be filled(5)
with the spirit of fear of the Lord." Now Jesse was the father of
David, from whose root he foretold that a blossom would arise; namely
him of whom the Sibyl speaks, "A pure blossom shall spring forth."
Also in the second book of Kings, the prophet Nathan
was sent to David, who wished to build a temple for God; and this was
the word of the Lord to Nathan, saying:(6) "Go and tell my servant
David, Thus saith the Lord Almighty, Thou shall not build me a house
for me to dwell in; but when thy days be fulfilled, and thou shalt
sleep with thy fathers, I will raise up thy seed after thee, and I will
establish His kingdom. He shall build me a house for my name, and I
will set up His throne for ever; and I will be to Him for a father, and
He shall be to me for a son; and His house shall be established,(7) and
His kingdom for ever." But the reason why the Jews did not understand
these things was this, because Solomon the son of David built a temple
for God, and the city which he called from his own name, Jerusalem.(8)
Therefore they referred the predictions of the prophets to him. Now
Solomon received the government of the kingdom from his father himself.
But the prophets spoke of Him who was then born after that David had
slept with his fathers. Besides, the reign of Solomon was not
everlasting; for he reigned forty years. In the next place, Solomon was
never called the son of God, but the son of David; and the house which
he built was not firmly established,(9) as the Church, which is the
true temple of God, which does not consist of walls, but of the
heart(10) and faith of the men who believe on Him, and are called
faithful. But that temple of Solomon, inasmuch as it was built by the
hand, fell by the hand. Lastly, his father, in the cxxvith Psalm,
prophesied in this manner respecting the works of his son:(11) "Except
the Lord build the house, they have laboured in vain that built it;
except the Lord keep the city, the watchman hath waked but in vain."
CHAP. XIV.--OF THE PRIESTHOOD OF JESUS FORE-
TOLD BY THE PROPHETS.
From which things it is evident that all the
prophets declared concerning Christ, that it should come to pass at
some time, that being born with a body(12) of the race of David, He
should build an eternal temple in honour of God, which is called the
Church, and assemble all nations to the true worship of God. This is
the faithful house, this is the everlasting temple; and if any one hath
not sacrificed in this, he will not have the reward of immortality. And
since Christ was the builder of this great and eternal temple, He must
also have an everlasting priesthood in it; and there can be no approach
to the shrine of the temple, and to the sight of God, except through
Him who built the temple. David in the cixth Psalm teaches the
same, saying:(13) "Before the morning-star I begat Thee. The Lord
hath sworn, and will not repent; Thou art a priest for ever, after the
order of Melchisedec." Also in the first book of Kings:(14) "And
I will raise me up a faithful Priest, who shall do all things that are
in mine heart; and I will build him a sure(15) house; and he shall walk
in my sight(16) all his days." But who this was about to be, to whom
God promised an everlasting priesthood, Zechariah most plainly teaches,
even mentioning His name:(17) "And the Lord God showed
114
me Jesus(1) the great Priest standing before the face of the angel of
the Lord, and the adversary(2) was standing at His right hand to resist
Him. And the Lord said unto the adversary, The Lord who hath chosen
Jerusalem rebuke thee; and lo, a brand plucked out of the fire. And
Jesus was clothed with filthy garments, and He was standing before the
face of the angel. And He answered and spake unto those that stood
around before His face, saying, Take away the filthy garments from Him,
and clothe Him with a flowing(3) garment, and place a fair mitre(4)
upon His head; and they clothed Him with a garment, and placed a fair
mitre upon His head. And the angel of the Lord stood, and protested,
saying to Jesus: Thus saith the Lord of hosts, If Thou wilt walk in my
ways, and keep my precepts, Thou shalt judge my house, and I will give
Thee those that may walk with Thee in the midst of these that stand by.
Hear, therefore, O Jesus, Thou great Priest."
Who, therefore, would not believe that the Jews were
then deprived of understanding, who, when they read and heard these
things, laid impious hands upon their God? But from the time in which
Zechariah lived, until the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberius
Caesar, in which Christ was crucified, nearly five hundred years are
reckoned; since he flourished in the time of Darius and Alexander,(5)
who lived not long after the banishment of Tarquinius Superbus. But
they were again misled and deceived in the same manner, in supposing
that these things were spoken concerning Jesus(6) the son of Nave, who
was the successor of Moses, or concerning Jesus the high priest the son
of Josedech; to whom none of those things which the prophet related was
suited. For they were never clothed in filthy garments, since one of
them was a most powerful prince, and the other high priest; or suffered
any adversity, so that they should be regarded as a brand plucked from
the fire: not did they ever stand in the presence of God and the
angels; nor did the prophet speak of the past so much as of the future.
He spoke, therefore, of Jesus the Son of God, to show that He would
first come in humility and in the flesh. For this is the filthy
garment, that He might prepare a temple for God, and might be
scorched(7) as a brand with fire--that is, might endure tortures from
men, and at last be extinguished. For a haft-burnt brand drawn forth
from the hearth and extinguished, is commonly so called,(8) But in
what manner and with what commands He was sent by God to the
earth, the Spirit of God declared through the prophet, teaching us that
when
He had faithfully and uniformly fulfilled the will of His supreme
Father, He should receive judgment(9) and an everlasting dominion. If,
He
says, Thou wilt walk in my ways, and keep my precepts, then Thou
shalt judge my house. What these ways of God were, and what His
precepts, is neither doubtful nor obscure. For God, when He saw
that wickedness and the worship of false gods had so prevailed
throughout the world, that His name had now also been taken away from
the memory of men (since even the Jews, who alone had been entrusted
with the secret of God, had deserted the living God, and, ensared by
the deceits of demons, had gone astray, and turned aside to the worship
of images, and when rebuked by the prophets did not choose to return to
God), He sent His Son(10) as an ambassador to men, that He might turn
them from their impious and vain worship to the knowledge and worship
of the true God; and also that He might turn their minds from
foolishness to wisdom, and from wickedness to deeds of righteousness.
These are the ways of God, in which He enjoined Him to walk. These are
the precepts which He ordered to be observed. But He exhibited faith
towards God. For He taught that there is but one God, and that He alone
ought to be worshipped. Nor did He at any time say that He Himself was
God; for He would not have maintained His faithfulness, if, when sent
to abolish the false gods, and to assert the existence of the one God,
He had introduced another besides that one. This would have been not to
proclaim one God, nor to do the work of Him who sent Him, but to
discharge a peculiar office for Himself, and to separate Himself from
Him whom He came to reveal. On which account, because He was so
faithful, because He arrogated nothing at all to Himself, that He might
fulfil the commands of Him who sent Him, He received the dignity of
everlasting Priest, and the honour of supreme King, and the authority
of Judge, and the name of God.
CHAP. XV.--OF THE LIFE AND MIRACLES OF JESUS, AND TESTIMONIES
CONCERNING THEM.
Having spoken of the second nativity, in which, He
showed Himself in the flesh to men, let us come to those wonderful
works, on account of
115
which, though they were signs of heavenly power, the Jews esteemed Him
a magician. When He first began to reach maturity(1) He was baptized by
the prophet John in the river Jordan, that He might wash(2) away in the
spiritual layer not His own sins, for it is evident that He had none,
but those of the flesh,(3) which He bare; that as He saved the Jews by
undergoing circumcision, so He might save the Gentiles also by
baptism--that is, by the pouring forth(4) of the purifying dew. Then a
voice from heaven was heard: " Thou art my Son, to-day have I begotten
Thee."(5) Which voice is found to have been foretold by David. And the
Spirit of God descended upon Him, formed after the appearance of a
white dove.(6) From that time He began to perform the greatest
miracles, not by magical tricks, which display nothing true and
substantial, but by heavenly strength and power, which were foretold
even long ago by the prophets who announced Him; which works are so
many, that a single book is not sufficient to comprise them all. I will
therefore enumerate them briefly and generally, without any designation
of persons and places, that I may be able to come to the setting forth
of His passion and cross, to which my discourse has long been
hastening. His powers were those which Apollo called wonderful:(7) that
wherever He journeyed, by a single word, and in a single moment, He
healed the sick and infirm, and those afflicted with every kind of
disease: so that those who were deprived of the use of all their limbs,
having suddenly received power, were strengthened, and themselves
carried their couches, on which they had a little time before been
carried. But to the lame, and to those afflicted with some defect(8) of
the feet, He not only gave the power of walking, but also of running.
Then, also, if any had their eyes blinded in the deepest darkness, He
restored them to their former sight. He also loosened the tongues
of the dumb, so that(9) they discoursed and spoke eloquently. He also
opened the ears of the deaf, and caused them to hear;(10) He cleansed
the polluted and the blemished.(11) And He performed all these things
not by His hands, or the application of any remedy,(12) but by His word
and command, as also the Sibyl had foretold:
"Doing all things by His word, and healing every
disease."
Nor, indeed, is it wonderful that He did wonderful
things by His word, since He Himself was the Word of God, relying upon
heavenly strength and power. Nor was it enough that He gave strength to
the feeble, soundness of body to the maimed, health to the sick and
languishing, unless He also raised the dead, as it were unbound from
sleep, and recalled them to life.
And the Jews, then, when they saw these things,
contended that they were done by demoniacal power, although it was
contained in their secret writings that all things should thus come to
pass as they did. They read indeed the words of other prophets, and of
Isaiah,(13) saying: "Be strong, ye hands that are relaxed; and ye weak
knees, be comforted. Ye who are of a fearful(14) heart, fear not,
be not afraid: our Lord shall execute judgment; He Himself shall come
and save us. Then shall the eyes of the blind be opened, and the ears
of the deaf shall hear: then shall the lame man leap as a deer, and the
tongue of the dumb speak plainly:(15) for in the wilderness water hath
broken forth, and a stream in the thirsty land." But the Sibyl also
foretold the same things in these verses:--
"And there shall be a rising again of the dead; and the course of the
lame shall be swift, and the deaf shall hear, and
the blind shall see,the dumb shall speak."
On account of these powers and divine works wrought by Him when a great
multitude followed Him of the maimed, or sick, or of those who desired
to present their sick to be healed, He went up into a desert mountain
to pray there. And when He had tarried there three days, and the people
were suffering from hunger, He called His disciples, and asked what
quantity of food(16) they had with them. But they said that they had
five loaves and two fishes in a wallet. Then He commanded that these
should be brought forward, and that the multitude, distributed by
riffles, should recline an the ground. When the disciples did this, He
Himself broke the bread in pieces, and divided the flesh of the fishes,
and in His hands both of them were increased. And when He had ordered
the disciples to set them before the people, five thousand men
were satisfied, and moreover twelve baskets(17) were filled from
the fragments which remained. What can be more wonderful, either in
narration or in ac-
116
lion? But the Sibyl had before foretold that it would take place,
whose verses are related to this effect:--
"With five loaves at the same time, and with two
fishes, He shallsatisfy five thousand men in the wilderness; And
afterwards taking allthe fragments that remain, He shall fill twelve
baskets to the hope ofmany."
I ask, therefore, what the art of magic could have contrived in this
case, the skill of which is of avail for nothing else than for
deceiving(1) the eves? He also, when He was about to retire to a
mountain, as He was wont, for the sake of prayer, directed His
disciples to take a small ship and go before Him. But they, setting out
when evening was now coming on, began to be distressed(2) through a
contrary wind. And when they were now in the midst of the sea,(3) then,
setting His feet on the sea,(4) He came up to them, walking as though
on the solid ground,(5) not as the poets fable Orion walking on the
sea, who, while a part of his body was sunk in the water,
"With his shoulder rises above
the waves."(6)
And again, when He had gone to sleep in the ship, and the wind had
begun to rage, even to the extremity of danger, being aroused from
sleep, He immediately ordered the wind to be silent; and the waves,
which were borne with great violence, were still, and immediately at
His word there followed a calm.
But perhaps the sacred writings(7) speak falsely,
when they teach that there was such power in Him, that by His command
He compelled the winds to obey, the seas to serve Him, diseases to
depart, the dead to be submissive. Why should I say that the Sibyls
before taught the same things in their verses? one of whom, already
mentioned, thus speaks:--
"He shall still the winds by His word, and calm the
sea
As it rages, treading with feet of peace and in
faith."
And again another, which says:--
"He shall walk on the waves, He shall release men
from disease.
He shall raise the dead, and drive away many pains;
And from the bread of one wallet there shall be a
satisfying of men."
Some, refuted by these testimonies, are accustomed to have recourse to
the assertion that these poems were not by the Sibyls, but made up and
composed by our own writers. But he will assuredly not think this who
has read Cicero,(8) and Varro, and other ancient writers, who make
mention of the Erythraean and the other Sibyls, from whose books we
bring forward these examples; and these authors died before the birth
of Christ according to the flesh. But I do not doubt that these poems
were in former times regarded as ravings, since no one then understood
them. For they announced some marvellous wonders, of which neither the
manner, nor the time, nor the author was signified. Lastly, the
Erythraean Sibyl says that it would come to pass that she would be
called mad and deceitful. But assuredly
"They will say
that the Sibyl
Is mad, and deceitful: but when all things shall come
to pass,
Then ye will remember me; and no one will any longer
Say that I, the prophetess of the great God, am mad."
Therefore they were(9) neglected for many ages; but they received
attention after the nativity and passion of Christ had revealed secret
things. Thus it was also with the utterances of the prophets, which
were read by the people of the Jews for fifteen hundred years and more,
but yet were not understood until after Christ had explained(10) them
both by His word and by His works. For the prophets spoke of Him; nor
could the things which they said have been in any way understood,
unless they had been altogether fulfilled.
CHAP. XVI.--OF THE PASSION OF JESUS CHRIST;
THAT IT WAS FORETOLD.
I come now to the passion itself, which is often
cast in our teeth as a reproach:(11) that we worship a man, and one who
was visited and tormented with remarkable punishment: that I may show
that this very passion was undergone by Him in accordance with a great
and divine plan, and that goodness and truth and wisdom are contained
in it alone. For if He had been most happy on the earth, and had
reigned through all His life in the greatest prosperity, no wise man
would either have believed Him to be a God, or judged Him worthy of
divine honour: which is the case with those who are destitute of true
divinity, who not only look up(12) to perishable riches, and frail
power, and the advantages arising from the benefit of another, but even
consecrate them, and knowingly do service to the memory of the dead,
worshipping fortune when it is now extinguished, which the wise never
regarded as an object of worship even when alive and present with them.
For nothing among earthly things can be venerable and worthy of heaven;
but it is virtue alone, and justice
117
alone, which can be judged a true and heavenly, and perpetual
good, because it is neither given to any one, nor taken away. And since
Christ came upon earth, supplied with virtue and righteousness, yea
rather, since He Himself is virtue and Himself righteousness, He
descended that He might teach it and mould the character of man. And
having performed this office and embassy from God, on account of this
very virtue which He at once taught and practised, He deserved, and was
able, to be believed a God by all nations. Therefore, when a great
multitude from time to time flocked to Him, either on account of the
righteousness which He taught or on account of the miracles which He
worked, and heard His precepts, and believed that He was sent by
God, and that He was the Son of God, then the rulers and priests of the
Jews, excited with anger because they were rebuked by Him as sinners,
and perverted by envy, because, while the multitude flocked to
Him, they saw themselves despised and deserted, and (that which was the
crowning point of their guilt) blinded by folly and error, and
unmindful of the instructors sent from heaven, and of the prophets,
they caballed against Him, and conceived the impious design of putting
Him to death, and torturing Him: of which the prophets had long before
written.
For both David, in the beginning of his Psalms,
foreseeing in spirit what a crime they were about to commit, says,(1)
"Blessed is the man who hath not walked in the way of the ungodly;" and
Solomon in the book of Wisdom used these words:(2) "Let us defraud the
righteous, for he is unpleasant to us, and upbraideth us with our
offences against the law. He maketh his boast that he has the knowledge
of God; and he calleth himself the Son of God. He is made to reprove(3)
our thoughts: it grieveth us even to look upon him: for his life
is not like the life of others; his ways are of another fashion.(4) We
are counted by him as triflers,(5) he withdraweth himself from
our ways as from filthiness; he commendeth greatly(6) the latter end of
the just, and boasteth that he has God for his Father. Let us see,
therefore, if his words be true; let us prove what end(7) he shall have
let us examine him with rebukes and torments that we may know his
meekness,(8) and prove his patience; let us condemn him to a shameful
death. Such things have they imagined, and have gone astray. For their
own folly hath blinded them, and they do not understand the
mysteries(9) of God." Does he not describe that impious design entered
into by the wicked against God, so that he clearly appears to have been
present? But from Solomon, who foretold these things, to the time of
their accomplishment, ten hundred and ten years intervened. We feign
nothing; we add nothing. They who performed the actions had these
accounts; they, against whom these things were spoken, read them. But
even now the inheritors of their name and guilt have these accounts,
and in their daily readings re-echo their own condemnation as foretold
by the voice of the prophets; nor do they ever admit them into their
heart, which is also itself a part of their condemnation. The Jews,
therefore, being often reproved by Christ, who upbraided them with
their sins and iniquities, and being almost deserted by the people,
were stirred up to put Him to death.
Now His humility emboldened them to this deed. For
when they read with what great power and glory the Son of God was about
to descend from heaven, but on the other hand saw Jesus humble,
peaceful, of low condition,(10) without comeliness, they did not
believe that He was the Son of God, being ignorant that two advents on
His part were foretold by the prophets: the first, obscure in humility
of the flesh; the other, manifest in the power of His majesty. Of the
first David thus speaks in the seventy-first Psalm:(11) "He shall
descend as rain upon a fleece; and in His days shall righteousness
spring forth, and abundance of peace, as long as the moon is lifted
up." For as rain, if it descends upon a fleece, cannot be perceived,
because it makes no sound; so he said that Christ would come to the
earth without exciting the notice(12) of any, that He might teach
righteousness and peace. Isaiah also thus spoke:(13) "Lord, who bath
believed our report? and to whom is the arm of the Lord revealed? We
made proclamation(14) before Him as children, and as a root in a
thirsty land: He has no form nor glory; and we saw Him, and He had no
form nor comeliness. But His form was without honour, and
defective beyond the rest of men. He is a man acquainted(15) with
grief, and knowing how to endure infirmity, because He turned(16) His
face away from us; and He was not esteemed. He
118
carries our sins, and He endures pain for us: and we thought that He
Himself(1) was in pain and grief, and vexation. But He was wounded for
our transgressions, He was bruised(2) for our offences; the
chastisement(3) of our peace was upon Him, by His bruises(4) we are
healed. All we like sheep have gone astray, and God hath delivered Him
up for our sins." And in the same manner the Sibyl spoke: "Though an
object of pity, dishonoured, without form, He will give hope to those
who are objects of pity." On account of this humility they did not
recognise their God, and entered into the detestable design of
depriving Him of life, who had come to give them life.
CHAP. XVII.--OF THE SUPERSTITIONS OF THE JEWS, AND THEIR HATRED AGAINST
JESUS.
But they alleged other causes for their anger and
envy, which they bore shut up s within in their hearts--namely, that He
destroyed the obligation(6) of the law given by Moses; that is, that He
did not rest(7) on the Sabbath, but laboured for the good s of men;
that He abolished circumcision; that He took away the necessity of
abstaining from the flesh of swine;(9)--in which things the mysteries
of the Jewish religion consist. On this account, therefore, the rest of
the people, who had not yet withdrawn(10) to Christ, were incited by
the priests to regard Him as impious, because He destroyed the
obligation of the law of God, though He did this not by His own
judgment, but according to the will of God, and after the predictions
of the prophets. For Micah announced that He would give a new law, in
these terms:(11) "The law shall go forth of Zion, and the word of the
Lord from Jerusalem. And He shall judge among many people, and rebuke
strong nations."(12) For the former law, which was given by Moses, was
not given on Mount Zion, but on Mount Horeb;(13) and the Sibyl shows
that it would come to pass that this law would be destroyed by the Son
of God:--
"But when all these things which I told you shall be accomplished,
thenall the law is fulfilled with respect to Him."
But even Moses himself, by whom the law was given which they so
tenaciously maintain, though they have fallen away from God, and have
not acknowledged God, had foretold that it would come to pass that a
very great prophet would be sent by God, who should be above the law,
and be a bearer of the will of God to men. In Deuteronomy he thus left
it written:(14) "And the Lord said unto me, I will raise them up a
Prophet from among their brethren, like unto thee; and I will put my
word in His month, and He shall speak unto them all that I shall
command Him. And whosoever will not hearken to those things which that
Prophet shall speak in my name, I will require(15) it of him." The Lord
evidently announced by the law-giver himself that He was about to send
His own Son-that is, a law alive, anti present(16) in person, and
destroy that old law given by a mortal,(17) that by Him who was eternal
He might ratify afresh a law which was eternal.
In like manner, Isaiah(18) thus prophesied
concerning the abolition of circumcision: "Thus saith the Lord to the
men of Judah who dwell at Jerusalem, Break up your fallow ground, and
sow not among thorns. Circumcise yourselves to the Lord your God, and
take away the foreskins of your heart, lest my fury come forth like
fire, and burn that none can quench it." Also Moses himself says:(19)
"In the last days the Lord shall circumcise thine heart to love the
Lord thy God." Also Jesus(20) the son of Nun, his successor, said: "And
the Lord said unto Jesus, Make thee knives of flint very sharp, and sit
and circumcise the children of Israel the second time." He said that
this second circumcision would be not of the flesh, as the first was,
which the Jews practise even now, but of the heart and spirit, which
was delivered by Christ, who was the true Jesus. For the prophet does
not say, "And the Lord said unto me," but "unto Jesus," that he might
show that God was not speaking of him, but of Christ, to whom God was
then speaking. For that Jesus represented(21) Christ: for when he was
at first called Auses,(22) Moses, foreseeing the future, ordered that
he should be called Jesus; that since he had been chosen as the leader
of the warfare
119
against Amalek, who was the enemy of the children of Israel, he might
both subdue the adversary by the emblem(1) of the name, and lead the
people into the land of promise. And for this reason he was also
successor to Moses, to show that the new law given by Christ Jesus was
about to succeed to the old law which was given by Moses. For that
circumcision of the flesh is plainly irrational; since, if God had so
willed it, He might so have formed man from the beginning, that he
should be without a foreskin. But it was a figure of this second
circumcision, signifying that the breast is to be laid bare; that is,
that we ought to live with an open and simple heart, since that part of
the body which is circumcised has a kind of resemblance to the heart,
and is to be treated with reverence. On this account God ordered
that it should be laid bare, that by this argument He might admonish us
not to have our breast hidden(2) in obscurity; that is, not to veil any
shameful deed within the secrets of conscience. This is the
circumcision of the heart of which the prophets speak, which God
transferred from the mortal flesh to the soul, which alone is about to
endure. For being desirous of promoting our life and salvation in
accordance with His own goodness, in that circumcision He hath set
before us repentance, that if we lay open our hearts,--that is if we
confess our sins and make satisfaction to God,--we shall obtain pardon,
which is denied to those who are obstinate and conceal their faults, by
Him who regards not the outward appearance, as man does, but the
innermost secrets of the heart.(3)
The forbidding of the flesh of swine also has the
same intention; for when God commanded them to abstain from this, He
willed that this should be especially understood, that they should
abstain from sins and impurities. For this animal is filthy and
unclean,(4) and never looks up to heaven,(5) but prostrates itself to
the earth with its whole body and face: it is always the slave of its
appetite and food; nor during its life can it afford any other service,
as the other animals do, which either afford a vehicle for riding,(6)
or aid in the cultivation of the fields, or draw waggons by their neck,
or carry burthens on their back, or furnish a covering with their
skins,(7) or abound with a supply of milk, or keep watch for guarding
our houses. Therefore He forbade them to use the flesh of the pig for
food, that is, not to imitate the life of swine, which are nourished
only for death; lest, by devoting themselves to their appetite and
pleasures, they should be useless for working righteousness, and should
be visited with death. Also that they should not immerse themselves in
foul lusts, as the sow, which wallows in the mire;(8) of that they do
not serve earthly images, and thus defile themselves with mud: for they
do bedaub themselves with mud who worship gods, that is, who worship
mud and earth. Thus all the precepts of the Jewish law have for their
object the setting forth of righteousness, since they are given in a
mysterious(9) manner, that under the figure of carnal things those
which are spiritual might be known.
CHAP, XVIII.--OF THE LORD'S PASSION, AND THAT
IT WAS FORETOLD.
When, therefore, Christ fulfilled these things which
God would have done, and which He foretold many ages before by His
prophets, incited by these things, and ignorant of the sacred
Scriptures, they conspired together to condemn their God. And though He
knew that this would come to pass, and repeatedly(10) said that He must
suffer and be put to death for the salvation of many, nevertheless He
withdrew Himself with His disciples, not that He might avoid that which
it was necessary for Him to undergo and endure, but that He might show
what ought to take place in every persecution, that no one should
appear to have fallen into it through his own fault: and He announced
that it would come to pass that He should be betrayed by one of them.
And thus Judas, induced by a bribe, delivered up to the Jews the Son of
God. But they took and brought Him before Pontius Pilate, who at that
time was administering the province of Syria as governor,(11) and
demanded that He should be crucified, though they laid nothing else to
His charge except that He said that He was the Son of God, the King of
the Jews; also His own saying,(12) "Destroy this temple, which was
forty-six years in building, and in three days I will raise it up again
without hands,"
120
--signifying that His passion would shortly take place, and that He,
having been put to death by the Jews, would rise again on the third
day. For He Himself was the true temple of God. They inveighed against
these expressions of His, as ill-omened and impious. And when Pilate
had heard these things, and He said nothing in His own defence, he gave
sentence that there appeared nothing deserving of condemnation in Him.
But those most unjust accusers, together with the people whom they had
stirred up, began to cry out, and with loud voices to demand His
crucifixion.
Then Pontius(1) was overpowered both by their
outcries, and by the instigation of Herod the tetrarch,(2) who feared
lest he should be deposed from his sovereignty. He did not, however,
himself pass sentence, but delivered Him up to the Jews, that they
themselves might judge Him according to their law.(3) Therefore they
led Him away when He had been scourged with rods, and before they
crucified Him they mocked Him; for they put upon Him a scarlet(4) robe,
and a crown of thorns, and saluted Him as King, and gave Him gall for
food, and mingled for Him vinegar to drink. After these things they
spat upon His face, and struck Him with the palms of their hands; and
when the executioners s themselves contended about His garments, they
cast lots among themselves for His tunic and mantle.(6) And while all
these things were doing, He uttered no voice from His mouth, as though
He were dumb. Then they lifted Him up in the midst between two
malefactors, who had been condemned for robbery, and fixed Him to the
cross. What can I here deplore in so great a crime? or in what words
can I lament such great wickedness? For we are not relating the
crucifixion of Gavius,(7) which Marcus Tullius followed up with all the
spirit and strength of his eloquence, pouring forth as it were the
fountains of all his genius, proclaiming that it was an unworthy deed
that a Roman citizen should be crucified in violation of all laws. And
although He was innocent, and undeserving of that punishment, yet He
was put to death, and that, too, by an impious man, who was ignorant of
justice. What shall I say respecting the indignity of this cross, on
which the Son of God was suspended and nailed?(8) Who will be found so
eloquent, and supplied with so great an abundance of deeds and words,
what speech flowing with such copious exuberance,(9) as to lament in a
befitting manner that cross, which the world itself, and all the
elements of the world, bewailed?
But that these things were thus about to happen, was
announced both by the utterances of the prophets and by the predictions
of the Sibyls. In Isaiah it is found thus written:(10) "I am not
rebellious, nor do I oppose: I gave my back to the scourge, and my
cheeks to the hand:(11) I turned not away my face from the foulness of
spitting." In like manner David, in the thirty-fourth Psalm:(12) "The
abjects(13) were gathered together against me,(14) and they knew me
not:(15) they were dispersed, nor did they feel remorse; they tempted
me, and greatly(16) derided me; and they gnashed upon me with their
teeth." The Sibyl also showed that the same things would happen:--
"He shall afterwards come into the hands of the unjust and the
faithless;and they shall inflict on God blows with impure hands, and
withpolluted mouths they shall send forth poisonous spittle; and He
shallthen absolutely(17) give His holy back to stripes."
Likewise respecting His silence, which He perseveringly maintained even
to His death, Isaiah thus spoke again:(18) "He was led as a sheep to
the slaughter; and as a lamb before the shearer is dumb, so He opened
not His mouth." And the above-mentioned Sibyl said:--
"And being beaten, He shall be silent, lest any one should know what
theWord is, or whence it came, that it may speak with mortals; and
tieshall wear the crown of thorns."
But respecting the food and the drink which they offered to Him before
they fastened Him to the cross, David thus speaks in the sixty-eighth
Psalm:(19) "And they gave me gall for my meat;
121
and in my thirst they gave me vinegar to drink." The Sibyl
foretold that this also would happen:--
"They gave me gall for my food, and for my thirst vinegar;
thisinhospitable table they will show."
And another Sibyl rebukes the land of Judges in these verses:--
"For you, entertaining hurtful thoughts, did not recognise your
Godsporting(1) with mortal thoughts; but crowned Him with a crown
ofthorns, and mingled dreadful gall."
Now, that it would come to pass that the Jews would lay hands upon
their God, and put Him to death, these testimonies of the prophets
foretold. In Esdras it is thus written:(2) "And Ezra said to the
people, This passover is our Saviour and our refuge. Consider and let
it come into your heart, that we have to abase Him in a figure; and
after these things we will hope in Him, lest this place be deserted for
ever, saith the Lord God of hosts. If you will not believe Him, nor
hear His announcement, ye shall be a derision among the nations." From
which it appears that the Jews had no other hope, unless they purified
themselves from blood, and put their hopes in that very person whom
they denied.(3) Isaiah also points out their deed, and says:(4) "In His
humiliation His judgment was taken away. Who shall declare His
generation? for His life shall be taken away from the earth; from the
transgressions of my people He was led away to death. And I will give
Him the wicked for His burial, and the rich for His death, because He
did no wickedness, nor spoke guile with His mouth. Wherefore He shall
obtain s many, and shall divide the spoils of the strong; because He
was delivered up to death, and was reckoned among the transgressors;
and He bore the sins of many, and was delivered up on account of their
transgressions." David also, in the ninety-third Psalm:(6) "They will
hunt after the soul of the righteous, and condemn the innocent blood;
and the Lord is become my refuge." Also Jeremiah:(7) "Lord, declare it
unto me, and I shall know. Then I saw their devices; I was led as an
innocent(8) lamb to the sacrifice;(9) they meditated a plan against me,
saying, Come, let us send wood into his bread,(10) and let us sweep
away his life from the earth, and his name shall no more be
remembered." Now the wood(11) signifies the cross, and the bread His
body; for He Himself is the food and the life of all who believe in the
flesh which He bare, and on the cross upon which He was suspended.
Respecting this, however, Moses himself more plainly
spoke to this effect, in Deuteronomy:(12) "And Thy life shalL hang(13)
before Thine eyes; and Thou shall fear day and night, and shalt have no
assurance of Thy life." And the same again in Numbers:(14) "God is not
in doubt as a
suffer threats(15) as the son of man, nor does He man." Zechariah also
thus wrote:(16) "And they shall look on me, whom they pierced." Also
David in the twenty-first Psalm:(17) "They pierced my hands and my
feet; they numbered all my bones; they themselves looked and stared
upon me; they divided my garments among them; and upon my vesture they
did cast lots." It is evident that the prophet did not speak these
things concerning himself. For he was a king, and never endured these
sufferings; but the Spirit of God, who was about to suffer these
things, after ten hundred and fifty years, spoke by him. For this is
the number of years from the reign of David to the crucifixion of
Christ. But Solomon also, his son, who built Jerusalem, prophesied that
this very city would perish in revenge for the sacred cross:(18) "But
if ye turn away from me, saith the Lord, and will not keep my truth, I
will drive Israel from the land which I have given them; and this house
which I have built for them in my name, I will cast it out from
all:(19) and lsrael shall be for perdition(20) and a reproach to the
people; and this house shall be desolate, and every one that shall pass
by it shall be astonished, and shall say, Why hath God done these evils
to this land and to this house? And they shall say, Because they
forsook the Lord their God, and persecuted their King most beloved by
God, and crucified Him with great degradation,(21) therefore hath God
brought upon them these evils."
122
CHAP. XIX.--OF THE DEATH, BURIAL, AND RESURRECTION OF JESUS; AND THE
PREDICTIONS OF THESE EVENTS.
What more can now be said respecting the crime of
the Jews, than that they were then blinded and seized with incurable
madness, who read these things daily, and yet neither understood them,
nor were able to be on their guard so as not to do them? Therefore,
being lifted up and nailed to the cross, He cried to the Lord with a
loud voice, and of His own accord gave up His spirit. And at the same
hour there was an earthquake; and the veil of the temple, which
separated the two tabernacles, was rent into two parts; and the sun
suddenly withdrew its light, and there was darkness from the sixth(1)
even to the ninth hour. Of which event the prophet Amos testifies:(2)
"And it shall come to pass in that day, saith the Lord, that the sun
shall go down at noon, and the daylight shall be darkened; and I will
turn your feasts into mourning, and your songs into lamentation." Also
Jeremiah:(3) "She who brings forth is affrighted, and vexed in spirit;
her sun is gone down while it was yet mid-day; she hath been ashamed
and confounded;(4) and the residue of them will I give to the sword in
the sight of their enemies." And the Sibyl:--
"And the veil of the temple shall be rent, and at midday there shall
bedark vast night for three hours,"
When these things were done, even by the heavenly prodigies, they were
not able to understand their crime.
But since He had foretold that on the third day He
should rise again from the dead, fearing lest, the body having been
stolen by the disciples, and removed, all should believe that He had
risen, and there should be a much greater disturbance among the people,
they took Him down from the cross, and having shut Him up in a tomb,
they securely surrounded it with a guard of soldiers. But on the third
day, before light, there was an earthquake, and the sepulchre was
suddenly opened; and the guard, who were astonished and stupefied with
fear, seeing nothing, He came forth uninjured and alive from the
sepulchre, and went into Galilee to seek His disciples: but nothing was
found in the sepulchre except the grave-clothes in which they haft
enclosed and wrapt His body. Now, that He would not remain in bell,(5)
but rise again on the third day, had been foretold by the prophets.
David says, in the fifteenth Psalm:(6) "Thou wilt not leave my soul in
hell; neither wilt Thou suffer Thine holy one to see corruption." Also
in the third Psalm:(7) "I laid me down to sleep, and took my rest, and
rose again, for the Lord sustained me." Hosea also, the first of the
twelve prophets, testified of His resurrection:(8) "This my Son is
wise, therefore He will not remain in the anguish of His sons: and I
will redeem Him from the power(9) of the grave. Where is thy judgment,
O death? or where is thy sting?" The same also in another place:(10)
"After two days, He will revive us in the third day." And therefore the
Sibyl said, that after three days' sleep he would put an end to death:--
"And after sleeping three days, He shall put an end to the fate of
death;and then, releasing Himself from the dead, He shall come to
light,first showing to the called ones the beginning of the
resurrection."
For He gained life for us by overcoming death. No hope, therefore, of
gaining immortality is given to than, unless he shall believe on Him,
and shall take up that cross to be borne and endured.
CHAP. XX.--OF THE DEPARTURE OF JESUS INTO GALILEE AFTER HIS
RESURRECTION; AND OF THE TWO TESTAMENTS, THE OLD AND THE NEW.
Therefore He went into Galilee, for He was unwilling
to show Himself to the Jews, lest He should lead them to repentance,
and restore them from their impiety to a sound mind.(11) And there He
opened to His disciples again assembled the writings of Holy Scripture,
that is, the secrets of the prophets; which before His suffering could
by no means be understood, for they told of Him and of His passion.
Therefore Moses, and the prophets also themselves, call the law which
was given to the Jews a testament: for unless the testator shall have
died, a testament cannot be confirmed; nor can that which is written in
it be known, because it is closed and sealed. And thus, unless Christ
had undergone death the testament could not have been opened; that is,
the mystery of God could not have been unveiled(12) and understood.
But all Scripture is divided into two Testaments.
That which preceded the advent and passion of Christ--that is, the law
and the prophets--is called the Old; but those things which were
written after His resurrection are named the New Testament. The Jews
make use of the Old, we of the New: but yet they are not discordant,
for the New is the fulfilling of the Old, and in both there is the same
testator, even Christ, who, having suffered death for us,
123
made us heirs of His everlasting kingdom, the people of the Jews being
deprived and disinherited.(1) As the prophet Jeremiah testifies when he
speaks such things:(2) "Behold, the days come, saith the Lord, that I
will make a new testament(3) to the house of Israel and the house of
Judah, not according to the testament which I made to their fathers, in
the day that I took them by the hand to bring them out of the land of
Egypt; for they continued not in my testament, and I disregarded(4)
them, saith the Lord." Also in another place he says in like
manner:(5) "I have forsaken my house, I have given up mine heritage
into the hand of its enemies. Mine heritage is become unto me as a lion
in the forest; it hath cried out against me, therefore have I hated
it." Since the inheritance is His heavenly kingdom, it is evident that
He does not say that He hates the inheritance itself, but the heirs,
who have been ungrateful towards Him, and impious. Mine heritage, he
says, is become unto me as a lion; that is, I am become a prey and a
devouring to my heirs, who have slain me as the flock. It hath cried
out against me; that is, they have pronounced against me the sentence
of death and the cross. For that which He said above, that He would
make(6) a new testament to the house of Judah, shows that the old
testament which was given by Moses was not perfect;(7) but that that
which was to be given by Christ would be complete. But it is plain that
the house of Judah does not signify the Jews, whom He casts off, but
us, who have been called by Him out of the Gentiles, and have by
adoption succeeded to their place, and are called sons(8) of the Jews,
which the Sibyl declares when she says:--
"The divine race of the blessed, heavenly Jews."
But what that race was about to be, Isaiah teaches, in whose book the
Most High Father addresses His Son:(9) "I the Lord God have called Thee
in righteousness, and will hold Thine hand, and will keep Thee:(10) and
I have given Thee for covenant of my race,(11) for a light of the
Gentiles
to open the eyes of the blind, to bring out the prisoners from the
prison, and them that sit in darkness out of the prison-house." When,
therefore, we who were in time past as it were blind, and as it were
shut up in the prison of folly, were sitting in darkness, ignorant of
God and of the truth, we have been enlightened by Him, who adopted us
by His testament; and having freed us from cruel chains, and brought us
out to the light of wisdom, He admitted us to the inheritance of His
heavenly kingdom.
CHAP. XXI.--OF THE ASCENSION OF JESUS, AND THE FORETELLING OF IT; AND
OF THE PREACHING AND ACTIONS OF THE DISCIPLES.
But when He had made arrangements with His disciples
for the preaching of the Gospel and His name, a cloud suddenly
surrounded Him, and carried Him up into heaven, on the fortieth day
after His passion, as Daniel bad shown that it would be, saying:(12)
"And, behold, one like the Son of man came with the clouds of heaven,
and came to the Ancient of days." But the disciples, being dispersed
through the provinces, everywhere laid the foundations of the Church,
themselves also in the name of their divine(13) Master doing many and
almost incredible miracles; for at His departure He had endowed them
with power and strength, by which the system(14) of their new
announcement might be founded and confirmed. But He also opened to them
all things which were about to happen, which Peter and Paul preached at
Rome; and this preaching being written for the sake of remembrance,(15)
became permanent, in which they both declared other wonderful things,
and also said that it was about to come to pass, that after a short
time God would send against them a king who would subdue(16) the Jews,
and level their cities to the ground, and besiege the people
themselves, worn out with hunger and thirst. Then it should come to
pass that they should feed on the bodies of their own children, and
consume one another. Lastly, that they should be taken captive, and
come into the hands of their enemies, and should see their wives most
cruelly harassed before their eyes, their virgins ravished and
polluted, their sons torn in pieces, their little ones dashed to the
ground; and lastly, everything laid waste with fire and sword, the
captives banished for ever from their own lands, because they had
exulted over the well-beloved and most approved Son of God. And so,
after their decease, when Nero had put them to death, Vespasian
destroyed the name and nation of the Jews, and did all
124
things which they had foretold as about to come to pass.
CHAP. XXII.--ARGUMENTS OF UNBELIEVERS AGAINST THE INCARNATION OF JESUS.
I have now confirmed, as I imagine, the things which
are thought false and incredible by those who are not instructed in the
true knowledge of heavenly learning. But, however, that we may refute
those also who are too wise, not without injury to themselves and
who detract from the credit due to divine things, let us disprove their
error, that they may at length perceive that the fact ought to have
been as we show that it actually was. And although with good judges
either testimonies are of sufficient weight without arguments, or
arguments without testimonies, we, however, are not content with the
one or the other, since we are supplied with both, that we may not
leave room for any one of depraved ingenuity either to misunderstand or
to dispute on the opposite side. They say that it was impossible for
anything to be withdrawn(1) from an immortal nature. They say, in
short, that it was unworthy of God to be willing to become man, and to
burthen Himself with the infirmity of flesh; to become subject of His
own accord to sufferings, to pain, and death:as though it had not been
easy for Him to show Himself to men without(2) the weakness
incident to a body, and to teach them righteousness (if He so
wished) with greater authority, as of one who acknowledged(3) Himself
to be God. For in that case all would have obeyed the heavenly
precepts, if the influence and power of God enjoining them had been
united with them. Why, then (they say), did He not come as God to teach
men? Why did He render Himself so humble and weak, that it was possible
for Him both to be despised by men and to be visited with punishment?
why did He suffer violence from those who are weak and mortal? why did
He not repel by strength, or avoid by His divine knowledge,(4) the
hands of men? why did He not at least in His very death reveal His
majesty? but He was led as one without strength to trial, was condemned
as one who was guilty, was put to death as one who was mortal. I will
carefully refute these things, nor will I permit any one to be in
error. For these things were done by a great and wonderful plan; and he
who shall understand this, will not only cease to wonder that God
was tortured by men, but also will easily see that it could not have
been believed
that he was God if those very things which he censures had not been
done.
CHAP. XXIII.--OF GIVING PRECEPTS, AND ACTING.
If any one gives to men precepts for living, and
moulds the characters of others, I ask whether he is bound himself to
practise the things which he enjoins, or is not bound. If he shall not
do so, his precepts are annulled. For if the things which are enjoined
are good, if they place the life of men in the best condition, the
instructor ought not to separate himself from the number and assemblage
of men among whom he acts; and he ought himself to live in the same
manner in which he teaches that men ought to live, lest, by living in
another way, he himself should disparage(5) his own precepts, and make
his instruction of less value, if in reality he should relax the
obligations of that which he endeavours to establish by his words. For
every one, when he hears another giving precepts, is unwilling that the
necessity of obeying should be imposed upon him, as though the right of
liberty were taken from him. Therefore he answers his teacher in this
manner: I am not able to do the things which you command, for they are
impossible. For yon forbid me to be angry, you forbid me to covet, you
forbid me to be excited by desire, you forbid me to fear pain or death;
but this is so contrary to nature, that all animals are subject to
these affections. Or if you are so entirely of opinion that it is
possible to resist nature, do you yourself practise the things which
you enjoin, that I may know that they are possible? But since you
yourself do not practise them, what arrogance is it, to wish to impose
upon a free man laws which you yourself do not obey! You who teach,
first learn; and before you correct the character of others, correct
your own. Who could deny the justice of this answer? Nay! a teacher of
this kind will fall into contempt, and will in his turn be mocked,
because he also will appear to mock others.
What, therefore, will that instructor do, if these
things shall be objected to him? how will he deprive the self-willed(6)
of an excuse, unless he teach them by deeds before their eyes(7) that
he teaches things which are possible? Whence it comes to pass, that no
one obeys the precepts of the philosophers.(8) For men prefer examples
rather than words, because it is easy to speak, but difficult to
accomplish.(9) Would to heaven that there were as many who acted well
as there are who speak well! But they who give pre-
125
cepts, without carrying them out into action, are distrusted;(1) and if
they shall be men, will be despised as inconsistent:(2) if it shall be
God, He will be met with the excuse of the frailty of man's nature. It
remains that words should be confirmed by deeds, which the philosophers
are unable to do. Therefore, since the instructors themselves are
overcome by the affections which they say that it is our duty to
overcome, they are able to train no one to virtue, which they falsely
proclaim;(3) and for this cause they imagine that no perfect wise man
has as vet existed, that is, in whom the greatest virtue and perfect
justice were in harmony with the greatest learning and knowledge. And
this indeed was true. For no one since the creation of the world has
been such, except Christ, who both delivered wisdom by His word, and
confirmed His teaching by presenting virtue to the eyes of men.(4)
CHAP. XXIV.--THE OVERTHROWING OF THE ARGUMENTS ABOVE URGED BY WAY OF
OBJECTION.
Come, let us now consider whether a teacher sent
from heaven can fail to be perfect. I do not as yet speak of Him whom
they deny to have come from God. Let us suppose that some one were to
be sent from heaven to instruct the life of men in the first principles
of virtue, and to form them to righteousness. No one can doubt but that
this teacher, who is sent from heaven, would be as perfect in the
knowledge of all things as in virtue, lest there should be no
difference between a heavenly and an earthly teacher. For in the
case of a man his instruction can by no means be from within and of
himself.(5) For the mind, shut in by earthly organs, and hindered by a
corrupt(6) body, of itself can neither comprehend nor receive the
truth, unless it is taught from another source.(7) And if it had this
power in the greatest degree, yet it would be unable to attain to the
highest virtue, and to resist all vices, the materials of which
are contained in our bodily(8) organs. Hence it comes to pass,
that an earthly teacher cannot be perfect. But a teacher from
heaven, to whom His divine nature gives knowledge, and His
immortality gives virtue, must of necessity in His teaching also, as in
other things, be perfect and complete. But this cannot by any means
happen, unless He should take to Himself a mortal body. And the reason
why it cannot happen is manifest. For if He should come to men as God,
not to mention that mortal eyes cannot look upon and endure the glory
of His majesty in His own person, assuredly God will not be able to
teach virtue; for, inasmuch as He is without a body, He will not
practise the things which He will teach, and through this His teaching
will not be perfect. Otherwise, if it is the greatest virtue patiently
to endure pain for the sake of righteousness and duty, if it is virtue
not to fear death itself when threatened, and when inflicted to undergo
it with fortitude; it follows that the perfect teacher ought both to
teach these things by precept, and to confirm them by practice. For he
who gives precepts for the life, ought to remove every method(9)
of excuse, that he may impose upon men the necessity of obedience, not
by any constraint, but by a sense of shame, and yet may leave them
liberty, that a reward may be appointed for those who obey, because it
was in their power not to obey if they so wished; and a punishment for
those who do not obey, because it was in their power to obey if they so
wished. How then can excuse be removed, unless the teacher should
practise what he teaches, and as it were go before(10) and hold out his
hand to one who is about to follow? But how can one practise what he
teaches, unless he is like him whom he teaches? For if he be subject to
no passion, a man may thus answer him who is the teacher: It is my wish
not to sin, but I am overpowered; for I am clothed with frail and weak
flesh: it is this which covets, which is angry, which fears pain and
death. And thus I am led on against my will;(11) and I sin, not because
it is my wish, but because I am compelled. I myself perceive that I
sin; but the necessity imposed by my frailty, which I am unable to
resist, impels me. What will that teacher of righteousness say in reply
to these things? How will he refute and convict a man who shall allege
the frailty of the flesh as an excuse for his faults, unless he himself
also shall be clothed with flesh, so that he may show that even the
flesh is capable of virtue? For obstinacy cannot be refuted except by
example. For the things which you teach cannot have any weight unless
you shall be the first to practise them; because the nature of men is
inclined to faults, and wishes to sin not only with indulgence, but
also with a reasonable plea.(12) It is befitting
126
that a master and teacher of virtue should most closely resemble man,
that by overpowering sin he may teach man that sin may be overpowered
by him. But if he is immortal, he can by no means propose an example to
man. For there will stand forth some one persevering in his opinion,
and will say: You indeed do not sin, because you are free from this
body; you do not covet, because nothing is needed by an immortal; but I
have need of many things for the support of this life. You do not fear
death, because it can have no power against you. You despise pain,
because you can suffer no violence. But I, a mortal, fear both, because
they bring upon me the severest tortures, which the weakness of the
flesh cannot endure. A teacher of virtue therefore ought to have taken
away this excuse from men, that no one may ascribe it to necessity that
he sins, rather than to his own fault. Therefore, that a teacher may be
perfect, no objection ought to be brought forward by him who is to be
taught, so that if he should happen to say, You enjoin impossibilities;
the teacher may answer, See, I myself do them. But I am clothed with
flesh, and it is the property of flesh to sin.(1) I too bear the same
flesh, and yet sin does not bear rule in me. It is difficult for me to
despise riches, because otherwise I am unable to live in this body.
See, I too have a body, and yet I contend against every desire. I am
not able to bear pain or death for righteousness, because I am frail.
See, pain and death have power over me also; and I overcome those very
things which you fear, that I may make you victorious over pain and
death. I go before you through those things which you allege that
it is impossible to endure: if you are not able to follow me giving
directions, follow me going before you. In this way all excuse is taken
away, and you must confess that man is unjust through his own fault,
since he does not follow a teacher of virtue, who is at the same time a
guide. You see, therefore, how much more perfect is a teacher who
is mortal, because he is able to be a guide to one who is mortal,
than one who is immortal, for he is unable to teach patient endurance
who is not subject to passions. Nor, however, does this extend so far
that I prefer man to God; but to show that man cannot be a perfect
teacher unless he is also God, that he may by his heavenly authority
impose upon men the necessity of obedience; nor God, unless he is
clothed with a mortal body, that by carrying out his precepts to their
completion(2) in actions, he may bind others by the necessity of
obedience. It plainly therefore appears, that he who is a guide of life
and teacher of righteousness must have a body, and that his teaching
cannot otherwise be full and perfect, unless it has a root and
foundation, and remains firm and fixed among men; and that he himself
must undergo weakness of flesh and body, and display in himself(3) the
virtue of which he is a teacher, that he may teach it at the same time
both by words and deeds. Also, he must be subject to death and all
sufferings, since the duties of virtue are occupied with the enduring
of suffering, and the undergoing death; all which, as I have said, a
perfect teacher ought to endure, that he may teach the possibility of
their being endured.
CHAP. XXV.--OF THE ADVENT OF JESUS IN THE FLESH AND SPIRIT, THAT HE
MIGHT BE MEDIATOR BETWEEN GOD AND MAN.
Let men therefore learn and understand why the Most
High God, when He sent His ambassador and messenger to instruct mortals
with the precepts of His righteousness, willed that He should be
clothed with mortal flesh, and be afflicted with torture, and be
sentenced to death. For since there was no righteousness on earth, He
sent a teacher, as it were a living law, to found a new name and
temple,(4) that by His words and example He might spread throughout the
earth a true and holy worship. But, however, that it might be certain
that He was sent by God, it was befitting that He should not be born as
man is born, composed of a mortal on both sides;(5) but that it might
appear that He was heavenly even in the form of man, He was born
without the office of a father. For He had a spiritual Father, God; and
as God was the Father of His spirit without a mother, so a virgin was
the mother of His body without a father. He was therefore both God and
man, being placed in the middle between God and man. From which the
Greeks call Him Mesites,(6) that He might be able to lead man to
God--that is, to immortality: for if He had been God only (as we have
before said), He would not have been able to afford to man examples of
goodness; if He had been man only, He would not have been able to
compel men to righteousness, unless there had been added an authority
and virtue greater than that of man.
For, since man is composed of flesh and
127
spirit, and the spirit must earn(1) immortality by works of
righteousness, the flesh, since it is earthly, and therefore mortal,
draws with itself the spirit linked to it, and leads it from
immortality to death. Therefore the spirit, apart from the flesh, could
by no means be a guide to immortality for man, since the flesh hinders
the spirit from following God. For it is frail, and liable to sin; but
sin is the food and nourishment(2) of death. For this cause, therefore,
a mediator came--that is, God in the flesh--that the flesh might be
able to follow Him, and that He might rescue man from death, which has
dominion over the flesh. Therefore He clothed Himself with flesh, that
the desires of the flesh being subdued, He might teach that to sin was
not the result of necessity, but of man's purpose and will. For we have
one great and principal struggle to maintain with the flesh, the
boundless desire; of which press upon the soul, nor allow it to retain
dominion, but make it the slave of pleasures and sweet allurements, and
visit it with everlasting death. And that we might be able to overcome
these, God has opened and displayed to us the way of overcoming the
flesh. And this perfect and absolutely complete(3) virtue bestows on
those who conquer, the crown and reward of immortality.
CHAP. XXVI.--OF THE CROSS, AND OTHER TORTURES OF JESUS, AND OF THE
FIGURE OF THE LAMB UNDER THE LAW.
I have spoken of humiliation, and frailty, and
suffering--why God thought fit to undergo them. Now an account must be
taken of the cross itself, and its meaning must be related. What the
Most High Father arranged from the beginning, and how He ordained all
things which were accomplished, not only the foretelling by the
prophets, which preceded and was proved true(4) in Christ, but also the
manner of His suffering itself teaches. For whatever sufferings He
underwent were not without meaning;(5) but they had a figurative
meaning(6) and great significance, as had also those divine works
which He performed, the strength and power of which had some
weight indeed for the present, but also declared something for the
future. Heavenly influence opened the eyes of the blind, and gave light
to those who did not see; and by this deed He signified that it would
come to pass that, turning to the nations which were ignorant of God,
He might enlighten the breasts of the foolish with the light of wisdom,
and open the eyes
of their understanding to the contemplation of the truth. For they are
truly blind who, not seeing heavenly things, and surrounded with the
darkness of ignorance, worship earthly and frail things. He opened the
ears of the deaf. It is plain that this divine power did not limit
its exercise to this point;(7) but He declared that it would
shortly come to pass, that they who were destitute of the truth
would both hear and understand the divine words of God. For you may
truly call those deaf who do not hear the things which are
heavenly and true, and worthy of being performed. He loosed the
tongues of the dumb, so that they spake plainly.(8) A power
worthy of admiration,(9) even when it was in operation: but there was
contained in this display(10) of power another meaning, which showed
that it would shortly come to pass that those who were lately ignorant
of heavenly things, having received the instruction of wisdom, might
speak respecting God and the truth. For he who is ignorant of the
divine nature, he truly is speechless and dumb, although he is the most
eloquent of all men. For when the tongue has begun to speak truth--that
is, to set forth the excellency and majesty of the one God--then only
does it discharge the office of its nature; but as long as it
speaks false things it is not rightly employed:(11) and therefore he
must necessarily be speechless who cannot utter divine things. He also
renewed the feet of the lame to the office of walking,--a strength of
divine work worthy of praise; but the figure implied this, that the
errors of a worldly and wandering life being restrained, the path of
truth was opened by which men might walk to attain the favour of God.
For He is truly to be considered lame, who, being enwrapped in the
gloom and darkness of folly, and ignorant in what direction to
go, with feet liable to stumble and fall, walks in the way of
death.
Likewise He cleansed the stains and blemishes of
defiled bodies,--no slight exercise of immortal power; but this
strength prefigured that by the instruction of righteousness His
doctrine was about to purify those defiled by the stains of sins and
the blemishes of vices. For they ought truly to be accounted as leprous
and unclean,(12) whom either boundless lusts compel to crimes, or
insatiable pleasures to disgraceful deeds, and affect with an
everlasting stain those who are branded with the marks of dis-
128
honourable actions. He raised the bodies of the dead as they lay
prostrate; and calling them aloud by their names, He brought them back
from death. What is more suitable to God, what more worthy of the
wonder of all ages, than to have recalled(1) the life which has run its
course, to have added times to the completed times of men, to have
revealed the secrets of death? But this unspeakable power was the image
of a greater energy, which showed that His teaching was about to have
such might, that the nations throughout the world, which were estranged
from God and subject to death, being animated by the knowledge of the
true light, might arrive at the rewards of immortality. For you may
rightly deem those to be dead, who, not knowing God the giver of life,
and depressing their souls from heaven to earth, run into the snares of
eternal death. The actions, therefore, which He then performed for the
present, were representations of future things; the things which He
displayed in injured and diseased bodies were figures(2) of spiritual
things, that at present He might display to us the works of an energy
which was not of earth, and for the future might show the power of His
heavenly majesty.(3)
Therefore, as His works had a signification also of
greater power, so also His passion did not go before us as simple, or
superfluous, or by chance. But as those things which He did signified
the great efficacy and power of His teaching, so those things which He
suffered announced that wisdom would be held in hatred. For the vinegar
which they gave Him to drink, and the gall which they gave Him to eat,
held forth hardships and severities(4) in this life to the followers of
truth. And although His passion, which was harsh and severe in itself,
gave to us a sample of the future torments which virtue itself proposes
to those who linger in this world, yet drink and food of this kind,
coming into the mouth of our teacher, afforded us an example of
pressures, and labours, and miseries. All which things must be
undergone and suffered by those who follow the truth; since the truth
is bitter, and detested by all who, being destitute of virtue, give up
their life to deadly pleasures. For the placing of a crown of thorns
upon His head, declared that it would come to pass that He would gather
to Himself a holy people from those who were guilty. For people
standing around in a circle are called a corona.(5) But we,
who before that we knew God were unjust, were thorns--that is, evil and
guilty, not knowing what was good; and estranged from the conception
and the works of righteousness, polluted all things with wickedness and
lust. Being taken, therefore, from briars and thorns, we surround the
sacred head of God; for, being called by Himself, and spread around
Him, we stand beside God, who is our Master and Teacher, and crown Him
King of the world, and Lord of all the living.
But with reference to the cross, it has great force
and meaning, which I will now endeavour to show. For God (as I have
before explained), when He had determined to set man free, sent as His
ambassador to the earth a teacher of virtue, who might both by salutary
precepts train men to innocence, and by works and deeds before their
eyes(6) might open the way of righteousness, by walking in which, and
following his teacher, man might attain to eternal life. He therefore
assumed a body, and was clothed in a garment of flesh, that He might
hold out to man, for whose instruction He had come, examples of virtue
and incitements to its practice. But when He had afforded an example of
righteousness in all the duties of life, in order that He might teach
man also the patient endurance of pain and contempt of death, by which
virtue is rendered perfect and complete, He came into the hands of an
impious nation, when, by the knowledge of the future which He had, He
might have avoided them, and by the same power by which He did
wonderful works He might have repelled them. Therefore He endured
tortures, and stripes, and thorns. At last He did not refuse even to
undergo death, that under His guidance man might triumph over death,
subdued and bound in chains with all its terrors. But the reason why
the Most High Father chose that kind of death in preference to others,
with which He should permit Him to be visited, is this. For some one
may perchance say: Why, if He was God, and chose to die, did He not at
least suffer by some honourable kind of death? why was it by the cross
especially? why by an infamous kind of punishment, which may appear
unworthy even of a man if he is free,(7) although guilty? First of all,
because He, who had come in humility that He might bring assistance to
the humble and men of low degree, and might hold out to all the hope of
safety, was to suffer by that kind of punishment by which the humble
and low usually suffer, that there might be no one at all who might not
be able to imitate Him. In the next place, it was in order that His
body might be
129
kept unmutilated,(1) since He must rise again from the dead on the
third day.
Nor ought any one to be ignorant of this, that He
Himself, speaking before of His passion, also made it known that He had
the power, when He willed it, of laying down His life and of taking it
again. Therefore, because He had laid down His life while fastened to
the cross, His executioners did not think it necessary to break His
bones (as was their prevailing custom), but they only pierced His side.
Thus His unbroken body was taken down from the cross, and carefully
enclosed in a tomb. Now all these things were done lest His body, being
injured and broken, should be rendered unsuitable(2) for rising again.
That also was a principal cause why God chose the cross, because it was
necessary that He should be lifted up on it, and the passion of God
become known to all nations. For since he who is suspended upon a cross
is both conspicuous to all and higher than others, the cross was
especially chosen, which might signify that He would be so conspicuous,
and so raised on high, that all nations from the whole world should
meet together at once to know and worship Him. Lastly, no nation is so
uncivilized, no region so remote, to which either His passion or the
height of His majesty would be unknown. Therefore in His suffering He
stretched forth His hands and measured out the world, that even then He
might show that a great multitude, collected together out of all
languages and tribes, from the rising of the sun even to his setting,
was about to come under His wings, and to receive on their foreheads
that great and lofty sign.(3) And the Jews even now exhibit a figure of
this transaction when they mark their thresholds with the blood of a
lamb. For when God was about to smite the Egyptians, to secure the
Hebrews from that infliction He had enjoined them to slay a white(4)
lamb without spot, and to place on their thresholds a mark from
its blood. And thus, when the first-born of the Egyptians had perished
in one night, the Hebrews alone were saved by the sign of the blood:
not that the blood of a sheep had such efficacy in itself as to be the
safety of men, hut it was an image of things to come. For Christ was
the white lamb
without spot; that is, He was innocent, and just, and holy, who, being
slain by the same Jews, is the salvation of all who have written on
their foreheads the sign of blood--that is, of the cross, on which He
shed His blood. For the forehead is the top of the threshold in man,
and the wood sprinkled with blood is the emblem(5) of the cross.
Lastly, the slaying of the lamb by those very persons who perform it is
called the paschal feast, from the word "paschein,"(6) because it is a
figure of the passion, which God, foreknowing the future, delivered by
Moses to be celebrated by His people. But at that time the figure was
efficacious at the present for averting the danger, that it may appear
what great efficacy the truth itself is about to have for the
protection of God's people in the extreme necessity of the whole world.
But in what manner or in what region all will be safe who have
marked on the highest part of their body this sign of the
true and divine blood,(7) I will show in the last book.
CHAP. XXVII.--OF THE WONDERS EFFECTED BY THE POWER OF THE CROSS, AND OF
DEMONS.
At present it is sufficient to show what great
efficacy the power of this sign has. How great a terror this sign is to
the demons, he will know who shall see how, when adjured by Christ,
they flee from the bodies which they have besieged. For as He Himself,
when He was living among men, limit to flight all the demons by His
word, and restored to their former senses the minds of men which had
been excited and maddened by their dreadful attacks; so now His
followers, in the name of their Master, and by the sign of His passion,
banish the same polluted spirits from men. And it is not difficult to
prove this. For when they sacrifice to their gods, if any one bearing a
marked forehead stands by, the sacrifices are by no means favourable.(8)
"Nor can the diviner, when consulted, give answers."(9)
And this has often been the cause of punishment to wicked kings. For
when some of their attendants who were of our religion(10) were
standing by their masters as they sacrificed, having the sign placed on
their foreheads, they caused the gods of their masters to flee, that
they might not be able to observe(11) future events in the entrails of
the victims. And when the soothsayers understood this, at the
instigation of the same
130
demons to whom they had sacrificed,(1) complaining that profane men
were present at the sacrifices, they drove their princes to madness, so
that they attacked the temple of the god, and contaminated themselves
by true sacrilege, which was expiated by the severest punishments on
the part of their persecutors. Nor, however, are blind men able to
understand even from this, either that this is the true religion, which
contains such great power for overcoming, or that that is false, which
is not able to hold its ground or to come to an engagement.
But they say that the gods do this, not through
fear, but through hatred; as though it were possible for any one to
hate another, unless it be him who injures, or has the power of
injuring. Yea, truly, it would be consistent with their majesty to
visit those whom they hated with immediate punishment,(2) rather than
to flee from them. But since they can neither approach those in whom
they shall see the heavenly mark, nor injure those whom the immortal
sign(3) as an impregnable wall protects, they harass them by men, and
persecute them by the hands of others: and if they acknowledge the
existence of these demons, we have overcome; for this must necessarily
be the true religion, which both understands the nature of demons, and
understands their subtlety, and compels them, vanquished and subdued,
to yield to itself. If they deny it, they will be refuted by the
testimonies of poets and philosophers. But if they do not deny the
existence and malignity of demons, what remains except that they affirm
that there is a difference between gods and demons?(4) Let them
therefore explain to us the difference between the two kinds, that we
may know what is to be worshipped and what to be held in execration;
whether they have any mutual agreement, or are really opposed to one,
another. If they are united by some necessity, how shall we distinguish
them? or how shall we unite the honour and worship of each kind? If, on
the other hand, they are enemies, how is it that the demons do not fear
the gods, or that the gods cannot put to flight the demons? Behold,
some one excited by the impulse of the demon is out of his senses,
raves, is mad: let us lead him into the temple of the excellent and
mighty Jupiter; or since Jupiter knows not how to cure men, into the
lane of AEsculapius or Apollo. Let the priest of either, in the name
of his god, command the wicked spirit to come out of the man: that can
in no way come to pass. What, then, is the power of the gods, if the
demons are not subject to their control? But, in truth, the same
demons, when adjured by the name of the true God, immediately flee.
What reason is there why they should fear Christ, but not fear Jupiter,
unless that they whom the multitude esteem to be gods are also demons?
Lastly, if there should be placed in the midst one who is evidently
suffering from an attack of a demon, and the priest of the Delphian
Apollo, they will in the same manner dread the name of God; and Apollo
will as quickly depart from his priest as the spirit of the demon from
the man; and his god being adjured and put to flight, the priest will
be for ever silent.(5) Therefore the demons, whom they acknowledge to
be objects of execration, are the same as the gods to whom they offer
supplications.
If they imagine that we are unworthy of belief, let
them believe Homer, who associated the supreme Jupiter(6) with the
demons; and also other poets and philosophers, who speak of the same
beings at one time as demons, and at another time as gods,--of which
names one is true, and the other false. For those most wicked spirits,
when they are adjured, then confess that they are demons; when they are
worshipped, then falsely say that they are gods; in order that they may
lead men into errors,(7) and call them away from the knowledge of the
true God, by which alone eternal death can be escaped. They are the
same who, for the sake of overthrowing man, have founded various
systems of worship for themselves through different regions,(8)--under
false and assumed names, however, that they might deceive. For because
they were unable by themselves to aspire to divinity, they took to
themselves the names of powerful kings, under whose titles they might
claim for themselves divine honours; which error may be dispelled, and
brought to the light of truth. For if any one desires to inquire
further into the matter, let him assemble those who are skilled in
calling forth spirits from the dead. Let them call forth(9) Jupiter,
Neptune, Vulcan, Mercury, Apollo, and Saturnus the father of all. All
will answer from the lower regions; and being questioned they will
speak, and confess respecting themselves and
131
God. After these things let them call up Christ; He will not be
present, He will not appear, for He was not more than two days in the
lower regions. What proof can be brought forward more certain than
this? I have no doubt that Trismegistus arrived at the truth by some
proof of this kind, who spoke many things(1) respecting God the Son
which are contained in the divine secrets.
CHAP. XXVIII.--OF HOPE AND TRUE RELIGION, AND
OF SUPERSTITION.
And since these things are so, as we have shown, it
is plain that no other hope of life is set before man, except that,
laying aside vanities and wretched error, he should know God,(2) and
serve God; except he renounce this temporary life, and train himself by
the principles of righteousness for the cultivation of true religion.
For we are created on this condition, that we pay just and due
obedience to God who created us, that we should know and follow Him
alone. We are bound and tied to God by this chain of piety;(3) from
which religion itself received its name, not, as Cicero explained it,
from carefully gathering,(4) for in his second book respecting the
nature of the gods he thus speaks: "For not only philosophers, but our
ancestors also, separated superstition from religion. For they who
spent whole days in prayers and sacrifices, that their children might
survive(5) them, were called superstitious. But they who handled again,
and as it were carefully gathered all things which related to the
worship of the gods, were called religious from carefully gathering,(6)
as some were called elegant from choosing out, and diligent from
carefully selecting and intelligent from understanding. For in all
these words there is the same meaning of gathering which there is in
the word religious: thus it has come to pass, that in the names
superstitious and religious, the one relates to a fault, the other
belongs to praise." How senseless this interpretation is, we may know
from the matter itself. For if both religion and superstition are
engaged in the worship of the same gods, there is little or rather no
difference between them. For what cause will he
allege why he should think that to pray once for the health of sons is
the part of a religious man, but to do the same ten times is the part
of a superstitious man? For if it is an excellent thing to pray once,
how much more so to do it more frequently! If it is well to do it at
the first hour, then it is well to do it throughout the day. If one
victim renders the deity propitious, it is plain that many victims must
render him more propitious, because multiplied services oblige(7)
rather than offend. For those servants do not appear to us hateful who
are assiduous and constant in their attendance, but more beloved. Why,
therefore, should he be in fault, and receive a name which implies
censure,(8) who either loves his children more, or sufficiently honours
the gods; and he, on the contrary, be praised, who loves them less? And
this argument has weight also from the contrary. For if it is wrong(9)
to pray and sacrifice during whole days, therefore it is wrong to do so
once. If it is faulty frequently to wish for the preservation of our
children, therefore he also is superstitious who conceives that wish
even rarely. Or why should the name of a fault be derived from that,
than which nothing can be wished more honourable, nothing more just?
For as to his saying, that they who diligently take in hand again the
things relating to the worship of the gods are called religious from
their carefully gathering; how is it, then, that they who do this often
in a day lose the name of religious men, when it is plain from their
very assiduity that they more diligently gather those things by which
the gods are worshipped?
What, then, is it? Truly religion is the cultivation
of the truth, but superstition of that which is false. And it makes the
entire difference what you worship, not how you worship, or what prayer
you offer.(10) But because the worshippers of the gods imagine
themselves to be religious, though they are superstitious, they are
neither able to distinguish religion from superstition, nor to express
the meaning of the names. We have said that the name of religion is
derived from the bond of piety,(11) because God has tied man to
Himself, and bound him by piety;(12) for we must serve Him as a master,
and be obedient to Him as a father. And therefore Lucre-
132
tius(1) better explained this name, who says that He loosens the knots
of superstitions.(2) But they are called superstitious, not who wish
their children to survive them, for we all wish this; but either those
who reverence the surviving memory of the dead, or those who, surviving
their parents, reverenced their images at their houses as household
gods. For those who assumed to themselves new rites, that they might
honour the dead as gods, whom they supposed to be taken from men and
received into heaven, they called superstitious. But those who
worshipped the public and ancient gods(3) they named religious. From
which Virgil says:(4)--
"Superstition vain, and ignorant of ancient gods."
But since we find that the ancient gods also were consecrated in the
same manner after their death, therefore they are superstitious who
worship many and false gods. We, on the other hand, are religious, who
make our supplications to the one true God.
CHAP. XXIX.--OF THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION, AND OF THE UNION OF JESUS WITH
THE FATHER.
Some one may perhaps ask how, when we say that we
worship one God only, we nevertheless assert that there are two, God
the Father and God the Son: which assertion has driven many into the
greatest error. For when the things which we say seem to them probable,
they consider that we fail in this one point alone, that we confess
that there is another God, and that He is mortal. We have already
spoken of His mortality: now let us teach concerning His unity. When we
speak of God the Father and God the Son, we do not speak of them as
different, nor do we separate each: because the Father cannot exist
without the Son, nor can the Son be separated from the Father, since
the name of Father(5) cannot be given without the Son, nor can the Son
be begotten without the Father. Since, therefore, the Father makes the
Son, and the Son the Father, they both have one mind, one spirit, one
substance; but the former(6) is as it were an overflowing fountain, the
latter(7) as a stream flowing forth from it: the former as the sun, the
latter as it were a ray(8) extended from the sun. And since He is both
faithful to the Most High Father, and beloved by Him, He is not
separated from Him; just as the stream is not separated from the
fountain.
nor the ray from the sun: for the water of the fountain is in the
stream, and the light of the sun is in the ray: just as the voice
cannot be separated from the mouth, nor the strength or hand from the
body. When, therefore, He is also spoken of by the prophets as the
hand, and strength, and word of God, there is plainly no separation;
for the tongue, which is the minister of speech, and the hand, in which
the strength is situated, are inseparable portions of the body.
We may use an example more closely connected with
us. When any one has a son whom he especially loves, who is still in
the house, and in the power(9) of his father, although he concede to
him the name and power of a master, yet by the civil law the house is
one, and one person is called master. So this world(10) is the one
house of God; and the Son and the Father, who unanimously inhabit the
world, are one God, for the one is as two, and the two are as one. Nor
is that wonderful, since the Son is in the Father, for the Father loves
the Son, and the Father is in the Son; for He faithfully obeys the will
of the Father, nor does He ever do nor has done anything except what
the Father either willed or commanded. Lastly, that the Father and the
Son are but one God, Isaiah showed in that passage which we have
brought forward before,(11) when he said:(12) "They shall fall down
unto Thee, and make supplication unto Thee, since God is in Thee, and
there is no other God besides Thee." And he also speaks to the same
purport in another place:(13) "Thus saith God the King of Israel, and
His Redeemer, the everlasting God; I am the first, and I am the last;
and beside me there is no God." When he had set forth two persons, one
of God the King, that is, Christ, and the other of God the Father, who
after His passion raised Him from the dead, as we have said(14) that
the prophet Hosea showed,(15) who said, "I will redeem Him from the
power of the grave:" nevertheless, with reference to each person, he
introduced the words, "and beside me there is no God," when he might
have said "beside us;" but it was not right that a separation of so
close a relationship should be made by the use of the plural number.
For there is one God alone, free, most high, without any origin; for He
Himself is the origin of all things, and in Him at once both the Son
and all things are contained. Wherefore, since the mind and will of the
one is in the other, or rather, since there is one in both,
133
both are justly called one God; for whatever is in the Father(1) flows
on to the Son, and whatever is in the Son descends from the Father.
Therefore that highest and matchless God cannot be worshipped except
through the Son. He who thinks that he worships the Father only, as he
does not worship the Son, so he does not worship even the Father. But
he who receives the Son, and bears His name, he truly together
with the Son worships the Father also, since the Son is the
ambassador, and messenger, and priest of the Most High Father. He is
the door of the greatest temple, He the way of light, He the
guide to salvation, He the gate of life.
CHAP. XXX.--OF AVOIDING HERESIES AND SUPERSTITIONS, AND WHAT IS THE
ONLY TRUE CATHOLIC CHURCH.
But since many heresies have existed, and the people
of God have been rent into divisions at the instigation of demons, the
truth must be briefly marked out by us, and placed in its own peculiar
dwelling-place, that if any one shall desire to draw the water of life,
he may not be borne to broken cisterns(2) which hold no water, but may
know the abundant fountain of God, watered by which he may enjoy
perpetual light. Before all things, it is befitting that we should know
both that He Himself and His ambassadors foretold that there must be
numerous sects and heresies,(3) which would break the unity(4) of the
sacred body; and that they admonished us to be on our guard with the
greatest prudence, lest we should at any time fall into the snares and
deceits of that adversary of ours, with whom God has willed that we
should contend. Then that He gave us sure commands, which we ought
always to treasure in our minds; for many, forgetting them, and
abandoning the heavenly road, have made for themselves devious paths
amidst windings and precipices, by which they might lead away the
incautious and simple part of the people to the darkness of death: I
will explain: how this happened. There were some of our religion whose
faith was less established, or who were less learned or less
cautious, who rent the unity and divided the Church. But they
whose faith was unsettled,(5) when they pretended that they
knew and worshipped God aiming at the increase of their wealth and
honour, aspired to the highest sacerdotal power; and when
overcome by others more powerful, preferred to secede with their
supporters, than to endure those
set over them, over whom they themselves before desired to be set.(6)
But some, not sufficiently instructed in heavenly
learning, when they were unable to reply to the accusers of the truth,
who objected that it was either impossible or inconsistent that God
should be shut up in the womb of a woman, and that the Majesty of
heaven could not be reduced to such weakness as to become an object of
contempt and derision, a reproach and mockery to men; lastly, that He
should even endure tortures, and be affixed to the accursed cross; and
when they could defend and refute all these things neither by talent
nor learning, for they did not thoroughly perceive their force and
meaning, they were perverted(7) from the right path, and corrupted the
sacred writings, so that they composed for themselves a new doctrine
without any root and stability. But some, enticed by the prediction of
false prophets, concerning whom both the true prophets and he himself
had foretold, fell away from the knowledge of God, and left the true
tradition. But all of these, ensnared by frauds of demons, which they
ought to have foreseen and guarded against, by their carelessness lost
the name and worship of God. For when they are called Phrygians,(8) or
Novarians,(9) or Valentinians,(10) or Marcionites,(11) or
Anthropians,(12) or Arians,(13) or by any other name they have ceased
to be Christians, who have lost the name of Christ, and assumed human
and external names. Therefore it is the Catholic Church alone which
retains true worship.
This is the fountain of truth, this is the abode of
the faith, this is the temple of God; into which if any one shall not
enter, or from which if any shall go out, he is estranged from the hope
of life and eternal salvation. No one ought to flatter himself with
persevering strife. For the contest is respecting life and salvation,
which,
134
unless it is carefully and diligently kept in view, will be lost and
extinguished. But, however, because all the separate assemblies of
heretics call themselves Christians in preference to others, and think
that theirs is the Catholic Church, it must be known that the true
Catholic Church is that in which there is confession and repentance,(1)
which treats in a wholesome manner the sins and wounds to which the
weakness of the flesh is liable. I have related these things in
the meanwhile for the sake of admonition, that no one who desires to
avoid error may be entangled in a greater error, while he is ignorant
of the secret(2) of the truth. Afterwards, in a particular and separate
work, we will more fully and copiously(3) contend against all divisions
of falsehoods. It follows that, since we have spoken sufficiently on
the subject of true religion and wisdom, we discuss the subject of
justice in the next book.
GENERAL NOTES BY THE AMERICAN EDITOR.
(On cap. 29.)
HERE we should look for something also concerning
the Holy Spirit. But our author's principle is doubtless a reflection
of the prevailing sentiment of the Church at this period, which was
perhaps a violent exaggeration of our Lord's example (Mark iv. 33). And
see something of this on p. 140, note 6, infra; also Matt. vii. 6.
II.
(On cap. 30.)
The simplicity with which our author gives a note of
the Catholic Church, in accordance with African canons and the teaching
of Cyprian, is very noteworthy. It never occurred to him that communion
with any one particular See was the note. Hippolytus alone would have
reminded him that the worst heretics had been in communion with both
Zephyrinus and Callistus in his days (see vol. v. pp. 156 and 160; also
Ibid., 125, 130), and that orthodoxy had been persecuted by these
bishops of Rome.
THE DIVINE INSTITUTES
BOOK V.
OF JUSTICE.
CHAP. I.--OF THE NON-CONDEMNATION OF ACCUSED PERSONS WITHOUT A HEARING
OF THEIR CAUSE; FROM WHAT CAUSE PHILOSOPHERS DESPISED THE SACRED
WRITINGS; OF THE FIRST ADVOCATES OF THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION.
I ENTERTAIN no doubt, O mighty Emperor
Constantine,(1)--since they are impatient through excessive
superstition,--that if any one of those who are foolishly religious
should take in hand this work of ours, in which that matchless Creator
of all things and Ruler of this boundless world is asserted, he would
even assail it with abusive language, and perhaps, having scarcely read
the beginning, would dash it to the ground, cast it from him, curse it,
and think himself contaminated and bound by inexpiable guilt if he
should patiently read. or hear these things. We demand, however, from
this man, if it is possible, by the right of human nature,(2) that he
should not condemn before that he knows the whole matter. For if the
right of defending themselves is given to sacrilegious persons, and to
traitors and sorcerers, and if it is lawful for no one to be condemned
beforehand, his cause being as yet untried, we do not appear to ask
unjustly, that if there shall be any one who shall have fallen upon
this subject, if he shall read it, he read it throughout if he shall
hear it, that he put off the forming of an opinion until the end. But I
know the obstinacy of men; we shall never succeed in obtaining this.
For they fear lest they should be overcome by us, and be compelled at
length to yield, truth itself crying out. They interrupt, therefore,
and make hindrances, that they may not hear; and close their eyes, that
they may not see the light which we present to them. Wherefore they
themselves plainly show their distrust in their own abandoned system,
since they neither venture to investigate, nor to engage with as,
because they know that they are easily overpowered.And therefore,
discussion being taken away,
"Wisdom is driven from among them, they have recourse to violence"
as Ennius says; and because they eagerly endeavour to condemn as guilty
those whom they plainly know to be innocent, they are unwilling to be
agreed respecting innocence itself; as though, in truth, it were a
greater injustice to have condemned innocence, when proved to be such,
than unheard. But, as I said, they are afraid lest, if they should
hear, they should be unable to condemn.
And therefore they torture, put to death, and banish
the worshippers of the Most High God, that is, the righteous; nor are
they, who so vehemently hate, themselves able to assign the causes of
their hatred. Because they are themselves in error, they are angry with
those who follow the path of truth; and when they are able to correct
themselves, they greatly increase(3) their errors by cruel deeds, they
are stained with the blood of the innocent, and they tear away with
violence souls dedicated to God from the lacerated bodies. Such are the
men with whom we now endeavour to engage and to dispute: these are the
men whom we would lead away from a foolish persuasion to the truth, men
who would more readily drink blood than imbibe the words of the
righteous. What then? Will our labour be in vain? By no means. For if
we shall not be able to deliver these from death, to which they are
hastening with the greatest speed; if we cannot recall them from that
devious path to life and light, since they themselves oppose their own
safety; yet we shall strengthen those who belong to us, whose opinion
is not settled, and founded and fixed
136
with solid roots. For many of them waver, and especially those who have
any acquaintance with literature. For in this respect philosophers, and
orators, and poets are pernicious, because they are easily able to
ensnare unwary souls by the sweetness of their discourse, and of their
poems flowing with delightful modulation. These are sweets(1) which
conceal poison. And on this account I wished to connect wisdom with
religion, that that vain system may not at all injure the studious; so
that now the knowledge of literature may not only be of no injury to
religion and righteousness, but may even be of the greatest profit, if
he who has learned it should be more instructed in virtues and wiser in
truth.
Moreover, even though it should be profitable to no
other, it certainly will be so to us: the conscience will delight
itself, and the mind will rejoice that it is engaged in the light of
truth, which is the food of the soul, being overspread with an
incredible kind of pleasantness.But we must not despair. Perchance
"We sing not
to the deaf."(2)
For neither are affairs in so bad a condition that there are no sound
minds to which the truth may be pleasing, and which may both see and
follow the right course when it is pointed out to them. Only let the
cup be anointed(3) with the heavenly honey of wisdom, that the bitter
remedies may be drunk by them unawares, without any annoyance, whilst
the first sweetness of taste by its allurenment conceals, under the
cover(4) of pleasantness, the bitterness of the harsh flavour. For this
is especially the cause why, with the wise and the learned, and the
princes of this world, the sacred Scriptures are without credit,
because the prophets spoke in common and simple language, as though
they spoke to the people. And therefore they are despised by
those who are willing to hear or read nothing except that which is
polished and eloquent; nor is anything able to remain fixed in their
minds, except that which charms their ears by a more soothing sound.
But those things which appear humble(5) are considered anile, foolish,
and common. So entirely do they regard nothing as true, except that
which is pleasant to the ear; nothing as credible, except that which
can excite(6) pleasure: no one estimates(7) a subject by its truth, but
by its embellishment. Therefore they do not believe the sacred
writings, because they are without any pretence;(8) but they do not
even believe those who explain them, because they also are either
altogether ignorant, or at any rate possessed of little learning. For
it very rarely happens that they are wholly eloquent; and the cause of
this is evident. For eloquence is subservient to the world, it desires
to display itself to the people, and to please in things which are
evil; since it often endeavours to overpower the truth, that it may
show its power; it seeks wealth, desires honours; in short, it demands
the highest degree of dignity. Therefore it despises these subjects as
low; it avoids secret things as contrary to itself, inasmuch as it
rejoices in publicity, and longs for the multitude and celebrity. Hence
it comes to pass that wisdom and truth need suitable heralds. And if by
chance any of the learned have betaken themselves to it, they have not
been sufficient for its defence.
Of those who are known to me, Minucius Felix was of
no ignoble rank among pleaders. His book, which bears the title of
Octavius, declares how suitable a maintainer of the truth he might have
been, if he had given himself altogether to that pursuit.(9) Septimius
Tertullianus also was skilled in literature of every kind; but in
eloquence he had little readiness, and was not sufficiently polished,
and very obscure. Not even therefore did he find sufficient renown.
Cyprianus, therefore, was above all others(10) distinguished and
renowned, since he had sought great glory to himself from the
profession of the art of oratory, and he wrote very many things worthy
of admiration in their particular class. For he was of a turn of mind
which was ready, copious, agreeable, and (that which is the greatest
excellence of style) plain and open; so that you cannot determine
whether he was more embellished in speech, or more ready in
explanation, or more powerful in persuasion. And yet he is unable to
please those who are ignorant of the mystery except by his words;
inasmuch as the things which he spoke are mystical, and prepared with
this object, that they may be heard by the faithful only: in short, he
is accustomed to be derided by the learned men of this age, to whom his
writings have happened to be known. I have heard of a certain man who
was skilful indeed, who by the change of a single letter called him
Coprianus,(11) as though he were one who had applied to old women's
fables a mind which was elegant and fitted for better things. But if
this happened to him whose eloquence is
137
not unpleasant, what then must we suppose happens to those whose
discourse is meagre and displeasing, who could have had neither the
power of persuasion, nor subtlety in arguing, nor any severity at all
for refuting?
CHAP. II.--TO WHAT AN EXTENT THE CHRISTIAN TRUTH HAS BEEN ASSAILED BY
RASH MEN.
Therefore, because there have been wanting among us
suitable and skilful teachers, who might vigorously and sharply refute
public errors, and who might defend the whole cause of truth with
elegance and copiousness, this very want incited some to venture to
write against the truth, which was unknown to them. I pass by
those who in former times in vain assailed it. When I was teaching
rhetorical learning in Bithynia, having been called thither, and it had
happened that at the same time the temple of God was overthrown, there
were living at the same place two men who insulted the truth as it lay
prostrate and overthrown, I know not whether with greater arrogance or
harshness: the one of whom professed himself the high priest of
philosophy;(1) but he was so addicted to vice, that, though a teacher
of abstinence, he was not less inflamed with avarice than with lusts;
so extravagant in his manner of living, that though in his school he
was the maintainer of virtue, the praiser of parsimony and poverty, be
dined less sumptuously in a palace than at his own house. Nevertheless
he sheltered(2) his vices by his hair(3) and his cloak, and (that which
is the greatest screen(4)) by his riches; and that he might
increase these, he used to penetrate with wonderful effort s to the
friendships of the judges; and he suddenly attached them to
himself by the authority of a fictitious name, not only that he might
make a traffic of their decisions, but also that he might by this
influence hinder his neighbours, whom he was driving froth their
homes and lands, from the recovery of their property. This man,
in truth, who overthrew his own arguments by his character, or censured
his own character by his arguments, a weighty censor and most keen
accuser against himself, at the very same time in which a righteous
peopIe were impiously assailed, vomited forth three books against the
Christian religion and name; professing, above all things, that
it was the office of a philosopher to remedy the errors of men, and to
recall them to the true way, that is, to the worship of the gods,
by whose power and majesty, as he said, the world is governed; and not
to permit that inexperienced men should be enticed by the frauds of
any, lest their simplicity should be a prey and sustenance to crafty
men.
Therefore he said that he had undertaken this
office, worthy of philosophy, that he might hold out to those who do
not see the light of wisdom, not only that they may return to a healthy
state of mind, having undertaken the worship of the gods, but also
that, having laid aside their pertinacious obstinacy, they may avoid
tortures of the body, nor wish in vain to endure cruel lacerations of
their limbs. But that it might be evident on what account he had
laboriously worked out that task, he broke out profusely into praises
of the princes, whose piety and foresight, as he himself indeed said,
had been distinguished both in other matters, and especially in
defending the religious rites of the gods; that he had, in short,
consulted the interests of men, in order that, impious and foolish
superstition having been restrained, all men might have leisure for
lawful sacred rites, and might experience the gods propitious to them.
But when he wished to weaken the grounds of that religion against which
he was pleading, he appeared senseless, vain, and ridiculous; because
that weighty adviser of the advantage of others was ignorant not only
what to oppose, but even what to speak. For if any of our religion were
present, although they were silent on account of the time, nevertheless
in their mind they derided him; since they saw a man professing that he
would enlighten others, when he himself was blind; that he would recall
others from error, when he himself was ignorant where to plant his
feet; that he would instruct others to the truth, of which he himself
had never seen even a spark at any time; inasmuch as he who was a
professor of wisdom, endeavoured to overthrow wisdom. All, however,
censured this, that he undertook this work at that time in particular,
in which odious cruelty raged. O philosopher, a flatterer, and a
time-server! But this man was despised, as his vanity deserved; for he
did not gain the popularity which he hoped for, and the glory which he
eagerly sought for was changed into censure and blame.(6)
Another(7) wrote the same subject with more
bitterness, who was then of the number of the judges, and who was
especially the adviser of enacting persecution; and not contented with
this crime, he also pursued with writings those whom he bad persecuted.
For he composed
138
two books, not against the Christians, test he might appear to assail
them in a hostile manner but to the Christians, that he might be
thought to consult for them with humanity and kindness. And in these
writings he endeavoured so to prove the falsehood of sacred Scripture,
as though it were altogether contradictory to itself; for he expounded
some chapters which seemed to be at variance with themselves,
enumerating so many and such secret(1) things, that he sometimes
appears to have been one of the same sect. But if this was so, what
Demosthenes will be able to defend from the charge of impiety him who
became the betrayer of the religion to which he had given his
assent,(2) and of the faith the name of which he had assumed,(3) and of
the mystery(4) which he had received, unless it happened by chance that
the sacred writings fell into his hands? What rashness was it,
therefore, to dare to destroy that which no one explained to him! It
was well that he either learned nothing or understood nothing. For
contradiction is as far removed from the sacred writings as he was
removed from faith and truth. He chiefly, however, assailed Paul and
Peter, and the other disciples, as disseminators of deceit whom at the
same time he testified to have been unskilled and unlearned. For he
says that some of them made gain by the craft of fishermen, as though
he took it ill that some Aristophanes or Aristarchus did not devise
that subject.
CHAP. III.--OF THE TRUTH OF THE CHRISTIAN DOCTRINE, AND THE VANITY OF
ITS ADVERSARIES; AND THAT CHRIST WAS NOT A MAGICIAN.
The desire of inventing,(5) therefore, and
craftiness were absent from these men, since they were unskilful. Or
what unlearned man could invent things adapted to one another, and
coherent, when the most learned of the philosophers, Plato and
Aristotle, and Epicurus and Zeno, themselves spoke things at variance
with one another, and contrary? For this is the nature of falsehoods,
that they cannot be coherent. But their teaching, because it is true,
everywhere agrees,(6) and is altogether consistent with itself; and on
this account it effects persuasion, because it is based on a consistent
plan. They did not therefore devise that religion for the sake of gain
and advantage, inasmuch as both by their precepts and in reality they
followed that course of life which is without pleasures, and despised
all things which are reckoned among good things, and since they not
only endured death for their faith, but also both knew and foretold
that they were about to die, and afterwards that all who followed their
system would suffer cruel and impious things. But he(7) affirmed that
Christ Himself was put to flight by the Jews, and having collected a
band of nine hundred men, committed robberies. Who would venture to
oppose so great an authority? We must certainly believe this, for
perchance some Apollo announced it to him in his slumbers. So many
robbers have at all times perished, and do perish daily, and you
yourself have certainly condemned many: which of them after his
crucifixion was called, I will not say a God, but a man? But you
perchance believed it from the circumstance of your having consecrated
the homicide Mars as a god, though you would not have done this if the
Areopagites had crucified him.
The same man, when he endeavoured to overthrow his
wonderful deeds, and did not however deny them, wished to show that
Apollonius(8) performed equal or even greater deeds. It is strange that
he omitted to mention Apuleius,(9) of whom many and wonderful things
are accustomed to be related. Why therefore, O senseless one, does no
one worship Apollonius in the place of God? unless by chance you alone
do so, who are worthy forsooth of that god, with whom the true God will
punish you everlastingly. If Christ is a magician because He performed
wonderful deeds, it is plain that Apollonius, who, according to
your-description. when Domitian wished to punish him, suddenly
disappeared on his trial, was more skilful than He who was both
arrested and crucified. But perhaps he wished from this very thing to
prove the arrogance of Christ, in that He made Himself God, that the
other may appear to have been more modest, who, though he performed
greater actions, as this one thinks, nevertheless did not claim that
for himself. I omit at present to compare the works themselves, because
in the second and preceding book I have spoken respecting the fraud and
tricks of the magic art. I say that there is no one who would not wish
that that should especially befall him after death which even the
greatest kings desire. For why do men prepare for themselves
magnificent sepulchres? why statues and images? why by some illustrious
deeds, or even by death undergone in behalf of their countrymen, do
they endeavour
139
to deserve the good opinions of men? Why, in short, have you yourself
wished to raise a monument of your talent, built with this detestable
folly, as if with mud, except that you hope for immortality from the
remembrance of your name? It is foolish, therefore, to imagine that
Apollonius did not desire that which he would plainly wish for if he
were able to attain to it; because there is no one who refuses
immortality, and especially when you say that he was both adored by
some as a god, and that his image was set up under the name of
Hercules, the averter of evil, and is even now honoured by the
Ephesians.
He could not therefore after death be believed to be
a god, because it was evident that he was both a man and a magician;
and for this reason he affected(1) divinity under the title of a name
belonging to another, for in his own name he was unable to attain it,
nor did he venture to make the attempt. But he of whom we speak(2)
could both be believed to be a god, because he was not a magician, and
was believed to be such because he was so in truth. I do not say this,
he says, that Apollonius was not accounted a god, because he did not
wish it, but that it may be evident that we, who did not at once
connect a belief in his divinity with wonderful deeds, are wiser than
you, who on account of slight wonders believed that he was a god. It is
not wonderful if you, who are far removed from the wisdom of God,
understand nothing at all of those things which you have read, since
the Jews, who from the beginning had frequently read the prophets, and
to whom the mystery(3) of God had been assigned, were nevertheless
ignorant of what they read. Learn, therefore, if you have any sense,
that Christ was not believed by us to be God on this account, because
He did wonderful things, but because we saw that all things were done
in His case which were announced to us by the prediction of the
prophets. He performed wonderful deeds: we might have supposed Him to
be a magician, as you now suppose Him to be, and the Jews then supposed
Him, if all the prophets did not with one accord(4) proclaim that
Christ would do those very things. Therefore we believe Him to be God,
not more from His wonderful deeds and works, than from that very cross
which you as dogs lick, since that also was predicted at the same time.
It was not therefore on His own testimony (for who can be believed when
he speaks concerning himself?, but on the testimony of the prophets who
long before foretold all things which He did and suffered, that He
gained a belief in His divinity, which could have happened neither to
Apollonius,(5) nor to Apuleius, nor to any of the magicians; nor can it
happen at any time. When, therefore, he had poured forth such absurd
ravings(6) of his ignorance, when he had eagerly endeavoured utterly to
destroy the truth, he dared to give to his books which were impious and
the enemies of God the title of "truth-loving." O blind breast! O mind
more black than Cimmerian darkness, as they say! He may perhaps have
been a disciple of Anaxagoras,(7) to whom snows were as black as ink.
But it is the same blindness, to give the name of falsehood to truth,
and of truth to falsehood. Doubtless the crafty man wished to conceal
the wolf under the skin of a sheep,(8) that he might ensnare the reader
by a deceitful title. Let it be true; grant that you did this from
ignorance, not from malice: what truth, however, have you brought to
us, except that, being a defender of the gods, you had at last betrayed
those very gods? For, having set forth the praises of the Supreme God,
whom you confessed to be king, most mighty, the maker of all things,
the fountain of honours, the parent of all, the creator and preserver
of all living creatures, you took away the kingdom from your own
Jupiter; and when you had driven him from the supreme power, you
reduced him to the rank of servants. Thus your own conclusion(9)
convicts you of folly, vanity, and error. For you affirm that the gods
exist, and yet you subject and enslave them to that God whose religion
you attempt to overturn.
CHAP.IV.--WHY THIS WORK WAS PUBLISHED, AND AGAIN OF TERTULLIAN AND
CYPRIAN.
Since, therefore, they of whom I have spoken had set
forth their sacrilegious writings in my presence, and to my grief,
being incited both by the arrogant impiety of these, and by the
consciousness of truth itself, and (as I think) by God, I have
undertaken this office, that with all the strength of my mind I might
refute the accusers of righteousness; not that I should write against
these, who might be crushed with a few words, but that I might once for
all by one attack overthrow all who everywhere effect, or have
effected, the same work. For I do not doubt that very many others, and
in many places, and that not only in Greek, but also in Latin writings,
have raised a monument of their own unrighteousness. And since i was
not able to reply to these separately, I thought that this cause was to
be so
140
pleaded by me that I might overthrow former writers, together with all
their writings, and cut off from future writers the whole power of
writing and of replying.(1) Only let them attend, and I will assuredly
effect that whosoever shall know these things, must either embrace that
which he before condemned, or, which is next to it, cease at length to
deride it. Although Tertullian fully pleaded the same cause in that
treatise which is entitled the Apology,(2) yet, inasmuch as it is one
thing to answer accusers, which consists in defence or denial only, and
another thing to instruct, which we do, in which the substance of the
whole system must be contained, I have not shrunk from this labour,
that I might complete the subject, which Cyprian did not fully carry
out in that discourse in which he endeavours to refute Demetrianus (as
he himself says) railing at and clamouring(3) against the truth. Which
subject he did not handle as he ought to have done; for he ought to
have been refuted not by the testimonies of Scripture, which he plainly
considered vain, fictitious, and false, but by arguments and
reason. For, since he was contending against a man who was
ignorant of the truth, he ought for a while to have laid aside divine
readings, and to have formed from the beginning this man as
one who was altogether ignorant,(4) and to have shown to him by degrees
the beginnings of light, that he might not be dazzled,(5) the whole of
its brightness being presented to him.(6)
For as an infant is unable, on account of the
tenderness of its stomach, to receive the nourishment of solid and
strong food, but is supported by liquid and soft milk, until, its
strength being confirmed, it can feed on stronger nourishment; so also
it was befitting that this man, because he was not yet capable of
receiving divine things, should be presented with human
testimonies--that is, of philosophers and historians --in order that he
might especially be refuted by his own authorities. And since he did
not do this, being carried away by his distinguished knowledge of the
sacred writings, so that he was content with those things alone in
which faith consists, I have undertaken, with the favour of God, to do
this, and at the same time to prepare the way for the imitation of
others. And if, through my exhortation, learned and eloquent men shall
begin to betake themselves to this subject, and shall choose to display
their talents and power of speaking in this field of truth, no one can
doubt that false religions will quickly disappear, and philosophy
altogether fall, if all shall be persuaded that this alone is religion
and the only true wisdom. But I have wandered from the subject further
than I wished.
CHAP. V.--THERE WAS TRUE JUSTICE UNDER SATURNUS, BUT IT WAS BANISHED BY
JUPITER.
Now the promised disputation concerning justice must
be given; which is either by itself the greatest virtue, or by itself
the fountain of virtue, which not only philosophers sought, but poets
also, who were much earlier, and were esteemed as wise before the
origin of the name of philosophy. These clearly understood that this
justice was absent from the affairs of men; and they feigned that it,
being offended with the vices of men, departed from the earth, and
withdrew to heaven; and that they may teach what it is to live justly
(for they are accustomed to give precepts by circumlocutions), they
repeat examples of justice from the times of Saturnus, which they call
the golden times, and they relate in what condition human life was
while it delayed on the earth.(7) And this is not to be regarded as a
poetic fiction, but as the truth. For, while Saturnus reigned, the
religious worship of the gods not having yet been instituted, nor
any(8) race being as yet set apart in the belief of its divinity, God
was manifestly worshipped. And therefore there were neither
dissensions, nor enmities, nor wars.
"Not yet had rage unsheathed maddened swords,"
as Germanicus Caesar speaks in his poem translated from Aratus,(9)
"Nor had discord been known among relatives."
No, nor even among strangers: but there were no swords at all to be
unsheathed. For who, when justice was present and in vigour, would
think respecting his own protection, since no one plotted against him;
or respecting the destruction of another, since no one desired anything?
"They, preferred to live content with a simple mode of life,"
as Cicero(10) relates in his poem; and this is peculiar to our
religion. "It was not even allowed to mark out or to divide the plain
with a boundary: men sought all things in common;"(11) since God
141
had given the earth in common to all, that they might pass their life
in common, not that mad and raging avarice might claim all things for
itself, and that that which was produced for all might not be wanting
to any. And this saying of the poet ought so to be taken, not as
suggesting the idea that individuals at that time had no private
property, but it must be regarded as a poetical figure; that we may
understand that men were so liberal, that they did not shut up the
fruits of the earth produced for them, nor did they in solitude brood
over the things stored up, but admitted the poor to share the fruits of
their labour:--
"Now streams of milk, now streams
of nectar flowed."(1)
And no wonder, since the storehouses of the good liberally lay open to
all. Nor did avarice intercept the divine bounty, and thus cause hunger
and thirst in common but all alike had abundance, since they who had
possessions gave liberally and bountifully to those who had not. But
after that Saturnus had been banished from heaven, and had arrived in
Latium,--
"Exiled from his throne
By
Jove, his mightier heir,"(2)--
since the people either through fear of the new king, or of their own
accord, had become corrupted and ceased to worship God, and had begun
to esteem the king in the place of Cool, since he himself, almost a
parricide, was an example to others to the injury of piety,--
"The most just Virgin in haste deserted the lands;"(3)
but not as Cicero says,(4)
"And settled, in the kingdom of Jupiter, and in a part of
the heaven."
For how could she settle or tarry in the kingdom of him who expelled
his father from his kingdom, harassed him with war, and drove him as an
exile over the whole world?
"He gave to the black serpents their noxious poison,
And ordered wolves to prowl;(6)
that is, he introduced among men hatred, and envy, and stratagem; so
that they were poisonous as serpents, and rapacious as wolves. And they
truly do this who persecute those who are righteous and faithful
towards God, and give to judges the power of using violence against the
innocent. Perhaps Jupiter may have done something of this kind for the
overthrow and removal of righteousness; and on this account he is
related to have made serpents fierce, and to have whetted the spirit of
wolves.
"Then war's
indomitable rage,
And greedy lust of gain;"(7)
and not without reason. For the worship of God being taken away, men
lost the knowledge of good and evil. Thus the common intercourse of
life perished from among then, and the bond of human society was
destroyed. Then they began to contend with one another, and to plot,
and to acquire for themselves glory from the shedding of human blood.
CHAP. VI.--AFTER THE BANISHMENT OF JUSTICE, LUST, UNJUST LAWS, DARING,
AVARICE, AMBITION, PRIDE, IMPIETY, AND OTHER VICES REIGNED.
And the source of all these evils was lust; which,
indeed, burst forth from the contempt of true majesty. For not only did
they who had a superfluity fail to bestow a share upon others, but they
even seized the property of others, drawing everything to their private
gain; and the things which formerly even individuals laboured to obtain
for the common use of men,(8) were now conveyed to the houses of a few.
Far, that they might subdue others by slavery, they began especially to
withdraw and collect together the necessaries of life, and to keep them
firmly shut up, that they might make the bounties of heaven their own;
not on account of kindness,(9) a feeling which had no existence in
them, but that they might sweep together all the instruments of lust
and avarice. They also, tinder the name of justice, passed most unequal
and unjust laws, by which they might defend their plunder and avarice
against the force of the multitude. They prevailed, therefore, as much
by authority as by strength, or resources, or malice. And since there
was in them no trace of justice, the offices of which are humanity,
equity, pity, they now began to rejoice in a proud and swollen
inequality, and made(10) themselves higher than other men, by a retinue
of attendants, and by the sword, and by the brilliancy of their
garments. For this reason they invented for themselves honours, and
purple robes, and fasces, that, being supported by the terror produced
by axes and swords, they might, as it were by the right of masters,
rule them, stricken with fear, and
alarmed. Such was the condition in which the life of man was placed by
that king who, having defeated and put to flight a parent, did not
seize his kingdom, but set up an impious tyranny by violence and armed
men, and took away that
142
golden age of justice, and compelled men to become wicked and impious,
even from this very circumstance, that he turned them away from God to
the worship of himself; and the terror of his excessive power had
extorted this.
For who would not fear him who was girded about with
arms, whom the unwonted gleam of steel and swords surrounded? Or what
stranger would he spare who had not even spared his own father? Whom,
in truth, should he fear, who had conquered in war, and destroyed by
massacre the race of the Titans, which was strong and excelling in
might? What wonder if the whole multitude, pressed by unusual fear, had
given themselves up to the adulation of a single man? Him they
venerated, to him they paid the greatest honour. And since it is judged
to be a kind of obsequiousness to imitate the customs and vices of a
king, all men laid aside piety, lest, if they should live piously, they
might seem to upbraid the wickedness of the king. Thus, being corrupted
by continual imitation, they abandoned divine right, and the practice
of living wickedly by degrees became a habit. And now nothing remained
of the pious and excellent condition of the preceding age; but justice
being banished, and drawing with her the truth, left to men error,
ignorance, and blindness. The poets therefore were ignorant, who sung
that she fled to heaven, to the kingdom of Jupiter. For if justice was
on the earth in the age which they call "golden," it is plain that she
was driven away by Jupiter, who changed the golden age. But the change
of the age and the expulsion of justice is to be deemed nothing else,
as I have said, than the laying aside of divine religion, which alone
effects that man should esteem man dear, and should know that he is
bound to him by the tie of brotherhood, since God is alike a Father to
all, so as to share the bounties of the common God and Father with
those who do not possess them; to injure no one, to oppress no one, not
to close his door against a stranger, nor his ear against a suppliant,
but to be bountiful, beneficent, and liberal, which Tullius(1) thought
to be praises suitable to a king. This truly is justice, and this is,
the golden age, which was first corrupted when Jupiter reigned, and
shortly afterwards, when he himself and all his offspring were
consecrated as gods, and the worship of many deities undertaken, had
been altogether taken away.
CHAP. VII.--OF THE COMING OF JESUS, AND ITS FRUIT; AND OF THE VIRTUES
AND VICES OF THAT AGE.
But God, as a most indulgent parent, when the last
time approached, sent a messenger to bring back that old age, and
justice which had
been put to flight, that the human race might not be agitated by very
great and perpetual errors. Therefore the appearance of that golden
time returned, and justice was restored to the earth, but was assigned
to a few; and this justice is nothing else than the pious and religious
worship of the one God. But perhaps some may be inclined to ask, why,
if this be justice, it is not given to all mankind, and the whole
multitude does not agree to it. This is a matter of great disputation,
why a difference was retained by God when He gave justice to the earth;
and this I have shown in another place, and whenever a favourable
opportunity shall occur it shall be explained. Now it is sufficient
very briefly to signify it: that virtue can neither be discerned,
unless it has vices opposed to it; nor be perfect, unless it is
exercised by adversity.(2) For God designed that there should be this
distinction between good and evil things, that we may know from that
which is evil the quality of the good, and also the quality of the evil
from the good; nor can the nature of the one be understood if the other
is taken away. God therefore did not exclude evil, that the nature of
virtue might be evident. For how could patient endurance(3) retain its
meaning and name if there were nothing which we were compelled to
endure?(4) How could faith devoted to its God deserve praise, unless
there were some one who wished to turn us away from God? For on this
account He permitted the unjust to be more powerful, that they might be
able to compel to evil; and on this account to be more numerous, that
virtue might be precious, because it is rare. And this very point is
admirably and briefly shown by Quintilian in "the muffled head."(5)
"For what virtue," he says, "would there be in innocence, had not its
rarity furnished it with praises? But because it is provided by nature
that hatred, desire, and anger drive men blindly to that object to
which they have applied themselves, to be free from fault appears to be
beyond the power of man. Otherwise, if nature had given to all men
equal affections, piety would be nothing."
How true this is, the necessity of the case itself
teaches. For if it is virtue to resist with fortitude evils and vices,
it is evident that, without evil and vice, there is no perfected
virtue; and that God might render this complete and perfect, He
retained that which was contrary to it, with which it might contend.
For, being agitated by evils which harass it, it gains stability; and
in proportion to the frequency with which
143
it is urged onward, is the firmness with which it is strengthened. This
is evidently the cause which effects that, although justice is sent to
men, yet it cannot be said that a golden age exists; because God has
not taken away evil, that He might retain that diversity which alone
preserves the mystery of a divine religion.
CHAP. VIII.--OF JUSTICE KNOWN TO ALL, BUT NOT EMBRACED; OF THE TRUE
TEMPLE OF GOD, AND OF HIS WORSHIP,THAT ALL VICES MAY BE
SUBDUED.
They, therefore, who think that no one is just, have
justice before their eyes, but are unwilling to discern it. For what
reason is there why they should describe it either in poems or in all
their discourse, complaining of its absence, when it is very easy for
them to be good if they wish? Why do you depict to yourselves justice
as worthless,(1) and wish that she may fall from heaven, as it were,
represented in some image? Behold, she is in your sight; receive her,
if you are able, and place her in the abode of your breast; and do not
imagine that this is difficult, or unsuited to the times. Be just and
good, and the justice which you seek will follow you of her own accord.
Lay aside every evil thought from your hearts, and that golden age will
at once return to you, which you cannot attain to by any other means
than by beginning to worship the true God. But you long for justice on
the earth, while the worship of false gods continues, which cannot
possibly come to pass. But it was not possible even at that time when
you imagine, because those deities whom you impiously worship were not
yet produced, and the worship of the one God must have prevailed
throughout the earth; of that God, I say, who hates wickedness and
requires goodness; whose temple is not stones or clay, but man himself,
who bears the image of God. And this temple is adorned not with
corruptible gifts of gold and jewels, but with the lasting offices of
virtues. Learn, therefore, if any intelligence is left to you, that men
are wicked and unjust because gods are worshipped; and that all evils
daily increase to the affairs of men on this account, because God the
Maker and Governor of this world has been neglected; because, contrary
to that which is right, impious superstitions have been taken up; and
lastly, because you do not permit God to be worshipped even by a few.
But if God only were worshipped, there would
not be dissensions and wars, since men would
know that they are the sons of one God; and,
therefore, among those who were connected by
the sacred and inviolable bond of divine relation-
ship, there would be no plottings, inasmuch as
they would know what kind of punishments God
prepared for the destroyers of souls, who sees through secret crimes,
and even the very thoughts themselves. There would be no frauds or
plunderings if they had learned, through the instruction of God, to be
content with that which was their own, though little, so that they
might prefer solid and eternal things to those which are frail and
perishable. There would be no adulteries, and debaucheries, and
prostitution of women, if it were known to all, that whatever is sought
beyond the desire of procreation is condemned by God.(2) Nor would
necessity, compel a woman to dishonour her modesty, to seek for herself
a most disgraceful mode of sustenance; since the males also would
restrain their lust, and the pious and religious contributions of the
rich would succour the destitute. There would not, therefore, as I have
said, be these evils on the earth, if there were by common Consent a
general observance(3) of the law of God, if those things were done by
all which our people alone perform. How happy and how golden would be
the condition of human affairs, if throughout the world gentleness, and
piety, and peace, and innocence, and equity, and temperance, and faith,
took up their abode! In short, there would be no need of so many and
varying laws to rule men, since the law of God alone would be
sufficient for perfect innocence; nor would there be any need of
prisons, or the swords of rulers, or the terror of punishments, since
the wholesomeness of the divine precepts infused into the breasts of
men would of itself instruct them to works of justice. But now men are
wicked through ignorance of what is right and good. And this, indeed,
Cicero saw; for, discoursing on the subject of the laws,(4) he says:
"As the world, with all its parts agreeing with one another, coheres
and depends upon one and the same nature, so all men, being naturally
confused among themselves, disagree through depravity; nor do they
understand that they are related by blood, and that they are all
subject to one and the same guardianship: for if this were kept in
mind, assuredly men would live the life of gods." Therefore the unjust
and impious worship of the gods has introduced all the evils by which
mankind in turn destroy one another. For they could not retain their
piety, who, as prodigal and rebellious children, had renounced the
authority of Coot, the common parent of all.
CHAP. IX.--OF THE CRIMES OF THE WICKED, AND THE TORTURE INFLICTED ON
THE CHRISTIANS.
At times, however, they perceive that they are
wicked, and praise the condition of the former
144
ages, and conjecture that justice is absent because of their characters
and deserts; for, though she presents herself to their eyes, they not
only fail to receive or recognise her, but they even violently hate,
and persecute, and endeavour to banish her. Let us suppose, in the
meantime, that she whom we follow is not justice: how will they receive
her whom they imagine to be the true justice, if she shall have come,
when they torture and kill those whom they themselves confess to be
imitators of the just, because they perform good and just actions;
whereas, if they should put to death the wicked only, they would
deserve to be unvisited by justice, who had no other reason for leaving
the earth than the shedding of human blood? How much more so when they
slay the righteous, and account the followers of justice themselves as
enemies, yea, as more than enemies; who, though they eagerly seek their
lives, and property, and children by sword and fire, yet are spared
when conquered; and there is a place for clemency even amidst arms; or
if they have determined to carry their cruelty to the utmost, nothing
more is done towards them, except that they are put to death or led
away to slavery! But this is unutterable which is done towards those
who are ignorant of crime, and none are regarded as more guilty than
those who are of all men innocent. Therefore most wicked men venture to
make mention of justice, men who surpass wild beasts in ferocity, who
lay waste the most gentle flock of God,--
"Like gaunt wolves rushing from
their den,
Whom lawless hunger's sullen
growl
Drives forth into the night
to prowl."(1)
But these have been maddened not by the fury of
hunger, but of the heart; nor do they prowl in a black mist, but by
open plundering; nor does the consciousness of their crimes ever recall
them from profaning the sacred and holy name of justice with that mouth
which, like the jaws of beasts, is wet with the blood of the innocent.
What must we say is especially the cause of this excessive and
persevering hatred?
"Does truth produce hatred,"(2)
as the poet says, as though inspired by the Divine Spirit, or are they
ashamed to be bad in the presence of the just and good? Or is it rather
from both causes? For the truth is always hateful on this account,
because he who sins wishes to have free scope for sinning, and thinks
that he cannot in any other way more securely enjoy the pleasure of his
evil doings, than if there is no one whom his faults may displease.
Therefore they endeavour entirely to exterminate and, take them away as
witnesses of their crimes and wickedness, and think them burthensome to:
themselves, as though their life were reproved. For why should any be
unseasonably good, who, when the public morals are corrupted, should
censure them by living well? Why should not all be equally wicked,
rapacious, unchaste, adulterers, perjured, covetous, and fraudulent?
Why should they not rather be taken out of the way, in whose presence
they are ashamed to lead an evil life, who, though not by words, for
they are silent, but by their very course of life, so unlike their own,
assail and strike the forehead of sinners? For whoever disagrees with
them appears to reprove them.
Nor is it greatly to be wondered at if these things
are done towards men, since for the same cause the people who were
placed in hope,(3) and not ignorant of God, rose up against God
Himself; and the same necessity follows the righteous which attacked
the Author of righteousness Himself. Therefore they harass and torment
them with studied kinds of punishments, and think it little to kill
those whom they hate, unless cruelty also mocks their bodies. But if
any through fear of pain or death, or by their own perfidy, have
deserted the heavenly oath,(4) and have consented to deadly sacrifices,
these they praise and load(5) with honours, that by their ample they
may allure others. But upon those who have highly esteemed their faith,
and have not denied that they are worshippers of God, they fall with
all the strength of their butchery, as though they thirsted for blood;
and they call them desperate,(6) because they by no means spare their
body; as though anything could be more desperate, than to torture and
tear in pieces him whom you know to be innocent. Thus no sense of shame
remains among those from whom all kind feeling is absent, and they
retort upon just men reproaches which are befitting to themselves. For
they call them impious, being themselves forsooth pious, and shrinking
from the shedding of human blood; whereas, if they would consider their
own acts, and the acts of those whom they condemn as impious, they
would now understand how false they are, and more deserving of all
those things which they either say or do against the good. For they are
not of our number, but of theirs who besiege the roads in arms,
practise piracy by sea; or if it has not been in their power openly to
assail, secretly mix poisons; who kill their wives that they may gain
their dowries, or their husbands that they may marry adulterers; who
either strangle the sons born from themselves, or if
145
they are too pious, expose them; who restrain their incestuous passions
neither from a daughter, nor sister, nor mother, nor priestess; who
conspire against their own citizens and country; who do not fear the
sack;(1) who, in fine, commit sacrilege, and despoil the temples of the
gods whom they worship; and, to speak of things which are light and
usually practised by them, who hunt for inheritances, forge wills,
either remove or exclude the just heirs; who prostitute their own
persons to lust; who, in short, unmindful of what they were born,
contend with women in passivity;(2) who, in violation of all
propriety,(3) pollute and dishonour the most sacred part of their body;
who mutilate themselves, and that which is more impious, in order that
they may be priests of religion; who do not even spare their own life,
but sell their lives to be taken away in public; who, if they sit as
judges, corrupted by a bribe, either destroy the innocent or set free
the guilty without punishment; who grasp at the heaven itself by
sorceries, as though the earth would not contain their wickedness.
These crimes, I say, and more than these, are plainly committed by
those who are worshippers of the gods.
Amidst these crimes of such number and magnitude,
what place is there for justice? And I have collected a few only out of
many, not for the purpose of censure, but to show their nature. Let
those who shall wish to know all take in hand the books of Seneca, who
was at the same time a most true describer and a most vehement accuser
of the public morals and vices. But Lucilius also briefly and concisely
described that dark life in these verses: "But now from morn to night,
on festival and ordinary day alike, the whole people and the fathers
with one accord display themselves in(4) the forum, and never depart
from it. They have all given themselves to one and the same pursuit and
art, that they may be able cautiously to deceive, to fight
treacherously, to contend in flattery, each to pretend that he is a
good man, to lie in wait, as if all were enemies to all." But which of
these things can be laid to the charge of our people,(5) with whom the
whole of religion consists in living without guilt and without spot?
Since, therefore, they see that both they and their people do those
things which we have said, but that ours practise nothing else but that
which is just and good, they might, if they had any understanding, have
perceived from this, both that they who do what is good are pious, and
that they themselves who commit wicked actions are impious. For it is
impossible that they who do not err in all the actions of their life,
should err in the main point, that is, in religion, which is the chief
of all things. For impiety, if taken up in that which is the most
important, would follow through all the rest. And therefore(6) it is
impossible that they who err in the whole of their life should not be
deceived also in religion; inasmuch as piety, if it kept its rule in
the chief point, would maintain its course in others. Thus it happens,
that on either side the character of the main subject may be known from
the state of the actions which are carried on.
CHAP. X.--OF FALSE PIETY,
AND OF FALSE AND TRUE RELIGION.
It is worth while to investigate their piety, that
from their merciful and pious actions it may be understood what is the
character of those things which are done by them contrary to the laws
of piety. And that I may not seem to attack any one with harshness, I
will take a character from the poets, and one which is the greatest
example of piety.In Maro, that king "Than who The breath of being none
e'er drew,
More brave, more pious, or more true,"(7)--
what proofs of justice did he bring forward to us?
"There walk with hands fast bound behind
The victim prisoners, designed
For slaughter o'er the flames."(8)
What can be more merciful than this piety? what more merciful than to
immolate human victims to the dead, and to feed the fire with the blood
of men as with oil? But perhaps this may not have been the fault of the
hero himself, but of the poet, who polluted with distinguished
wickedness "a man distinguished by his piety."(9) Where then, O poet,
is that piety which you so frequently praise? Behold the pious AEneas:--
"Four hapless youths of Sulmo's breed,
And four who Ufens call their sire,
He takes alive, condemned to bleed
To Pallas' shade on
Pallas' pyre."(10)
Why, therefore, at the very same time when he was sending the men in
chains to slaughter, did he say,
"Fain would I grant the living peace,"(11)
when he ordered that those whom he had in his power alive should be
slain in the place of cattle? But this, as I have said, was not his
fault--for
146
he perhaps had not received a liberal education--but yours; for, though
you were learned, yet you were ignorant of the nature of piety, and you
believed that that wicked and detestable action of his was the
befitting exercise of piety. He is plainly called pious on this account
only, because he loved his father. Why should I say that
"The
good AEneas owned their plea,"(1)
and yet slew them? For, though adjured by the same father, and
"By
young Lulus' dawning day,"(2)
he did not spare them,
"Live fury kindling every vein"(3)
What! can any one imagine that there was any virtue in him who was
fired with madness as stubble, and, forgetful of the shade of his
father. by whom he was entreated, was unable to curb his wrath? He was
therefore by no means pious who not only slew the unresisting, but even
suppliants. Here some one will say: What then, or where, or of what
character is piety? Truly it is among those who are ignorant of wars,
who maintain concord with all, who are friendly even to their enemies,
who love all men as brethren, who know how to restrain their anger, and
to soothe every passion of the mind with calm government. How great a
mist, therefore, how great a cloud of darkness and errors, has
over-spread the breasts of men who, when they think themselves
especially pious, then become especially impious? For the more
religiously they honour those earthy images, so much the more wicked
are they towards the name of the true divinity. And therefore they are
often harassed with greater evils as the reward of their impiety; and
because they know not the cause of these evils, the blame is altogether
ascribed to fortune, and the philosophy of Epicurus finds a place who
thinks that nothing extends to the gods, and that they are neither
influenced by favour nor moved by anger, because they often see their
despisers happy, and their worshippers in misery. And this happens on
this account, because when they seem to be religious and naturally
good, they are believed to deserve nothing of that kind which they
often suffer. However, they console themselves by accusing fortune; nor
do they perceive that if she had any existence, she would never injure
her worshippers. Piety of this kind is therefore deservedly followed by
punishment; and the deity offended with the wickedness of men who are
depraved in their religious worship,(4) punishes them with
heavy misfortune; who, although they live with holiness in the greatest
faith and innocence, yet because they worship gods whose impious and
profane rites are an abomination to the true God, are estranged from
justice and the name of true piety. Nor is it difficult to show why the
worshippers of the gods cannot be good and just. For how shall they
abstain from the shedding of blood who worship bloodthirsty deities,
Mars and Bellona? or how shall they spare their parents who worship
Jupiter, who drove out his father? or how shall they spare their own
infants who worship Saturnus? how shall they uphold chastity who
worship a goddess who is naked, and an adulteress, and who prostitutes
herself as it were among the gods? how shall they withhold
themselves from plunder and frauds who are acquainted with the thefts
of Mercurius, who teaches that to deceive is not the part of fraud, but
of cleverness? how shall they restrain their lusts who worship Jupiter,
Hercules, Liber, Apollo, and the others, whose adulteries and
debaucheries with men and women are not only known to the learned, but
are even set forth in the theatres, and made the subject of songs, so
that they are notorious(5) to all? Among these things is it possible
for men to be just, who, although they were naturally good, would be
trained to injustice by the very gods themselves? For, that you may
propitiate the god whom you worship, there is need of those things with
which you know that he is pleased and delighted. Thus it comes to pass
that the god fashions the life of his worshippers according to the
character of his own will,(6) since the most religious
worship is to imitate.
CHAP XI.--OF THE CRUELTY OF THE HEATHENS
AGAINST THE CHRISTIANS.
Therefore, because justice is burthensome and
unpleasant to those men who agree with the character of their gods,
they exercise with violence against the righteous the same impiety
which they show in other things. And not without reason are they spoken
of by the prophets as beasts. Therefore it is excellently said by
Marcus Tullius:(7) "For if there is no one who would not prefer to die
than to be changed into the figure of a beast, although he is about to
have the mind of a man, how much more wretched is it to be of a
brutalized mind in the figure of a man! To me, indeed, it seems as much
worse as the mind is more excellent than the body." Therefore they view
with disdain the bodies of beasts, though they are themselves more
cruel than these; and they pride themselves on this account, that they
were born men,
147
though they have nothing belonging to man except the features and the
eminent figure. For what Caucasus, what India, what Hyrcania ever
nourished beasts so. savage and so bloodthirsty? For the fury of all
wild beasts rages until their appetite is satisfied; and when their
hunger is appeased, immediately is pacified.That is truly a beast by
whose command alone
"With rivulets of slaughter reeks
The stern
embattled field."
"Dire agonies, wild terrors swarm,
And Death glares grim in many a
form."(1)
No one can befittingly describe the cruelty of this beast, which
reclines in one place, and yet rages with iron teeth throughout the
world, and not only tears in pieces the limbs of men, but also breaks
their very bones, and rages over their ashes, that there may be no
place for their burial, as though they who confess God aimed at this,
that their tombs should be visited, and not rather that they themselves
may reach the presence of God.
What brutality is it, what fury, what madness, to
deny light to the living, earth to the dead? I say, therefore, that
nothing is more wretched than those men whom necessity has either found
or made the ministers of another's fury, the satellites of an impious
command. For that was no honour, or exaltation of dignity, but the
condemnation of a man to torture, and also to the everlasting
punishment of God. But it is impossible to relate what things they
performed individually throughout the world. For what number of volumes
will contain so infinite, so varied kinds of cruelty? For, having
gained power, every one raged according to his own disposition. Some,
through excessive timidity, proceeded to greater lengths than they were
commanded; others thus acted through their own particular hatred
against the righteous; some by a natural ferocity of mind; some through
a desire to please, and that by this service they might prepare the way
to higher offices: some were swift to slaughter, as an individual in
Phrygia, who burnt a whole assembly of people, together with their
place of meeting. But the more cruel he was, so much the more
merciful(2) is he found to be. But that is the worst kind of
persecutors whom a false appearance of clemency flatters; he is the
more severe, he the more cruel torturer, who determines to put no one
to death. Therefore it cannot be told what great and what
grievous modes of tortures judges of this kind devised, that they
might arrive at the accomplishment of their purpose. But they do these
things not only on this account, that they may be able to boast that
they have slain none of the innocent,--for I myself have heard some
boasting that their administration has been in this respect without
bloodshed,--but also for the sake of envy, lest either they themselves
should be overcome, or the others should obtain the glory due to their
virtue. And thus, in devising modes of punishment, they think of
nothing else besides victory. For they know that this is a contest and
a battle. I saw in Bithynia the prefect wonderfully elated with joy, as
though he had subdued some nation of barbarians, because one who had
resisted for two years with great spirit appeared at length to yield.
They contend, therefore, that they may conquer and inflict exquisite(3)
pains on their bodies, and avoid nothing else but that the victims may
not die under the torture: as though, in truth, death alone could make
them happy, and as though tortures also in proportion to their severity
would not produce greater glory of virtue. But they with obstinate
folly give orders that diligent care shall be given to the tortured,
that their limbs may be renovated for other tortures, and fresh blood
be supplied for punishment. What can be so pious, so beneficent, so
humane? They would not have bestowed such anxious care on any whom they
loved. This is the discipline of the gods: to these deeds they train
their worshippers; these are the sacred rites which they require.
Moreover, most wicked murderers have invented impious laws against the
pious. For both sacrilegious ordinances and unjust disputations of
jurists are read. Domitius, in his seventh book, concerning the office
of the proconsul, has collected wicked rescripts of princes, that he
might show by what punishments they ought to be visited who confessed
themselves to be worshippers of God.
CHAP.XII.--OF TRUE VIRTUE; AND OF THE ESTIMATION OF A GOOD OR BAD
CITIZEN.
What would you do to those who give the name of
justice to the tortures inflicted by tyrants of old, who fiercely raged
against the innocent; and though they are teachers of injustice and
cruelty, wish to appear just and prudent, being blind and dull, and
ignorant of affairs and of truth? Is justice so hateful to you, O
abandoned minds, that ye regard it as equal with the greatest crimes?
Is innocence so utterly lost in your eyes, that you do not think it
worthy of death only,(4) but it is esteemed as beyond all crimes to
commit no crime, and to have a breast pure from all contagion of guilt?
And since we arc speaking generally with those who worship
148
gods, let us have your permission to do good with you; for this is our
law, this our business, this our religion. If we appear to you wise,
imitate us; if foolish, despise us, or even laugh at us, if you please;
for our folly is profitable to us. Why do you lacerate, why do you
afflict us? We do not envy your wisdom. We prefer this folly of
ours--we embrace this. We believe that this is expedient for us,--to
love you, and to confer all things upon you, who hate us.
There is in the writings of Cicero(1) a passage not
inconsistent with the truth, in that disputation which is held by
Furius against justice: "I ask," he says, "if there should be two men,
and one of them should be an excellent man, of the highest integrity,
the greatest justice, and remarkable faith, and the other distinguished
by crime and audacity; and if the state should be in such error as to
regard that good man as wicked, vicious, and execrable, but should
think the one who is most wicked to be of the highest integrity and
faith; and if, in accordance with this opinion of all the citizens,
that good man should be harassed, dragged away, should be deprived of
his hands, have his eyes dug out, should be condemned, be bound, be
branded, be banished, be in want, and lastly, should most justly appear
to all to be most wretched; but, on the other hand, if that wicked man
should be praised, and honoured, and loved by all,--if all honours, all
commands, all wealth, and all abundance should be bestowed upon
him,--in short, if he should be judged in the estimation of all an
excellent man, and most worthy of all fortune,--who, I pray, will be so
mad as to doubt which of the two he would prefer to be?" Assuredly he
put forth this example as though he divined what evils were about to
happen to us, and in what manner, on account of righteousness; for our
people suffer all these things through the perverseness of those in
error. Behold, the state, or rather the whole world itself, is in such
error, that it persecutes, tortures, condemns, and puts to death good
and righteous men, as though they were wicked and impious. For as to
what he says, that no one is so infatuated as to doubt which of the two
he would prefer to be, he indeed, as the one who was contending against
justice, thought this, that the wise man would prefer to be bad if he
had a good reputation, than to be good with a bad reputation.
But may this senselessness be absent from us, that
we should prefer that which is false to the true? Or does the character
of our good man depend upon the errors of the people, more than upon
our own conscience and the judgment of God? Or shall any prosperity
ever allure us, so that we should not rather choose true goodness,
though accompanied with all evil, than false goodness together with all
prosperity? Let kings retain their kingdoms, the rich their riches, as
Plautus says,(2) the wise their wisdom: let them leave to us our folly,
which is evidently proved to be wisdom, from the very fact that they
envy us its possession: for who would envy a fool, but he who is
himself most foolish? But they are not so foolish as to envy fools; but
from the fact of their following us up with such care and anxiety, they
allow that we are not fools. For why should they rage with such
cruelty, unless it is that they fear lest, as justice grows strong from
day to day, they should be deserted together with their decaying(3)
gods? If, therefore, the worshippers of gods are wise, and we are
foolish, why do they fear lest the wise shall be allured by the foolish?
CHAP. XIII.--OF THE INCREASE AND
THE PUNISHMENT OF
THE
CHRISTIANS.(4)
But since our number is continually increased from
the worshippers of gods, but is never lessened, not even in persecution
itself,--since men may commit sin, and be defiled by sacrifice, but
they cannot be turned away from God, for the truth prevails by its own
power,--who is there, I pray, so foolish and so blind as not to see on
which side wisdom is? But they are blinded by malice and fury, that
they cannot see; and they think that those are foolish who, when they
have it in their power to avoid punishments, nevertheless prefer to be
tortured and to be put to death; whereas they might see from this very
circumstance, that it is not folly to which so many thousands
throughout the world agree with one and the same mind. For if women
fall into error through the weakness of their sex (for these persons
sometimes call it a womanish and anile superstition), men doubtless are
wise. If boys, if youths are improvident through their age, the mature
and aged doubtless have a fixed judgment. If one city is unwise, it is
evident that the other innumerable cities cannot be foolish. If one
province or one nation is without prudence, the rest must have
understanding of that which is right. But since the divine law has been
received from the rising even to the setting of the sun, and each sex,
every age, and nation, and country, with one and the same mind obeys
God--since there is everywhere the same patient endurance, the same
contempt of death--they ought to have understood that there is some
reason in that matter, that it is not without a cause that it is
defended even to death, that there is some foundation and solidity,
which not
149
only frees that religion from injuries and molestation, but always
increases and makes it stronger. For in this respect also the malice of
those is brought to light, who think that they have utterly overthrown
the religion of God if they have corrupted men, when it is permitted
them to make satisfaction also to God; and there is no worshipper of
God so evil who does not, when the opportunity is given him, return to
appease God, and that, too, with greater devotedness. For the
consciousness of sin and the fear of punishment make a man more
religious, and the faith is always much stronger which is replaced
through repentance. If, therefore, they themselves, when they think
that the gods are angry with them, nevertheless believe that they are
appeased by gifts, and sacrifices, and incense, what reason is there
why they should imagine our God to be so unmerciful and implacable,
that it should appear impossible for him to be a Christian, who by
compulsion and against his will has poured a libation to their gods?
Unless by chance they think that those who are once contaminated are
about to change their mind, so that they may now begin of their own
accord to do that which they have done under the influence of torture.
Who would willingly undertake that duty which began with injury? Who,
when he sees the scars on his own sides, would not the more hate the
gods, on account of whom he bears the traces of lasting punishment, and
the marks imprinted upon his flesh? Thus it comes to pass, that when
peace is given from heaven, those who were estranged (1) from us
return, and a fresh crowd(2) of others are added on account of the
wonderful nature(3) of the virtue displayed. For when the people see
that men are lacerated by various kinds of tortures, and that they
retain their patience unsubdued while the executioners are wearied,
they think, as is really the case, that neither the agreement of so
many nor the constancy of the dying is without meaning, and that
patience itself could not surmount such great tortures without the aid
of God. Robbers and men of robust frame are unable to endure
lacerations of this kind: they utter exclamations, and send forth
groans; for they are overcome by pain, because they are destitute of
patience infused(4) into them. But in our case (not to speak of men),
boys and delicate women in silence overpower their torturers, and even
the fire is unable to extort from them a groan. Let the Romans go and
boast in their Mutius or Regulus,--the one of whom gave himself up to
be slain by the enemy, because he was ashamed to live as a captive; the
other being taken by the enemy, when he saw that he could not escape
death, laid his hand upon the burning hearth, that he might make
atonement for his crime to the enemy whom he wished to kill, and by
that punishment received the pardon which he had not deserved. Behold,
the weak sex and fragile age endure to be lacerated in the whole body,
and to be burned: not Of necessity, for it is permitted them to escape
if they wished to do so; but of their own will, because they put their
trust in God.(5)
CHAP. XIV.--OF THE FORTITUDE OF THE CHRIS-
TIANS.
But this is true virtue, which the vaunting
philosophers also boast of, not in deed, but with empty words, saying
that nothing is so befitting the gravity and constancy of a wise man as
to be able to be driven away from his sentiment and purpose by no
torturers, but that it is worth his while(6) to suffer torture and
death rather than betray a trust or depart from his duty, or, overcome
by fear of death or severity of pain, commit any injustice. Unless by
chance Flaccus appears to them to rave in his lyrics, when he says,
"Not the rage of the million commanding things evil;
Not the doom frowning near in the brows of the tyrant,
Shakes the upright and
resolute man
In his solid
completeness of soul."(7)
And nothing can be more true than this, if it is
referred to those who refuse no tortures, no kind of death, that they
may not turn aside from faith and justice; who do not tremble at the
commands of tyrants nor the swords of rulers,(8) so as not to maintain
true and solid liberty with constancy of mind, which wisdom is to be
observed in this alone. For who is so arrogant, who so lifted up, as to
forbid me to raise my eyes to heaven? Who can impose upon me the
necessity either of worshipping that which I am unwilling to worship,
or of abstaining from the worship of that which I wish to worship? What
further will now be left to us, if even this, which must be done of
one's own will,(9) shall be extorted from me by the caprice of another?
No one will effect this, if we have any courage to despise death and
pain. But if we possess this constancy, why are we judged foolish when
we do those things which philosophers praise? Seneca, in charging men
with inconsistency, rightly says the highest virtue appears to them to
consist in greatness of spirit; and yet the same persons regard him who
despises death as a madman, which is plainly a mark of the greatest
perverseness. But those followers of vain
150
religions urge this with the same folly with which they fail to
understand the true God; and these the Erythraean Sibyl calls "deaf and
senseless,"(1) since they neither hear nor perceive divine things, but
fear and adore an earthen image moulded by their own fingers.
CHAP. XV.--OF FOLLY, WISDOM, PIETY, EQUITY,
AND JUSTICE.
But the reason on account of which they imagine
those who are wise to be foolish has strong grounds of support (for
they are not deceived without reason). And this must be diligently
explained by us, that they may at length (if it is possible) recognise
their errors. Justice by its own nature has a certain appearance of
folly, and I am able to confirm this both by divine and human
testimonies. But perhaps we should not succeed with them, unless we
should teach them from their own authorities that no one can be just, a
matter which is united with true wisdom, unless he also appears to be
foolish. Carneades was a philosopher of the Academic sect; and one who
knows not what power he had in discussion, what eloquence, what
sagacity, will nevertheless understand the character of the man himself
from the praises of Cicero or of Lucilius, in whose writings Neptune,
discoursing on a subject of the greatest difficulty, shows that it
cannot be explained, even if Orcus should restore Carneades himself to
life. This Carneades, when he had been sent by the Athenians as
ambassador to Rome, disputed copiously on the subject of justice, in
the hearing of Galba and Cato, who had been censor, who were at that
time the greatest of orators. But on the next day the same man
overthrew his own argument by a disputation to the contrary effect, and
took away the justice which he had praised on the preceding day, not
indeed with the gravity of a philosopher, whose prudence ought to be
firm and his opinion settled, but as it were by an oratorical kind of
exercise of disputing on both sides. And he was accustomed to do this,
that he might be able to refute others who asserted anything. L.
Furius, in Cicero, makes mention of that discussion in which justice is
overthrown.(2) I believe, inasmuch as he was discussing the subject of
the state, he did it that he might introduce the defence and praise of
that without which he thought that a state could not be governed. But
Carneades, that he might refute Aristotle and Plato, the advocates of
justice, in that first disputation collected all the arguments which
were alleged in behalf of justice, that he might be able to overthrow
them, as he did. For it was very easy to shake justice, having no
roots, inasmuch as there was then none on the earth, that its nature or
qualities might be perceived by philosophers. And I could wish that
men, so many and of such a character, had possessed knowledge also, in
proportion to their eloquence and spirit, for completing the defence of
this greatest virtue, which has its origin in religion, its principle
in equity! But those who were ignorant of that first part could not
possess the second. But I wish first to show, summarily and concisely,
what it is, that it may be understood that the philosophers were
ignorant of justice, and were unable to defend that with which they
were unacquainted. Although justice embraces all the virtues together,
yet there are two, the chief of all, which cannot be torn asunder and
separated from it--piety and equity. For fidelity, temperance,
uprightness, innocence, integrity, and the other things of this kind,
either naturally or through the training of parents, may exist in those
men who are ignorant of justice, as they have always existed; for the
ancient Romans, who were accustomed to glory in justice, used evidently
to glory in those virtues which (as I have said) may proceed from
justice, and be separated from the very fountain itself. But piety and
equity are, as it were, its veins: for in these two fountains the whole
of justice is contained; but its source and origin is in the first, all
its force and method in the second. But piety is nothing else but the
conception(3) of God, as Trismegistus most truly defined it, as we have
said in another place. If, therefore, it is piety to know God, and the
sum of this knowledge is that you worship Him, it is plain that he is
ignorant of justice who does not possess the knowledge of God. For how
can he know justice itself, who is ignorant of the source from which it
arises? Plato, indeed, spoke many things respecting the one God, by
whom he said that the world was framed; but he spoke nothing respecting
religion: for he had dreamed of God, but had not known Him. But if
either he himself or any other person had wished to complete the
defence of justice, he ought first of all to have overthrown the
religions of the gods, because they are opposed to piety. And because
Socrates indeed tried to do this, he was thrown into prison; that even
then it might be seen what was about to happen to those men who had
begun to defend true justice, and to serve the only God.
The other part of justice, therefore, is equity; and
it is plain that I am not speaking of the equity of judging well,
though this also is praiseworthy in a just man, but of making himself
equal to others, which Cicero calls equability.(4) For God, who
produces and gives breath to
151
men, willed that all should be equal, that is, equally matched.(1) He
has imposed on all the same condition of living; He has produced all to
wisdom; He has promised immortality to all; no one is cut off from His
heavenly benefits. For as He distributes to all alike His one light,
sends forth His fountains to all, supplies food, and gives the most
pleasant rest of sleep; so He bestows on all equity and virtue. In His
sight no one is a slave, no one a master; for if all have the same
Father, by an equal right we are all children. No one is poor in the
sight of God, but he who is without justice; no one is rich, but he who
is full of virtues; no one, in short, is excellent, but he who has been
good and innocent; no one is most renowned, but he who has abundantly
performed works of mercy; no one is most perfect, but he who has filled
all the steps of virtue. Therefore neither the Romans nor the Greeks
could possess justice, because they had men differing from one another
by many degrees, from the poor to the rich, from the humble to the
powerful; in short, from private persons to the highest authorities of
kings. For where all are not equally matched, there is not equity; and
inequality of itself excludes justice, the whole force of which
consists in this, that it makes those equal who have by an equal lot
arrived at the condition of this life.
CHAP. XVI.--OF THE DUTIES OF THE JUST MAN, AND THE EQUITY OF CHRISTIANS.
Therefore, since those two fountains of justice are
changed, all virtue and all truth are taken away, and justice itself
returns to heaven. And on this account the true good was not discovered
by philosophers, because they were ignorant both of its origin and
effects: which has been revealed to no others but to our people.(2)
Some one will say, Are there not among you some poor, and others rich;
some servants, and others masters? Is there not some difference between
individuals? There is none; nor is there any other cause why we
mutually bestow upon each other the name of brethren, except that we
believe ourselves to be equal. For since we measure all human things
not by the body, but by the spirit, although the condition of bodies is
different, yet we have no servants, but we both regard and speak of
them as brothers in spirit, in religion as fellow-servants. Riches also
do not render men illustrious, except that(3) they are able to make
them more conspicuous by good works. For men are rich, not because they
possess riches, but because they employ them on works of justice; and
they who seem to be poor, on this account are rich, because they are
not(4) in want, and desire nothing.
Though, therefore, in lowliness of mind we are on an
equality, the free with slaves, and the rich with the poor,
nevertheless in the sight of God we are distinguished by virtue. And
every one is more elevated in proportion to his greater justice. For if
it is justice for a man to put himself on a level even with those of
lower rank, although he excels in this very thing, that he made himself
equal to his inferiors; yet if he has conducted himself not only
as an equal, but even as an inferior, he will plainly obtain a much
higher rank of dignity in the judgment of God(5) For assuredly, since
all things in this temporal life are frail and liable to decay, men
both prefer themselves to others, and contend about dignity; than which
nothing is more foul, nothing mere arrogant, nothing more removed from
the conduct of a wise man: for these earthly things are altogether
opposed to heavenly things. For as the wisdom of men is the greatest
foolishness with God, and foolishness is (as I have shown) the greatest
wisdom; so he is low and abject in the sight of God who shall have been
conspicuous and elevated on earth. For, not to mention that these
present earthly goods to which great honour is paid are contrary to
virtue, and enervate the vigour of the mind, what nobility, I pray, can
be so firm, what resources, what power, since God is able to make kings
themselves even lower than the lowest? And therefore God has consulted
our interest in placing this in particular among the divine precepts:
"He that exalteth himself shall be abased; and he that humbleth himself
shall be exalted."(6) And the wholesomeness of this precept teaches
that he who shall simply place himself on a level with other men, and
carry himself with humility, is esteemed excellent and illustrious in
the sight of God. For the sentiment is not false which is brought
forward in Euripides to this effect:--"The things which are here
considered evil are esteemed good in heaven."
CHAP. XVII.--OF THE EQUITY, WISDOM, AND
FOOLISHNESS OF CHRISTIANS.
I have explained the reason why philosophers were
unable either to find or to defend justice. Now I return to that which
I had purposed. Carneades, therefore, since the arguments of the
philosophers were weak, undertook the bold task of refuting them,
because he understood that they were capable of refutation. The
substance of his disputation was this: "That men(7) enacted
152
laws for themselves, with a view to their own advantage, differing
indeed according to their characters, and in the case of the same
persons often changed according to the times: but that there was no
natural law: that all, both men and other animals, were borne by the
guidance of nature to their own advantage; therefore that there was no
justice, or if any did exist, it was the greatest folly, because it
injured itself by promoting the interests of others." And he brought
forward these arguments: "That all nations which flourished with
dominion, even the Romans themselves, who were masters of the whole
world, if they wish to be just, that is, to restore the possessions of
others, must return to cottages, and lie down in want and miseries."
Then, leaving general topics, he came to particulars. "If a good man,"
he says, "has a runaway slave, or an unhealthy and infected house, and
he alone knows these faults, and on this account offers it for sale,
will he give out that the slave is a runaway, and the house which he
offers for sale is infected, or will he conceal it from the purchaser?
If he shall give it out, he is good indeed, because he will not
deceive; but still he will be judged foolish, because he will either
sell at a low price or not sell at all. If he shall conceal it, he will
be wise indeed, because he will consult his own interest; but he will
be also wicked, because he will deceive. Again, if he should find
any one who supposes that he is selling copper ore when it is gold, or
lead when it is silver, will he be silent, that he may buy it at a
small price; or will he give information of it, so that he may buy it
at a great price? It evidently appears foolish to prefer to buy it at a
great price." From which he wished it to be understood, both that he
who is just and good is foolish, and that he who is wise is wicked; and
yet that it may possibly happen without ruin, for men to be contented
with poverty. Therefore he passed to greater things, in which no one
could be just without danger of his life. For he said: "Certainly it is
justice not to put a man to death, not to take the property of another.
What, then, will the just man do, if he shall happen to have suffered
shipwreck, and some one weaker than himself shall have seized a plank?
Will he not thrust him from the plank, that he himself may get upon it,
and supported by it may escape, especially since there is no witness in
the middle of the sea? If he is wise, he will do so; for he must
himself perish unless he shall thus act. But if he choose rather to die
than to inflict violence upon another, in this case he is just, but
foolish, in not sparing his own life while he spares the life of
another. Thus also, if the army of his own people shall have been
routed, and the enemy have begun to press upon them, and that
just man shall have met with a wounded man on horseback, will he spare
him so as to be slain himself, or will he throw him from his horse,
that he himself may escape from the enemy? If he shall do this, he will
be wise, but also wicked; if he shall not do it, he will be just,
but also of necessity foolish." When, therefore, he had thus divided
justice into two parts, saying that the one was civil, the other
natural, he subverted both: because the civil part is wisdom, but not
justice; but the natural part is justice, but not wisdom. These
arguments are altogether subtle and acute,(1) and such as Marcus
Tullius was unable to refute. For when he represents Laelius as
replying to Furius, and speaking in behalf of justice, he passed them
by as a pitfall without refuting them; so that the same Laelius appears
not to have defended natural justice, which bad fallen under the charge
of folly, but that civil justice which Furius had admitted to be
wisdom, but unjust.(2)
CHAP. XVIII.--OF JUSTICE, WISDOM, AND FOLLY,
With reference to our present discussion, I have
shown how justice bears the resemblance of folly, that it may appear
that those are not deceived without reason who think that men of our
religion are foolish in appearing to do such things as he proposed. Now
I perceive that a greater undertaking is required from me, to show why
God wished to enclose justice under the appearance of folly, and to
remove it from the eyes of men, when I shall have first replied to
Furius, since Laelius has not sufficiently replied to him; who,
although he was a wise man, as he was called, yet could not be the
advocate of true justice, because he did not possess the source and
fountain of justice. But this defence is easier for us, to whom by the
bounty of Heaven this justice is familiar and well known, and who know
it not in name, but in reality. For Plato and Aristotle desired with an
honest will to defend justice, and would have effected something, if
their good endeavours, their eloquence, and vigour of intellect had
been aided also by a knowledge of divine things. Thus their work, being
vain and useless, was neglected: nor were they able to persuade any of
men to live according to their precept, because that system had no
foundation from heaven. But our work must be more certain, since we are
taught of God. For they represented justice in words, and pictured it
when it was not in sight; nor were they able to confirm their
assertions by present examples. For the hearers might have answered
that it was impossible to live as they prescribed in their disputation;
so that none have as yet existed who followed that course of life. But
we show
153
the truth of our statements not only by words, but also by examples
derived from the truth. Therefore Carneades understood what is the
nature of justice, except that he did not sufficiently perceive that it
was not folly; although I seem to myself to understand with what
intention he did this. For he did not really think that he who is just
is foolish; but when he knew that he was not so, but did not comprehend
the cause why he appeared so, he wished to show that the truth lay
hidden, that he might maintain the dogma of his own sect,(1) the chief
opinion of which is, "that nothing can be fully comprehended."
Let us see, therefore, whether justice has any
agreement with folly. The just man, he says, if he does not take away
from the wounded man: his horse, and from the shipwrecked man his
plank, in order that he may preserve his own life, is foolish. First of
all, I deny that it can in any way happen that a man who is truly just
should be in circumstances of this kind; for the just man is neither at
enmity with any human being, nor desires anything at all which is the
property of another. For why should he take a voyage, or what should he
seek from another land, when his own is sufficient for him? Or why
should he carry on war, and mix himself with the passions of others,
when his mind is engaged in perpetual peace with men? Doubtless he will
be delighted with foreign merchandise or with human blood, who does not
know how to seek gain, who is satisfied with his mode of living, and
considers it unlawful not only himself to commit slaughter, but to be
present with those who do it, and to behold it ! But I omit these
things, since it is possible that a man may be compelled even against
his will to undergo these things. Do you then, O Furius--or rather O
Carneades, for all this speech is his--think that justice is so
useless, so superfluous, and so despised by God, that it has no power
and no influence in itself which may avail for its own preservation?
But it is evident that they who are ignorant of the mystery(2) of man,
and who therefore refer all things to this present life, cannot know
how great is the force of justice. For when they discuss the subject of
virtue, although they understand that it is very full of labours and
miseries, nevertheless they say that it is to be sought for its own
sake; for they by no means see its rewards, which are eternal and
immortal. Thus, by referring all things to the present life, they
altogether reduce virtue to folly, since it undergoes such great
labours of this life in vain and to no purpose. But more on this
subject at another opportunity.
In the meanwhile let us speak of justice, as we
began, the power of which is so great, that when it has raised its eyes
to heaven, it deserves all things from God. Flaccus therefore rightly
said, that the power of innocence is so great, that wherever it
journeys, it needs neither arms nor strength for its protection:--
"He whose life hath no flaw, pure from guile, need
not
borrow
Or the bow or the darts of the Moor, O my Fuscus !
He relies for defence on no quiver that teems with
Poison-steept arrows.
Though his path be along sultry African Syrtes,
Or Caucasian ravines, where no guest finds a
shelter,
Or the banks which Hydaspes, the stream weird(3) with
fable,
Licks languid-flowing."(4)
It is impossible, therefore, that amidst the dangers of tempests and of
wars the just man should be unprotected by the guardianship of Heaven;
and that even if he should be at sea in company with parricides and
guilty men, the wicked also should not be spared, that this one just
and innocent soul may be freed from danger, or at any rate may be alone
preserved while the rest perish. But let us grant that the case which
the philosopher proposes is possible: what, then, will the just man do,
if he shall have met with a wounded man on a horse, or a shipwrecked
man on a plank? I am not unwilling to confess he will rather die than
put another to death. Nor will justice, which is the chief good of man,
on this account receive the name of folly. For what ought to be better
and dearer to man than innocence? And this must be the more perfect,
the more you bring it to extremity, and choose to die rather than to
detract from the character of innocence. It is folly, he says, to spare
the life of another in a case which involves the destruction of one's
own life. Then do you think it foolish to perish even for friendship?
Why, then, are those Pythagorean friends praised by
you, of whom the one gave himself to the tyrant as a surety for the
life of the other, and the other at the appointed time, when his surety
was now being led to execution, presented himself, and rescued him by
his own interposition? Whose virtue would not be held in such glory,
when one of them was willing to die for his friend, the other even for
his word(5) which had been pledged, if they were regarded as fools. In
fine, on account of this very virtue the tyrant rewarded them by
preserving both, and thus the disposition of a most cruel man was
changed. Moreover, it is even said that he entreated(6) them to admit
him as a third party to their friendship, from which it is plain that
he regarded them not
154
as fools, but as good and wise men. Therefore I do not see why, since
it is reckoned the highest glory to die for friendship and for one's
word, it is not glorious to a man to die even for his innocence. They
are therefore most foolish who impute it as a crime to us that we are
willing to die for God, when they themselves extol to the heavens
with the highest praises him who was willing to die for a man. In
short, to conclude this disputation, reason itself teaches that it is
impossible for a man to be at once just and foolish, wise and unjust.
For he who is foolish is unacquainted with that which is just and good,
and therefore always errs. For he is as it were, led captive by
his vices ; nor can he in any way resist them, because he is destitute
of the virtue of which he is ignorant. But the just man abstains from
all fault, because he cannot do otherwise, although he has the
knowledge of right and wrong.
But who is able to distinguish right from wrong
except the wise man? Thus it comes to pass, that he can never be just
who is foolish, nor wise who is unjust. And if this is most true, it is
plain that he who has not taken away a plank from a shipwrecked man, or
a horse from one who is wounded, is not foolish; because it is a sin to
do these things, and the wise man abstains from sin. Nevertheless I
myself also confess that it has this appearance, through the error of
men, who are ignorant of the peculiar character(1) of everything. And
thus the whole of this inquiry is refuted not so much by arguments as
by definition. Therefore folly is the erring in deeds and words,
through ignorance of what is right and good. Therefore he is not a fool
who does not even spare himself to prevent injury to another, which is
an evil. And this, indeed, reason and the truth itself dictate.(2) For
we see that in all animals, because they are destitute of wisdom,
nature is the provider of supplies for itself. Therefore they injure
others that they may profit themselves, for they do not understand that
the(3) committing an injury is evil. But man, who has the knowledge of
good and evil, abstains from committing an injury even to his own
damage, which an animal without reason is unable to do; and on this
account innocence is reckoned among the chief virtues of man. Now by
these things it appears that he is the wisest man who prefers to perish
rather than to commit an injury, that he may preserve that sense of
duty(4) by which he is distinguished from the dumb creation. For he who
does not point out the error of one who is offering the gold for sale,
in order that he may buy it for a small sum, or he who does not avow
that he is offering for sale a runaway slave or an infected house,
having an eye to his own gain or advantage, is not a wise man, as
Carneades wished it to appear, but crafty and cunning. Now craftiness
and cunning exist in the dumb animals also: either when they lie
in wait for others, and take them by deceit, that they may devour
them; or when they avoid the snares of others in various ways. But
wisdom falls to man alone. For wisdom is understanding either with the
purpose of doing that which is good and right, or for the abstaining
from improper words and deeds. Now a wise man never gives himself to
the pursuit of gain, because he despises these earthly advantages: nor
does he allow any one to be deceived, because it is the duty of a good
man to correct the errors of men, and to bring them back to the right
way; since the nature of man is social and beneficent, in which respect
alone he bears a relation to God.
CHAP. XIX.--OF VIRTUE AND THE TORTURES OF CHRISTIANS, AND OF THE RIGHT
OF A FATHER AND MASTER.
But undoubtedly this is the cause(5) why he appears
to be foolish who prefers to be in want. or to die rather than to
inflict injury or take away the property of another,--namely, because
they think that man is destroyed by death. And from this persuasion all
the errors both of the common people and also of the philosophers
arise. For if we have no existence after death, assuredly it is the
part of the most foolish man not to promote the interests of the
present life, that it may be long-continued, and may abound with all
advantages. But he who shall act thus must of necessity depart from the
rule of justice. But if there remains to man a longer and a better
life--and this we learn both from the !arguments of great philosophers,
and from the answers of seers, and the divine words of prophets--it is
the part of the wise man to despise this present life with its
advantages, since its entire loss is compensated by immortality. The
same defender of justice, Laelius, says in Cicero:(6) "Virtue
altogether wishes for honour; nor is there any other reward of virtue."
There is indeed another, and that most worthy of virtue, which you, O
Laelius, could never have supposed; for you had no knowledge of the
sacred writings. And this reward it easily receives, and does not
harshly demand. You are greatly mistaken, if you think that a reward
can be paid to virtue by man, since you yourself most truly said in
another
155
place: "What riches will you offer to this man? what commands? what
kingdoms? He who regards these things as human, judges his own
advantages to be divine." Who, therefore, can think you a wise man, O
Laelius, when you contradict yourself, and after a short interval take
away from virtue that which you have given to her? But it is manifest
that ignorance of the truth makes your opinion uncertain and wavering.
In the next place, what do you add? "But if all the
ungrateful, or the many who are envious, or powerful enemies, deprive
virtue of its rewards." Oh how frail, how worthless, have you
represented virtue to be, if it can be deprived of its reward ! For if
it judges its goods to be divine, as you said, how can there be any so
ungrateful, so envious, so powerful, as to be able to deprive virtue of
those goods which were conferred upon it by the gods? "Assuredly it
delights itself," he says, "by many comforts, and especially supports
itself by its own beauty." By what comforts? by what beauty? since that
beauty is often charged upon it as a fault, and turned into a
punishment. For what if, as Furius said,(1) a man should be dragged
away, harassed, banished, should be in want, be deprived of his hands,
have his eyes put out, be condemned, put into chains, be burned, be
miserably tortured also? will virtue lose its reward, or rather, will
it perish itself? By no means. But it will both receive its reward from
God the Judge, and it will live, and always flourish. And if you take
away these things, nothing in the life of man can appear to be so
useless, so foolish, as virtue, the natural goodness and honour of
which may teach us that the soul is not mortal, and that a divine
reward is appointed for it by God. But on this account God willed that
virtue itself should be concealed under the character of folly, that
the mystery of truth and of His religion might be secret; that He might
show the vanity and error of these superstitions, and of that earthly
wisdom which raises itself too highly, and exhibits great
self-complacency, that its difficulty being at length set forth, that
most narrow path might lead to the lofty reward of immortality. I have
shown, as I think, why our people are esteemed foolish by the foolish.
For to choose to be tortured and slain, rather than to take incense in
three fingers, and throw it upon the hearth,(2) appears as foolish as,
in a case where life is endangered, to be more careful of the life of
another than of one's own. For they do not know how great an act of
impiety it is to adore any other object than God, who made heaven and
earth, who fashioned the human race, breathed into them the breath of
life, and gave them light. But if he is accounted the most worthless of
slaves who runs away and deserts his master, and if he is judged most
deserving of stripes and chains, and a prison, and the cross, and of
all evil; and if a son, in the same manner, is thought abandoned and
impious who deserts his father, that he may not pay him obedience, and
on this account is considered deserving of being disinherited, and of
having his name removed for ever from his family,--how much more so
does he who forsakes God, in whom the two names entitled to equal
reverence, of Lord and Father, alike meet? For what benefit does he who
buys a slave bestow upon him, beyond the nourishment with which he
supplies him for his own advantage? And he who begets a son has
it not in his power to effect that he shall be conceived, or born, or
live ; from which it is evident that he is not the father, but only the
instrument(3) of generation. Of what punishments, therefore, is he
deserving, who forsakes Him who is both the true Master and Father, but
those which God Himself has appointed? who has prepared everlasting
fire for the wicked spirits; and this He Himself threatens by His
prophets to the impious and the rebellious.(4)
CHAP. XX.--OF THE VANITY AND CRIMES IMPIOUS SUPERSTITIONS, AND OF THE
TORTURES OF THE CHRISTIANS.
Therefore, let those who destroy their own souls and
the souls of others learn what an inexpiable crime they commit; in the
first place, because they cause their own death by serving most
abandoned demons, whom God has condemned to everlasting punishments; in
the next place, because they do not permit God to be worshipped by
others, but endeavour to turn men aside to deadly rites, and strive
with the greatest diligence that no life may be without injury on
earth, which looks to heaven with its condition secured. What else
shall I call them but miserable men, who obey the instigations of their
own plunderers,(5) whom they think to be gods? of whom they neither
know the condition, nor origin, nor names, nor nature; but, clinging to
the persuasion of the people, they willingly err, and favour their own
folly. And if you should ask them the grounds of their persuasion, they
can assign none, but have recourse to the judgment of their ancestors,
saying that they were wise, that they approved them, that they knew
what was best; and thus they deprive themselves of all power of
perception: they bid adieu to reason, while they place confidence in
the errors of others. Thus, involved in ignorance
156
of all things, they neither know themselves nor their gods. And
would to heaven that they had been willing to err by themselves, and to
be unwise by themselves ! But they hurry away others also to be
companions of their evil, as though they were about to derive comfort
from the destruction of many. But this very ignorance causes them to be
so cruel in persecuting the wise; and they pretend that they are
promoting their welfare, that they wish to recall them to a good mind.
Do they then strive to effect this by conversation,
or by giving some reason? By no means; but they endeavour to effect it
by force and tortures. O wonderful and blind infatuation ! It is
thought that there is a bad mind in those who endeavour to preserve
their faith, but a good one in executioners. Is there, then, a bad mind
in those who, against every law of humanity, against every principle of
justice, are tortured, or rather, in those who inflict on the bodies of
the innocent such things, as neither the most cruel robbers, nor the
most enraged enemies, nor the most savage barbarians have ever
practised? Do they deceive themselves to such an extent, that they
mutually transfer and change the names of good and evil? Why,
therefore, do they not call day night--the sun darkness? Moreover, it
is the same impudence to give to the good the name of evil, to the wise
the name of foolish, to the just the name of impious. Besides this, if
they have any confidence in philosophy or in eloquence, let them arm
themselves, and refute these arguments of ours if they are able; let
them meet us hand to hand, and examine every point. It is befitting
that they should undertake the defence of their gods, lest, if our
affairs should increase (as they do increase daily), theirs should be
deserted, together with their shrines and their vain mockeries;(1) and
since they can effect nothing by violence (for the religion of God is
increased the more it is oppressed), let them rather act by the use of
reason and exhortations.
Let their priests come forth into the midst, whether
the inferior ones or the greatest; their flamens, augurs, and also
sacrificing kings, and the priests and ministers of their
superstitions. Let them call us together to an assembly; let them
exhort us to undertake the worship of their gods; let them
persuade us that there are many g beings by whose deity and providence
all things are governed; let them show how the origins and beginnings
of their sacred rites and gods were handed down to mortals; let them
explain what is their source and principle; let them set forth what
reward there is in their worship, and what punishment awaits neglect;
why they wish to be worshipped by men; what the piety of men
contributes to them, if they are blessed: and let them confirm all
these things not by their own assertion (for the authority of a mortal
man is of no weight), but by some divine testimonies, as we do. There
is no occasion for violence and injury, for religion cannot be imposed
by force; the matter must be carried on by words rather than by blows,
that the will may be affected. Let them unsheath the weapon of their
intellect; if their system is true, let it be asserted. We are prepared
to hear, if they teach; while they are silent, we certainly pay no
credit to them, as we do not yield to them even in their rage. Let them
imitate us in setting forth the system of the whole matter: for we do
not entice, as they say; but we teach, we prove, we show. And thus no
one is detained by us against his will, for he is unserviceable to God
who is destitute of faith and devotedness; and yet no one departs from
us, since the truth itself detains him. Let them teach in this manner,
if they have any confidence in the truth; let them speak, let them give
utterance; let them venture, I say, to discuss with us something of
this nature; and then assuredly their error and folly will be ridiculed
by the old women, whom they despise, and by our boys. For, since they
are especially clever, they know from books the race of the gods, and
their exploits, and commands, and deaths, and tombs; they may also know
that the rites themselves, in which they have been initiated, had their
origin either in human actions, or in casualties, or in deaths.(2) It
is the part of incredible madness to imagine that they are gods, whom
they cannot deny to have been mortal; or if they should be So shameless
as to deny it, their own writings, and those of their own people, will
refute them; in short, the very beginnings of the sacred rites will
convict them.(3) They may know, therefore, even from this very thing,
how great a difference there is between truth and falsehood; for they
themselves with all their eloquence are unable to persuade, whereas the
unskilled and the uneducated are able, because the matter itself and
the truth speaks.
Why then do they rage, so that while they wish to
lessen their folly, they increase it? Torture(4) and piety are widely
different; nor is it possible for truth to be united with violence, or
justice with cruelty. But with good reason they do not venture to teach
anything concerning divine things, lest they should both be derided by
our people and be deserted by their own. For the common people for the
most part, if they ascertain that these mysteries were instituted in
memory of the dead, will condemn them, and seek for some truer object
of worship.
157
"Hence rites of mystic awe "(1)
were instituted by crafty men, that the people may not know what they
worship. But since we are acquainted with their systems, why do they
either not believe us who are acquainted with both, or envy us because
we have preferred truth to falsehood? But, they say, the public rites
of religion(2) must be defended. Oh with what an honourable inclination
the wretched men go astray ! For they are aware that there is nothing
among men more excellent than religion, and that this ought to be
defended with the whole of our power; but as they are deceived in the
matter of religion itself, so also are they in the manner of its
defence. For religion is to be defended, not by putting to death, but
by dying; not by cruelty, but by patient endurance; not by guilt, but
by good faith: for the former; belong to evils, but the latter to
goods; and it is necessary for that which is good to have place in
religion, and not that which is evil. For if you wish to defend
religion by bloodshed, and by tortures, and by guilt, it will no longer
be defended, but will be polluted and profaned. For nothing is so much
a matter of free-will as religion; in which, if the mind of the
worshipper is disinclined to it, religion is at once taken away, and
ceases to exist. The right method therefore is, that you defend
religion by patient endurance or by death; in which the preservation of
the faith is both pleasing to God Himself, and adds authority to
religion. For if he who in this earthly warfare preserves his faith to
his king in some illustrious action, if he shall continue to live,
because more beloved and acceptable, and if he shall fall, obtains the
highest glory, because he has undergone death for his leader; how much
more is faith to be kept towards God, the Ruler of all, who is able to
pay the reward of virtue, not only to the living, but also to the dead!
Therefore the worship of God, since it belongs to heavenly warfare,
requires the greatest devotedness and fidelity. For how will God either
love the worshipper, if He Himself is not loved by him, or grant to the
petitioner whatever he shall ask, when he draws nigh to offer his
prayer without sincerity or reverence? But these men, when they come to
offer sacrifice, present to their gods nothing from within, nothing of
their own--no uprightness of mind, no reverence or fear. Therefore,
when the worthless sacrifices i are completed, they leave their
religion altogether i in the temple, and with the temple, as they had
found it; and neither bring with them anything of it, nor take anything
back. Hence it is that religious observances of this kind are neither
able to make men good, nor to be firm and unchangeable. And thus men
are easily led away from them, because nothing is learned in them
relating to the life, nothing relating to wisdom, nothing to
faith.(3) For what is the religion of those gods? what is its power?
what its discipline? what its origin? what its principle? what its
foundation? what its substance? what is its tendency? or what does it
promise, so that it may be faithfully preserved and boldly defended by
man? I see nothing else in it than a rite pertaining to the fingers
only.(4) But our religion is on this account firm, and solid, and
unchangeable, because it teaches justice, because it is always with us,
because it has its existence altogether in the soul of the worshipper,
because it has the mind itself for a sacrifice. In that religion
nothing else is required but the blood of animals, and the smoke of
incense, and the senseless pouring out of libations; but in this of
ours, a good mind, a pure breast, an innocent life: those rites are
frequented by unchaste adulteresses without any discrimination, by
impudent procuresses, by filthy harlots; they are frequented by
gladiators, robbers, thieves, and sorcerers, who pray for nothing else
but that they may commit crimes with impunity. For what can the robber
ask when he sacrifices, or the gladiator, but that they may slay? what
the poisoner, but that he may escape notice? what the harlot, but that
she may sin to the uttermost? what the adulteress, but either the death
of her husband, or that her unchastity may be concealed? what the
procuress, but that she may deprive many of their property? what the
thief, but that he may commit more peculations? But in our religion
there is no place even for a slight and ordinary offence; and if any
one shall come to a sacrifice without a sound conscience, he hears what
threats God denounces against him: that God, I say, who sees the secret
places of the heart, who is alway hostile to sins, who requires
justice, who demands fidelity. What place is there here for an evil
mind or for an evil prayer? But those unhappy men neither understand
from their own crimes how evil it is to worship, since, defiled by all
crimes, they come to offer prayer; and they imagine that they offer a
pious sacrifice if they wash their skin; as though any streams could
wash away, or any seas purify, the lusts which are shut up within their
breast. How much better it is rather to cleanse the mind, which is
defiled by evil desires, and to drive away all vices by the one layer
of virtue and faith! For he who shall do this, although he bears a body
which is defiled and sordid, is pure enough.
158
CHAP. XXI.--OF THE WORSHIP OF OTHER GODS AND THE TRUE GOD, AND OF THE
ANIMALS WHICH THE EGYPTIANS WORSHIPPED.
But they, because they know not the object or the
mode of worship, blindly and unconsciously fall into the contrary
practice. Thus they adore their enemies, they appease with victims
their robbers and murderers, and they place their own souls to be
burned with the very incense on detestable altars. The wretched men are
also angry, because others do not perish in like manner, with
incredible blindness of minds. For what can they see who do not see the
sun? As though, if they were gods, they would need the assistance of
men against their despisers. Why, therefore, are they angry with us, if
they have no power to effect anything? Unless it be that they destroy
their gods, whose power they distrust, they are more irreligious than
those who do not worship them at all. Cicero, in his Laws,(1) enjoining
men to approach with holiness to the sacrifices, says, "Let them put on
piety, let them lay aside riches; if any one shall act otherwise, God
Himself will be the avenger." This is well spoken; for it is not right
to despair about God, whom you worship on this account, because you
think Him powerful. For how can He avenge the wrongs of His
worshippers, if He is unable to avenge His own? I wish therefore to ask
them to whom especially they think that they are doing a service in
compelling them to sacrifice against their will, Is it to those whom
they compel? But that is not a kindness which is done to one who
refuses it. But we must consult their interests, even against their
will, since they know not what is good. Why, then, do they so cruelly
harass, torture, and weaken them, if they wish for their safety? or
whence is piety so impious, that they either destroy in this wretched
manner, or render useless, those whose welfare they wish to promote? Or
do they do service to the gods? But that is not a sacrifice which is
extorted from a person against his will. For unless it is offered
spontaneously, and from the soul, it is a curse; when men sacrifice,
compelled by proscription, by injuries, by prison, by tortures. If they
are gods who are worshipped in this manner, if for this reason only,
they ought not to be worshipped, because they wish to be worshipped in
this manner: they are doubtless worthy of the detestation of men, since
libations are made to them with tears, with groaning, and with blood
flowing from all the limbs.
But we, on the contrary, do not require that any one
should be compelled, whether he is willing or unwilling, to worship our
God, who is the God of all men; nor are we angry if any one does not
worship Him. For we trust in the majesty of Him who has power to avenge
contempt shown towards Himself, as also He has power to avenge the
calamities and injuries inflicted on His servants. And therefore, when
we suffer such impious things, we do not resist even in word; but we
remit vengeance to God, not as they act who would have it appear that
they are defenders of their gods, and rage without restraint against
those who do not worship them. From which it may be understood how it
is not good to worship their gods, since men ought to have been led to
that which is good by good, and not by evil; but because this is evil,
even its office is destitute of good. But they who destroy religious
systems must be punished. Have we destroyed them in a worse manner than
the nation of the Egyptians, who worship the most disgraceful figures
of beasts and cattle, and adore as gods some things which it is even
shameful to speak of? Have we done worse than those same who, when they
say that they worship the gods, yet publicly and shamefully deride
them?--for they even allow pantomimic(2) representations of them to be
acted with laughter and pleasure. What kind of a religion is this, or
how great must that majesty be considered, which is adored in temples
and mocked in theatres? And they who have done these things do not
suffer the vengeance of the injured deity, but even go away honoured
and praised. Do we destroy them in a worse manner than certain
philosophers, who say that there are no gods at all, but that all
things are spontaneously produced, and that all things which are done
happen by chance? Do we destroy them in a worse manner than the
Epicureans, who admit the existence of gods, but deny that they regard
anything, and say that they are neither angry nor are influenced by
favour? By which words they plainly persuade men that they are not to
be worshipped at all, inasmuch as they neither regard their
worshippers, nor are angry with those who do not worship them.
Moreover, when they argue against fears, they endeavour to effect
nothing else than that no one should fear the gods. And yet these
things are willingly heard by men, and discussed with impunity.
CHAP. XXII.--OF THE RAGE OF THE DEMONS AGAINST CHRISTIANS, AND THE
ERROR OF UNBELIEVERS.
They do not therefore rage against us on this
account, because their gods are not worshipped by us, but because the
truth is on our side, which (as it has been said most truly) produces
hatred. What, then, shall we think, but that they
159
are ignorant of what they suffer? For they act(1) with a blind and
unreasonable fury, which we see, but of which they are ignorant. For it
is not the men themselves who persecute, for they have no cause of
anger against the innocent; but those contaminated and abandoned
spirits by whom the truth is both known and hated insinuate themselves
into their minds, and goad them in their ignorance to fury. For these,
as long as there is peace among the people of God, flee from the
righteous, and fear them; and when they seize upon the bodies of men,
and harass their souls, they are adjured by them, and at the name of
the true God are put to flight. For when they hear this name they
tremble, cry out, and assert that they are branded and beaten; and
being asked who they are, whence they are come, and how they have
insinuated themselves into a man, confess it. Thus, being tortured and
excruciated by the power of the divine name, they come out of the
man.(2) On account of these blows and threats, they always hate holy
and just men; and because they are unable of themselves to injure them,
they pursue with public hatred those whom they perceive to be grievous
to them, and they exercise cruelty, with all the violence which they
can employ, that they may either weaken their faith by pain, or, if
they are unable to effect that, may take them away altogether from the
earth, that there may be none to restrain their wickedness. It does not
escape my notice what reply can be made on the other side. Why, then,
does that God of surpassing power, that mighty One, whom you confess to
preside over all things, and to be Lord of all, permit these things to
be done, and neither avenge nor defend His worshippers? Why, in short,
are they who do not worship Him rich, and powerful, and happy? and why
do they enjoy honours and kingly state, and have these very persons(3)
subject to their power and sway?
We must also give a reason for this, that no error
may remain. For this is especially the cause why it is thought that
religion has not the power of God, because men are influenced by the
appearance of earthly and present goods, which in no way have reference
to the care of the mind; and because they see that the righteous are
without these goods, and that the unrighteous abound in them, they both
judge that the worship of God is worthless, in which they do not
see these things contained, and they imagine that the rites of other
gods are true, since their worshippers enjoy riches and honours and
kingdoms. But they who are of this opinion do not attentively consider
the power and method
of man, which consists altogether in the mind, and not in the body. For
they see nothing more than is seen, namely the body; and because
this is to be seen and handled,(4) it is weak, frail, and mortal;
and to this belong all those goods which are their desire and
admiration, wealth, honours, and governments, since they bring
pleasures to the body, and therefore are as liable to decay as the body
itself. But the soul, in which alone man consists since it is not
exposed to the sight of the eyes, and its goods cannot be seen, for
they are placed in virtue only, must t therefore be as firm, and
constant, and lasting as virtue itself, in which the good of the soul
consists.
CHAP. XXIII.--OF THE JUSTICE AND
PATIENCE OF THE CHRISTIANS.
It would be a lengthened task to draw forth all the
appearances of virtue, to show respecting each how necessary it is for
a wise and just man to be far removed from those goods, the enjoyment
of which by the unjust causes the worship of their gods to be regarded
as true and efficacious. As our present inquiry is concerned, it will
be sufficient to prove our point from the case of a single virtue. For
instance, patience is a great and leading virtue, which the public
voices of the people and philosophers and orators alike extol with the
highest praises. But if it cannot be denied that this is a virtue of
the highest kind, it is necessary that the just and wise man should be
in the power of the unjust, for obtaining patience; for patience is the
bearing with equanimity of the evils which are either inflicted or
happen to fall upon us. Therefore the just and wise man, because he
exercises virtue, has patience in himself; but he will be altogether
free from this if he shall suffer no adversity. On the other hand, the
man who lives in prosperity is impatient, and is without the greatest
virtue. I call him impatient, because he suffers nothing. He is also
unable to preserve innocency, which virtue is peculiar to the just and
wise man. But he often acts unjustly also, and desires the property of
others, and seizes upon that which he has desired by injustice, because
he is without virtue, and is subject to vice and sin; and
forgetful of his frailty, he is puffed up with a mind elated with
insolence.
From this cause the unjust, and those who are
ignorant of God, abound with riches, and power, and honours. For all
these things are the rewards of injustice, because they cannot be
perpetual, and they are sought through lust and violence. But the just
and wise man, because he deems all these things as human, as it has
been said by Laelius, and his own goods as divine,
160
neither desires anything which belongs to another, lest he should
injure any one at all in violation of the law of humanity; nor does he
long for any power or honour, that he may not do an injury to any one.
For he knows that all are produced by the same God, and in the same
condition, and are joined together by the right of brotherhood.(1) But
being contented with his own, and that a little, because he is
mindful of his frailty, he does not seek for anything beyond that which
may support his life; and even from that which he has he bestows a
share on the destitute, because he is pious; but piety is a very great
virtue. To this is added, that he despises frail and vicious pleasures,
for the sake of which riches are desired; since he is temperate, and
master of his passions. He also, having no pride or insolence, does not
raise himself too highly, nor lift up his head with arrogance; but he
is calm and peaceful, lowly(2) and courteous, because he knows his own
condition. Since, therefore, he does injury to none, nor desires the
property of others, and does not even defend his own if it is taken
from him by violence, since he knows how even to bear with moderation
an injury inflicted upon him, because he is endued with virtue; it is
necessary that the just man should be subject to the unjust, and that
the wise should be insulted by the foolish, that the one may sin
because he is unjust, and the other may have virtue in himself because
he is just.
But if any one shall wish to know more fully why God
permits the wicked and the unjust to become powerful, happy, and rich,
and, on the other hand, suffers the pious to be humble, wretched, and
poor, let him take the book of Seneca which has the title, "Why many
evils happen to good men, though there is a providence;" in which book
he has said many things, not assuredly with the ignorance of this
world, but wisely, and almost with divine inspiration.(3) "God," he
says, "regards men as His children, but He permits the corrupt and
vicious to live in luxury and delicacy, because He does not think them
worthy of His correction. But He often chastises the good whom He
loves, and by continual labours exercises them to the practice of
virtue: nor does He permit them to be corrupted and depraved by frail
and perishable goods." From which it ought to appear strange to no one
if we are often chastised by God for our faults. Yea, rather, when we
are harassed and pressed, then we especially give thanks to our most
indulgent Father, because He does not permit our corruption to proceed
to greater lengths, but corrects it with stripes and blows. From
which we understand that we r are an object of regard to God, since He
is angry when we sin. For when He might have bestowed upon His people
both riches and kingdoms, as He had before given them to the
Jews, whose successors and posterity we are; on this account He
would have them live under the power and government of others, lest,
being corrupted by the happiness of prosperity, they should glide into
luxury and despise the precepts of God; as those ancestors of ours,
who, ofttimes enervated by these earthly and frail goods, departed from
discipline and burst the bonds of the law. Therefore He foresaw how far
He would afford rest to His worshippers if they should keep His
commandments, and yet correct them if they did not obey His precepts.
Therefore, lest they should be as much corrupted by ease as their
fathers had been by indulgence,(4) it was His will that they should be
oppressed by those in whose power He placed them, that He may both
confirm them when wavering, and renew them to fortitude when corrupted,
and try and prove them when faithful. For how can a general prove the
valour of his soldiers, unless he shall have an enemy? And yet there
arises an adversary to him against his will, because he is mortal, and
is able to be conquered; but because God cannot be opposed, He Himself
stirs up adversaries to His name, not to fight against God Himself, but
against His soldiers, that He may either prove the devotedness and
fidelity of His servants, or may strengthen them, until He corrects
their wasting discipline by the stripes of affliction.(5)
There is also another cause why He permits
persecutions to be carried on against us, that the people of God may be
increased.(6) Nor is it difficult to show why or how this happens.
First of all, great numbers are driven from the worship of the false
gods by their hatred of cruelty. For who would not shrink from such
sacrifices? In the next place, some are pleased with virtue and faith
itself. Some suspect that it is not without reason that the worship of
the gods is considered evil by so many men, so that they would rather
die than do that which others do that they may preserve their life.
Some one desires to know what that good is which is defended even to
death, which is preferred to all things which are pleasant and
beloved in this life, from which neither the loss of goods, nor
of the light, nor bodily pain, nor tortures of the vitals deter them.
These things have great effect; but these causes have always
especially increased
161
the number of our followers. The people who stand around hear them
saying in the midst of these very torments that they do not sacrifice
to stones wrought by the hand of man, but to the living God, who is in
heaven: many understand that this is true, and admit it into their
breast. In the next place, as it is accustomed to happen in matters of
uncertainty while they make inquiry of one another, what is the cause
of this perseverance, many things which relate to religion, being
spread abroad and carefully observed by rumour among one another, are
learned; and because these are good they cannot fail to please.
Moreover, the revenge which follows, as always happens, greatly impels
men to believe. Nor, indeed, is it a slight cause that the unclean
spirits of demons, having received permission, throw themselves into
the bodies of many; and when these have afterwards been driven out,
they who have been healed cling to the religion, the power of which
they have experienced. These numerous causes being collected together,
wonderfully gain over a great multitude to God.(1)
CHAP. XXIV.--OF THE DIVINE VENGEANCE INFLICTED ON THE TORTURERS OF THE
CHRISTIANS.
Whatever, therefore, wicked princes plan against us,
God Himself permits to be done. And yet most unjust persecutors, to
whom the
name of God was a subject of reproach and mockery, must not think that
they will escape with impunity, because they have been, as it were, the
ministers of His indignation against us. For they will be punished with
the judgment of God, who, having received power, have abused it to an
inhuman degree, and have even insulted God in their arrogance, and
placed His eternal name beneath their feet, to be impiously and
wickedly trampled upon. On this account He promises that He will
quickly take vengeance upon them, and exterminate the evil monsters(2)
from the earth. But He also, although He is accustomed to avenge the
persecutions(3) of His people even in the present world, commands us,
however, to await patiently that day of heavenly judgment, in which He
Himself will honour or punish every man according to his deserts.
Therefore let not the souls of the sacrilegious expect that those whom
they thus trample upon will be despised and unavenged. Those ravenous
and voracious wolves who have tormented just and innocent souls,
without the commission of any crimes, will surely meet with their
reward. Only let us labour, that nothing else in us may be punished by
men but righteousness alone: let us strive with all our power that we
may at once deserve at the hands of God the avenging of our suffering
and a reward.
162
THE DIVINE INSTITUTES
BOOK VI.
OF TRUE WORSHIP.
CHAP. I.--OF THE WORSHIP OF THE TRUE GOD, AND OF INNOCENCY, AND OF THE
WORSHIP OF FALSE GODS.
We have completed that which was the object of our
undertaking, through the teaching of the Divine Spirit, and the aid of
the truth itself; the cause of asserting and explaining which was
imposed upon me both by conscience and faith, and by our Lord Himself,
without whom nothing can be known or clearly set forth. I come now to
that which is the chief and greatest part of this work--to teach in
what manner or by what sacrifice God must be worshipped. For that is
the duty of man, and in that one object the sum of all things and the
whole course of a happy life consists, since we were fashioned and
received the breath of life from Him on this account, not that we might
behold the heaven and the sun, as Anaxagoras supposed, but that we
might with pure and uncorrupted mind worship Him who made the sun and
the heaven. But although in the preceding books, as far as my moderate
talent permitted, I defended the truth, yet it may especially be
elucidated(1) by the mode of worship itself. For that sacred and
surpassing majesty requires from man nothing more than innocence alone;
and if any one has presented this to God, he has sacrificed with
sufficient piety and religion. But men, neglecting justice, though they
are polluted by crimes and outrages of all kinds, think themselves
religious if they have stained the temples and altars with the blood of
victims, if they have moistened the hearths with a profusion of
fragrant and old wine. Moreover, they also prepare sacred feasts and
choice banquets, as though, they offered to those who would taste
something from them. Whatever is rarely to be viewed,
whatever is precious in workmanship or in fragrance, that they judge to
be pleasing to their
gods, not by any reference to their divinity, of which they are
ignorant, but from their own desires; nor do they understand that God
is in no want of earthly resources.
For they have no knowledge of anything except the
earth, and they estimate good and evil things by the perception and
pleasure of the body alone. And as they judge of religion according to
its pleasure, so also they arrange the acts of their whole life. And
since they have turned away once for all from the contemplation of the
heaven, and have made that heavenly faculty the slave of the body, they
give the reins to their lusts, as though they were about to bear away
pleasure with themselves, which they hasten to enjoy at every moment;
whereas the soul ought to employ the service of the body, and not the
booty to make use of the service of the soul. The same men judge riches
to be the greatest good. And if they cannot obtain them by good
practices, they endeavour to obtain them by evil practices; they
deceive, they carry off by violence, they plunder, they lie in wait,
they deny on oath; in short, they have no consideration or regard for
anything,(2) if only they can glitter with gold, and shine conspicuous
with plate, with jewels, and with garments, can spend riches upon their
greedy appetite, and always walk attended with crowds of slaves through
the people compelled to give way.(3) Thus devoting(4) themselves to the
service of pleasures, they extinguish the force and vigour of the mind;
and when they especially think that they are alive, they are hastening
with the greatest precipitation to death. For, as we showed in the
second book. the soul is concerned with heaven, the body with the
earth.(5) They who neglect the goods of the soul, and seek those of the
body,
163
are engaged with darkness and death, which belong to the earth and to
the body, because life and light are from heaven; and they who are
without this, by serving the body, are far removed from the
understanding of divine things. The same blindness everywhere oppresses
the wretched men; for as they know not who is the true God, so they
know not what constitutes true worship.
CHAP. II.--OF THE WORSHIP OF FALSE
GODS AND THE TRUE GOD.
Therefore they sacrifice fine and fat victims to
God, as though He were hungry; they pour forth wine to Him, as though
He were thirsty they kindle lights to Him, as though He were in
darkness.(1) But if they were able to conjecture or to conceive in
their mind what those heavenly goods are, the greatness of which we
cannot imagine, while we are still encompassed with an earthly body,
they would at once know that they are most foolish with their empty
offices. Or if they would contemplate that heavenly light which we call
the sun, they will at once perceive how God has no need of their
candles, who has Himself given so clear and bright a light for the use
of man.(1) And when, in so small a circle, which on account of its
distance appears to have a measure no greater than that of a human
head, there is still so much brilliancy that mortal eye cannot behold
it, and if you should direct your eye to it for a short time mist and
darkness would overspread your dimmed eyes, what light, I pray, what
brightness, must we suppose that there is in God, with whom there is no
night? For He has so attempered this very light, that it might neither
injure living creatures by excessive brightness or vehement heat, and
has given it so much of these properties as mortal bodies might endure
or the ripening of the crops require. Is that man, therefore, to be
thought in his senses, who presents the light of candles and torches as
an offering to Him who is the Author and Giver of light? The light
which He requires from us is of another kind, and that indeed not
accompanied with smoke, but (as the poet says) clear and bright; I mean
the light of the mind, on account of which we are called by the poets
photes,(2) which light no one can exhibit unless he has known God. But
their gods, because they are of the earth, stand in need of lights,
that they may not be in darkness; and their worshippers, because
they have no taste for anything heavenly, are
recalled to the earth even by the religious rites to which they
are devoted.(1) For on the earth
there is need of a light, because its system and nature are dark.
Therefore they do not attribute to the gods a heavenly perception, but
rather a human one. And on this account they believe that the same
things are necessary and pleasing to them as to us, who, when hungry,
have need of food; or, when thirsty, of drink; or, when we are cold,
require a garment; or, when the sun has withdrawn himself, require a
light that we may be able to see.(3)
From nothing, therefore, can it be so plainly proved
and understood that those gods, since they once lived, are dead, as
from their worship itself, which is altogether of the earth. For
what heavenly influence can there be in the shedding of the blood of
beasts, with which they stain their altars? unless by chance they
imagine that the gods feed upon that which men shrink from touching.
And whoever shall have offered to them this food,(4) although he be an
assassin, an adulterer, a sorcerer, or a parricide, he will he happy
and prosperous. Him they love, him they defend, to him they afford all
things which he shall wish for. Persius therefore deservedly ridicules
superstitions of this kind in his own style:(5) " With what
bribe," he says, "dost thou win the ears of gods? Is it with lungs and
rich intestines?" He plainly perceived that there is no need of flesh
for appeasing the majesty of heaven, but of a pure mind and a just
spirit, and a breast, as he himself says, which is generous with a
natural love of honour. This is the religion of heaven--not that which
consists of corrupt things, but of the virtues of the soul, which has
its origin from heaven; this is true worship, in which the mind of the
worshipper presents itself as an undefiled offering to God. But how
this is to be obtained, how it is to be afforded, the discussion of
this book will show; for nothing can be so illustrious and so
suited to man as to train men to righteousness.(6)
In Cicero, Catulus in the Hortensius, while he
prefers philosophy to all things, says that he would rather have one
short treatise respecting duty, than a long speech in behalf of a
seditious man Cornelius. And this is plainly to be regarded not as the
opinion of Catulus, who perhaps did not utter this saying, but as that
of Cicero, who wrote it. I believe that he wrote it for the purpose of
recommending these books which he was about to write on Offices, in
which cry books he testifies that nothing in the whole
164
range of philosophy is better and more profitable than to give precepts
for living. But if this is done by those who do not know the truth, how
much more ought we to do it, who are able to give true precepts,(1)
being taught and enlightened by God? Nor, however, shall we so teach as
though we were delivering the first elements of virtue, which would be
an endless task, but as though we had undertaken the instruction of him
who, with them, appears to be already perfect. For while their precepts
remain, which they are accustomed to give correctly, with a view to
uprightness, we will add to them things which were unknown to them, for
the completion and consummation of righteousness, which they do not
possess. But I will omit those things which are common to us with them,
that I may not appear to borrow from those whose errors I have
determined to convict and bring to light.
CHAP. III.--OF THE WAYS, AND OF VICES AND VIRTUES; AND OF THE REWARDS
OF HEAVEN AND THE PUNISHMENTS OF HELL.
There are two ways,(2) O Emperor Constantine, by
which human life must proceed--the one which leads to heaven, the other
which sinks to hell; and these ways poets have introduced in their
poems, and philosophers in their disputations. And indeed philosophers
have represented the one as belonging to virtues, the other to vices;
and they have represented that which belongs to virtues as steep and
rugged at the first entrance, in which if any one, having overcome the
difficulty, has climbed to the summit. they say that he afterwards has
a level path, a bright and pleasant plain, and that he enjoys abundant
and delightful fruits of his labours; but that those whom the
difficulty of the first approach has deterred, glide and turn aside
into the way of vices, which at its first entrance appears to be
pleasant and much more beaten, but afterwards, when they have
advanced in it a little further, that the appearance of its
pleasantness is withdrawn, and that there arises a steep way, now rough
with stones, now overspread with thorns, now interrupted by deep waters
or violent with torrents, so that they must be in difficulty, hesitate,
slip about, and fall. And all these things are brought forward that it
may appear that there are very great labours in undertaking virtues,
but that when they are gained there are the greatest advantages,
and firm and incorruptible pleasures; but that vices ensnare the minds
of men with certain natural blandishments, and lead them captivated by
the appearance of empty pleasures to bitter griefs and miseries,--an
altogether wise discussion, if they knew the forms and limits of the
virtues themselves. For they had not learned either what they are, or
what reward awaits them from God: but this we will show in these two
books.
But these men, because they were ignorant or in
doubt that the souls of men are immortal, estimated both virtues and
vices by earthly honours or punishments. Therefore all this discussion
respecting the two ways(3) has reference to frugality and luxury. For
they say that the course of human life resembles the letter Y, because
every one of men, when he has reached the threshold of early youth, and
has arrived at the place "where the way divides itself into two
parts,'"(4) is in doubt, and hesitates, and does not know to
which side he should rather turn himself. If he shall meet with a guide
who may direct him wavering to better things--that is, if he shall
learn philosophy or eloquence, or some honourable arts by which he may
turn to good conduct,(5) which cannot take place without great
labour--they say that he will lead a life of honour and abundance; but
if he shall not meet with a teacher of temperance,(6) that he falls
into the way on the left hand, which assumes the appearance of the
better,--that is, he gives himself up to idleness, sloth, and luxury,
which seem pleasant for a time to one who is ignorant of true goods,
but that afterwards, having lost all his dignity and property, he will
live in all wretchedness and ignominy. Therefore they referred the end
of those ways(3) to the body, and to this life which we lead on earth.
The poets perhaps did better, who would have it that this twofold way
was in the lower regions; but they are deceived in this, that they
proposed these ways to the dead. Both therefore spoke with truth, but
yet both incorrectly; for the ways themselves ought to have been
referred to life, their ends to death. We therefore speak better and
more truly, who say that the two ways(3) belong to heaven and hell,
because immortality is promised to the righteous, and everlasting
punishment is threatened to the unrighteous.
But I will explain how these ways either exalt to
heaven or thrust down to hell, and I will set forth what these virtues
are of which the philosophers were ignorant; then I will show what are
their rewards, and also what are vices, and what their punishments. For
perhaps some one may expect that I shall speak separately of vices and
virtues; whereas, when we discuss the subject of good or evil, that
which is contrary may also
165
be understood. For, whether you introduce virtues, vices will
spontaneously depart; or if you take away vices, virtues will of their
own accord succeed. The nature of good and evil things is so fixed,
that they always oppose and drive out one another: and thus it comes to
pass that vices cannot be removed without virtues, nor can virtues be
introduced without the removal of vices. Therefore we bring forward
these ways in a very different manner from that in which the
philosophers are accustomed to present them: first of all, because we
say that a guide is proposed to each, and in each case an immortal: but
that the one is honoured who presides over virtues and good qualities,
the other condemned who presides over vices and evils. But they place a
guide only on the right side, and that not one only, nor a
lasting one; inasmuch as they introduce any teacher of a good art, who
may recall men from sloth, and teach them to be temperate. But they do
not represent any as entering upon that way except boys and young men;
for this reason, that the arts are learned at these ages. We, on the
other hand, lead those of each sex, every age and race, into this
heavenly path, because God, who is the guide of that way, denies
immortality to no human being.(1) The shape also of the ways themselves
is not as they supposed. For what need is there of the letter Y in
matters which are different and opposed to one another? But the one
which is better is turned towards the rising of the sun, the other
which is worse towards its setting: since he who follows truth and
righteousness, having received the reward of immortality, will enjoy
perpetual light; but he who, enticed by that evil guide, shall prefer
vices to virtues, falsehood to truth, must be borne to the setting of
the sun, and to darkness.(2) I will therefore describe each, and will
point out their properties and habits.
CHAP. IV.--OF THE WAYS OF LIFE, OF PLEASURES, ALSO OF THE HARDSHIPS OF
CHRISTIANS.
There is one way, therefore, of virtue and the good,
which leads, not, as the poets say, to the Elysian plains, but to the
very citadel of the world:--
"The left gives
sinners up to pain,
And leads
to Tartarus' guilty reign."(3)
For it belongs to that accuser who, having invented false religions,
turns men away from the heavenly path, and leads them into the way of
perdition. And the appearance and shape of this way is so composed to
the sight, that it
appears to be level and open, and delightful with all kinds of flowers
and fruits. For there are placed(4) in it all things which are esteemed
on earth as good things--I mean wealth, honour, repose, pleasure, all
kinds of enticements; but together with these also injustice, cruelty,
pride, perfidy, lust, avarice, discord, ignorance, falsehood, folly,
and other vices. But the end of this way is as follows: When they have
reached the point from which there is now no return, it is so suddenly
removed, together with all its beauty, that no one is able to foresee
the fraud before that he falls headlong into a deep abyss. For whoever
is captivated by the appearance of present goods, and occupied with the
pursuit and enjoyment of these, shall not have foreseen the things
which are about to follow after death, and shall have turned aside from
God; he truly will be cast down to hell, and be condemned to eternal
punishment.
But that heavenly way is set forth as difficult and
hilly, or rough with dreadful thorns, or entangled with stones jutting
out; so that every one must walk with the greatest labour and wearing
of the feet, and with great precautions against failing. In this he has
placed justice, temperance, patience, faith, chastity, self-restraint,
concord, knowledge, truth, wisdom, and the other virtues; hut together
with these, poverty, ignominy, labour, pain, and all kinds of hardship.
For whoever has extended his hope beyond the present, and chosen better
things, will be without these earthly goods, that, being lightly
equipped and without impediment, he may overcome the difficulty of the
way. For it is impossible for him who has surrounded himself with royal
pomp, or loaded himself with riches, either to enter upon or to
persevere in these difficulties. And from this it is understood that it
is easier for the wicked and the unrighteous to succeed in their
desires, because their road is downward and on the decline; but that it
is difficult for the good to attain to their wishes, because they walk
along a difficult and steep path. Therefore the righteous man, since he
has entered upon a hard and rugged way, must be an object of contempt,
derision, and hatred. For all whom desire or pleasure drags headlong,
envy him who has been able to attain to virtue, and take it ill that
any one possesses that which they themselves do not possess. Therefore
he will be poor, humble, ignoble, subject to injury, and yet enduring
all things which are grievous; and if he shall continue his patience
unceasingly to that last step and end, the crown of virtue will be
given to him, and he will be rewarded by God with immortality for the
labours which he has endured in life for the sake of righteousness.
These are the ways which
166
God has assigned to human life, in each of which he has shown both good
and evil things, but in a changed and inverted order. In the one he has
pointed out in the first place temporal evils followed by eternal
goods, which is the better order; in the other, first temporal goods
followed by eternal evils, which is the worse order: so that, whosoever
has chosen present evils together with righteousness, he will obtain
greater and more certain goods than those were which he despised; but
whoever has preferred present goods to righteousness, will fall into
greater and more lasting evils than those were which he avoided. For as
this bodily life is short, therefore its goods and evils must also be
short; but since that spiritual life, which is contrary to this earthly
life, is everlasting, therefore its goods and evils are also
everlasting. Thus it comes to pass, that goods of short duration are
succeeded by eternal evils, and evils of short duration by eternal
goods.
Since, therefore, good and evil things are set
before man at the same time, it is befitting that every one should
consider with himself how much better it is to compensate evils of
short duration by perpetual goods, than to endure perpetual evils for
short and perishable goods. For as, in this life, when a contest with
an enemy is set before you, you must first labour that you may
afterwards enjoy repose, you must suffer hunger and thirst, you must
endure heat and cold, you must rest on the ground, must watch and
undergo dangers, that your children,(1) and house, and property being
preserved, you may be able to enjoy all the blessings of peace and
victory; but if you should choose present ease in preference to labour,
you must do yourself the greatest injury: for the enemy will surprise
you offering no resistance, your lands will be laid waste, your house
plundered, your wife and children become a prey, you yourself will be
slain or taken prisoner; to prevent the occurrence of these things,
present advantage must be put aside, that a greater and more lasting
advantage may be gained;--so in the whole of this life, because God has
provided an adversary for us, that we might be able to acquire virtue,
present gratification must be laid aside, lest the enemy should
overpower us. We must be on the watch, must post guards, must undertake
military expeditions, must shed our blood to the uttermost; in
short, we must patiently submit to all things which are unpleasant and
grievous, and the more readily because God our commander has appointed
for us eternal rewards for our labours. And since in this earthly
warfare men expend so much labour to acquire for themselves those
things which may perish in the same manner as that in which they were
acquired, assuredly no labour ought to be refused by us, by whom that
is gained which can in no way be lost.
For God, who created men to this warfare, desired
that they should stand prepared in battle array, and with minds keenly
intent should watch against the stratagems or open attacks of our
single enemy, who, as is the practice of skilful and experienced
generals, endeavours to ensnare us by various arts, directing his rage
according to the nature and disposition of each. For he infuses into
some insatiable avarice, that, being chained by their riches as by
fetters, he may drive them from the way of truth. He inflames others
with the excitement of anger, that while they are rather intent upon
inflicting injury, he may turn them aside from the contemplation of
God. He plunges others into immoderate lusts, that, giving themselves
to pleasure of the body, they may be unable to look towards virtue. He
inspires others with envy, that, being occupied with their own
torments, they may think of nothing but the happipiness of those whom
they hate. He causes others to swell with ambitious desires. These are
they who direct the whole occupation and care of their life to the
holding of magistracies, that they may set a mark upon the annals,(2)
and give a name to the years. The desire of others mounts higher, not
that they may rule provinces with the temporal sword, but with
boundless and perpetual power may wish to be called lords of the whole
human race.(3) Moreover, those whom he has seen to be pious he involves
in various(4) superstitions, that he may make them impious. But to
those who seek for wisdom, he dashes philosophy before their eyes,(5)
that he may blind them with the appearance of light, lest any one
should grasp and hold fast the truth. Thus he has blocked up all the
approaches against men, and has occupied the way, rejoicing in public
errors; but that we might be able to dispel these errors, and to
overcome the author of evils himself, God has enlightened us, and has
armed us with true and heavenly virtue, respecting which I must now
speak.
CHAP. V.--OF FALSE AND TRUE
VIRTUE; AND OF KNOWLEDGE.
But before I begin to set forth the separate
virtues, I must mark out the character of virtue itself, which the
philosophers have not rightly
167
defined, as to its nature, or in what things it consisted; and I must
describe its operation and office. For they only retained the
name, but lost its power, and nature, and effect. But whatever they are
accustomed to say in their definition of virtue, Lucilius puts together
and expresses in a few verses, which I prefer to introduce, lest, while
I refute the opinions of many, I should be longer than is necessary:--
"It is virtue, O Albinus, to pay the proper price,
To attend to the matters in which we are engaged, and in
which we live.
It is virtue for a man to know the nature of everything.
It is virtue for a man to know what is right and useful
and honourable,
What things are good, and what are evil.
What is useless,(1) base, and dishonourable.
It is virtue to know the end of an object to be sought,
and the means of procuring it.
It is virtue to be able to assign their value to riches.
It is virtue to give that which is really due to honour;
To be the enemy and the foe(2) of bad men and manners,
but, on the other hand, the defender of good men and manners;
To esteem these highly, to wish them well, to live in
friendship with them,
Moreover, to consider the interest of one's country first;
Then those of parents, to put our own interests in the
third and last place."
From these definitions, which the poet briefly puts together, Marcus
Tullius derived the offices of living, following Panaetius the
Stoic,(3) and included them in three books.
But we shall presently see how false these things
are, that it may appear how much the divine condescension has bestowed
on us in opening to us the truth. He says that it is virtue to know
what is good and evil, what is base, what is honourable, what is
useful, what is useless. He might have shortened his treatise if he had
only spoken of that which is good and evil; for nothing can be useful
or honourable which is not also good, and nothing useless and base
which is not also evil. And this also appears to be thus to
philosophers, and Cicero shows it likewise in the third book of the
above-mentioned treatise.(4) But knowledge cannot be virtue, because it
is not within us, but it comes to us from without.But that which is
able to pass from one to the other is not virtue, because virtue is the
property of each individual. Knowledge therefore consists in a benefit
derived from another; for it depends upon hearing. Virtue is altogether
our own; for it depends upon the will of doing that which is good. As,
therefore, in undertaking a journey, it is of no profit to know the
way, unless we also have the effort and
strength for walking, so truly knowledge is of no avail if our virtue
fails. For, in general, even they who sin perceive what is good and
evil, though not perfectly; and as often as they act improperly, they
know that they sin, and therefore endeavour to conceal their actions.
But though the nature of good and evil does not escape their notice,
they are overpowered by an evil desire to sin, because they are wanting
in virtue, that is, the desire of doing right and honourable things.
Therefore that the knowledge of good and evil is one thing, and
virtue another, appears from this, because knowledge can exist without
virtue, as it has been in the case of many of the philosophers; in
which, since not to have done what you knew to be right is justly
censurable, a depraved will and a vicious mind, which ignorance cannot
excuse, will be justly punished. Therefore, as the knowledge of good
and evil is not virtue, so the doing that which is good and
the abstaining from evil is virtue. And yet [knowledge is so united
with virtue, that knowledge precedes virtue, and virtue follows
knowledge; because knowledge is of no avail unless it is followed up by
action. Horace therefore speaks somewhat better: "Virtue is the fleeing
from vice, and the first wisdom is to be free from folly."(5) But he
speaks improperly, because he defined virtue by its contrary, as though
he should say, That is good which is not evil. For when I know not what
virtue is, I do not know what vice is. Each therefore requires
definition, because the nature of the case is such that each must be
understood or not understood.(6)
But let us do that which he ought to have done. It
is a virtue to restrain anger, to control desire, to curb lust; for
this is to flee from vice. For almost all things which are done
unjustly and dishonestly arise from these affections. For if the force
of this emotion which is called anger be blunted, all the evil
contentions of men will be lulled to rest; no one will plot, no one
will rush forth to injure another. Also, if desire be restrained, no
one will use violence by land or by sea, no one will lead an army to
carry off and lay waste the property of others. Also, if the ardour of
lusts be repressed, every age and sex will retain its sanctity; no one
will suffer, or do anything disgraceful. Therefore all crimes and
disgraceful actions will be taken away from the life and character of
men, if these emotions are appeased and calmed by virtue. And this
calming of the emotions and affections has this meaning, that we
do all things which are right. The whole duty of virtue then is, not to
sin. And assuredly he cannot discharge this who is ignorant of God,
since igno-
168
rance of Him from whom good things proceed must thrust a man unawares
into vices. Therefore, that I may more briefly and significantly fix
the offices of each subject, knowledge is to know God, virtue is to
worship Him: the former implies wisdom, the latter righteousness.
CHAP. VI.--OF THE CHIEF GOOD AND VIRTUE, AND Or KNOWLEDGE AND
RIGHTEOUSNESS.
I have said that which was the first thing, that the
knowledge of good is not virtue; and secondly, I have shown what virtue
is, and in what it consists. It follows that I should show this also,
that the philosophers were ignorant of what is good and evil; and this
briefly, because it has been almost(1) made plain in the third book,
when I was discussing the subject of the chief good. And because they
did not know what the chief good was, they necessarily erred in the
case of the other goods and evils which are not the chief; for no one
can weigh these with a true judgment who does not possess the fountain
itself from which they are derived. Now the source of good things is
God; but of evils, he who is always the enemy of the divine name, of
whom we have often spoken. From these two sources good and evil things
have their origin. Those which proceed from God have this object, to
procure immortality, which is the greatest good; but those which arise
from the other have this office, to call man away from heavenly things
and sink him in earthly things, and thus to consign him to the
punishment of everlasting death, which is the greatest evil. Is it
therefore doubtful but that all those were ignorant of what was good
and evil, who neither knew God nor the adversary of God? Therefore they
referred the end of good things to the body, and to this short life,
which must be dissolved and perish: they did not advance further. But
all their precepts, and all the things which they introduce as goods,
adhere to the earth, and lie on the ground, since they die with the
body, which is earth; for they do not tend to procure life for man, but
either to the acquisition or increase of riches, honour, glory, and
power, which are altogether mortal things, as much so indeed as he who
has laboured to obtain them. Hence is that saying,(2) "It is virtue to
know the end of an object(3) to be sought, and the means of procuring
it;" for they enjoin by what means and by what practices property is to
be sought, for they see that it is often sought unjustly. But virtue of
this kind is not proposed to the wise man; for it is not virtue to seek
riches, of which
neither the finding nor the possession is in our power: therefore they
are more easy to be gained and to be retained by the bad than by the
good. Virtue, then, cannot consist in the seeking of those things in
the despising of which the force and purport of virtue appears; nor
will it have recourse to those very things which, with its great and
lofty mind, it desires to trample upon and bruise under foot; nor is it
lawful for a soul which is earnestly fixed on heavenly goods to be
called away from its immortal pursuits, that it may acquire for itself
these frail things. But the course(4) of virtue especially consists in
the acquisition of those things which neither any man, nor death
itself, can take away from us. Since these things are so, that which
follows is true: "It is virtue to be able to assign their value to
riches:" which verse is nearly of the same meaning as the first two.
But neither he nor any of the philosophers was able to know the price
itself, either of what nature or what it is; for the poet, and all
those whom he followed, thought that it meant to make a right use of
riches,--that is, to be moderate in living, not to make costly
entertainments, not to squander carelessly, not to expend property on
superfluous or disgraceful objects.(5)
Some one will perhaps say, What do you say? Do you
deny that this is virtue? I do not deny it indeed; for if I should deny
it, I should appear to prove the opposite. But I deny that it is true
virtue; because it is not that heavenly principle, but is altogether of
the earth, since it produces no effect but that which remains on the
earth.(6) But what it is to make a right use of wealth, and what
advantage is to be sought from riches, I will declare more openly when
I shall begin to speak of the duty of piety. Now the other things which
follow are by no means true; for to proclaim enmity against the wicked,
or to undertake the defence of the good, may be common to it with the
evil. For some, by a pretence of goodness, prepare the way for
themselves to power, and do many things which the good are accustomed
to do, and that the more readily because they do them for the sake of
deceiving; and I wish that it were as easy to carry out goodness in
action as it is to pretend to it. But when they have begun to attain to
their purpose and their wish in reaching the highest step of power,
then, truly laying aside pretence, these men discover their character;
they seize upon everything, and offer violence, and lay waste; and they
press upon the good themselves, whose cause they had undertaken; and
they cut away the steps by which they mounted, that no one
169
may be able to imitate them against themselves. But, however, let us
suppose that this duty of defending the good belongs only to the good
man. Yet to undertake it is easy, to fulfil it is difficult; because
when you have committed yourself to a contest and an encounter, the
victory is placed at the disposal of God, not in your own power. And
for the most part the wicked are more powerful both in number and in
combination than the good, so that it is not so much virtue which is
necessary to overcome them as good fortune. Is any one ignorant how
often the better and the juster side has been overcome? From this cause
harsh tyrannies have always broken out against the citizens. All
history is full of examples, but we will be content with one.
Cnoeus Pompeius wished to be the defender of the good, since he took up
arms in defence of the commonwealth, in defence of the senate, and in
defence of liberty; and yet the same man, being conquered,
perished together with liberty itself,(1) and being mutilated by
Egyptian eunuchs, was cast forth unburied.(2)
It is not virtue, therefore, either to be the enemy
of the bad or the defender of the good, because virtue cannot be
subject to uncertain chances.
"Moreover, to reckon the interests of our country as in the
first place."
When the agreement of men is taken away, virtue has no existence
at all; for what are the interests of our country, but the
inconveniences of another state or nation?--that is, to extend
the boundaries which are violently taken from others, to increase the
power of the state, to improve the revenues,--all which things are not
virtues, but the overthrowing of virtues: for, in the first
place, the union of human society is taken away, innocence is taken
away, the abstaining from the property of another is taken away;
lastly, justice itself is taken away, which is unable to bear the
tearing asunder of the human race, and wherever arms have glittered,
must be banished and exterminated from thence. This saying of Cicero(3)
is true: "But they who say that regard is to be had to citizens, but
that it is not to be had to foreigners, these destroy the common
society of the human race; and when this is removed, beneficence,
liberality, kindness, and justice are entirely(4) taken away." For how
can a man be just who injures, who hates, who despoils, who puts to
death? And they who strive to be serviceable to their country do all
these things: for they are ignorant of what this being serviceable is,
who think nothing useful, nothing advantageous, but that which can be
held b the hand; and this alone cannot be held, because it may be
snatched away.
Whoever, then, has gained for his country these
goods--as they themselves call them--that is, who by the overthrow of
cities and the destruction of nations has filled the treasury with
money, has taken lands and enriched his country-men--he is extolled
with praises to the heaven: in him there is said to be the greatest and
perfect virtue. And this is the error not only of the people and the
ignorant, but also of philosophers, who even give precepts for
injustice, test folly and wickedness should be wanting in discipline
and authority. Therefore, when they are speaking of the duties relating
to warfare, all that discourse is accommodated neither to justice nor
to true virtue, but to this life and to civil institutions;(5) and that
this is not justice the matter itself declares, and Cicero has
testified.(6) "But we," he says, "are not in possession of the real and
life-like figure of true law and genuine justice, we have nothing but
delineations and sketches;(7) and I wish that we followed even these,
for they are taken from the excellent copies made by nature and truth."
It is then a delineation and a sketch which they thought to be justice.
But what of wisdom? does not the same man confess that it has no
existence in philosophers "Nor," he says,(8) "when Fabricius or
Aristides is called just, is an example of justice sought from these as
from a wise man; for none of these is wise in the sense in which we
wish the truly wise to be understood. Nor were they who are esteemed
and called wise, Marcus Cato and Caius Laelius, actually wise, nor
those well-known seven;(9) but from their constant practice of the
'middle duties,'(10) they bore a certain likeness and appearance(11) of
wise men." If therefore wisdom is taken away from the philosophers by
their own confession, and justice is taken away from those who are
regarded as just, it follows that all those descriptions of virtue must
be false, because no one can know what true virtue is but he who is
just and wise. But no one is just and wise but he whom God has
instructed with heavenly precepts.
CHAP. VII.--OF THE WAY OF ERROR AND OF TRUTH: THAT IT IS SINGLE,
NARROW, AND STEEP, AND HAS GOD FOR ITS GUIDE.
For all those who, by the confessed folly of others,
are thought wise, being clothed with the
170
appearance of virtue, grasp at shadows and outlines, but at nothing
true. Which happens on this account, because that deceitful road which;
inclines to the west has many paths, on account of the variety of
pursuits and systems which are dissimilar and varied in the life of
men. For as that way of wisdom contains something which resembles
folly, as we showed in the preceding book, so this way, which belongs
altogether to folly, contains something which resembles wisdom, and
they who perceive the folly of men in general seize upon this; and as
it has its vices manifest, so it has something which appears to
resemble virtue: as it has its wickedness open, so it has a likeness
and appearance of justice. For how could the forerunner(1) of that way,
whose strength and power are altogether in deceit, lead men altogether
into fraud, unless he showed them some things which resembled the
truth?(2) For, that His immortal secret might be hidden, God placed in
his way things which men might despise as evil and disgraceful, that,
turning away from wisdom and truth, which they were searching for
without any guide, they might fall upon that very thing which they
desired to avoid and flee from. Therefore he points out that way of
destruction and death which has many windings, either because there are
many kinds of life, or because there are many gods who are worshipped.
The deceitful(3) and treacherous guide of this way,
that there may appear to be some distinction between truth and
falsehood, good and evil, reads the luxurious in one direction, and
those who are called temperate(4) in another; the ignorant in one
direction, the learned in another; the sluggish in one direction, the
active in another; the foolish in one direction, the philosophers in
another, and even these not in one path. For those who do not shun
pleasures or riches, he withdraws a little from this public and
frequented road; but those who either wish to follow virtue, or profess
a contempt for things, he drags over certain rugged precipices. But
nevertheless all those paths which display an appearance of honours are
not different roads, but turnings off(5) and bypaths, which appear
indeed to be separated from that common one. and to branch off to the
right, but yet return to the same, and all lead at the very end to one
issue. For that guide unites them all, where it was necessary that the
good should be separated from the bad, the strong from the inactive,
the wise from the foolish; namely, in the worship of the gods, in which
he slays them all with one sword, because they were all foolish without
any distinction, and plunges them into death. But this way--which is
that of truth, and wisdom, and virtue, and justice, of all which there
is but one fountain, one source of strength, one abode--is both
simple,(6) because with like minds, and with the utmost agreement, we
follow and worship one God; and it is narrow, because virtue is given
to the smaller number; and steep, because goodness, which is very high
and lofty, cannot be attained to without the greatest difficulty and
labour.
CHAP. VIII.--OF THE ERRORS OF PHILOSOPHERS, AND THE VARIABLENESS OF LAW.
This is the way which philosophers seek, but do not
find on this account, because they prefer to seek it on the earth,
where it cannot appear. Therefore they wander, as it were, on the great
sea, and do not understand whither they are borne, because they neither
discern the way nor follow any guide. For this way of life ought to be
sought in the same manner in which their course is sought by ships over
the deep: for unless they observe some light of heaven, they wander
with uncertain courses. But whoever strives to hold the right course of
life ought not to look to the earth, but to the heaven: and, to speak
more plainly, he ought not to follow man, but God; not to serve these
earthly images, but the heavenly God; not to measure all things by
their reference to the body, but by their reference to the soul; not to
attend to this life, but the eternal life. Therefore, if you always
direct your eyes towards heaven, and observe the sun, where it rises,
and take this as the guide of your life, as in the case of a voyage,
your feet will spontaneously be directed into the way; and that
heavenly light, which is a much brighter sun(7) to sound minds than
this which we behold in mortal flesh, will so rule and govern you as to
lead you without any error to the most excellent harbour of wisdom and
virtue.
Therefore the law of God must be undertaken, which
may direct us to this path; that sacred, that heavenly law, which
Marcus Tullius, in his third book respecting the Republic,(8) has
described almost with a divine voice; whose words have subjoined, that
I might not speak at greater length: "There is indeed a true law, right
reason, agreeing with nature, diffused among all, unchanging,
everlasting, which calls to duty by commanding, deters from wrong by
forbidding; which, however, neither commands nor forbids the good in
vain, nor affects the wicked by commanding or forbidding. It is not
allow-
171
able to alter(1) the provisions of this law, nor is it permitted us to
modify it, nor can it be entirely abrogated.(1) Nor, truly, can we be
released from this law, either by the senate or by the people; nor is
another person to be sought to explain or interpret it. Nor will there
be one law at Rome and another at Athens; one law at the present time,
and another hereafter: but the same law, everlasting and unchangeable,
will bind all nations at all times; and there will be one common Master
and Ruler of all, even God, the framer, arbitrator, and proposer of
this law; and he who shall not obey this will flee from himself, and,
despising the nature of man, will suffer the greatest punishments
through this very thing, even though he shall have escaped the other
punishments which are supposed to exist." Who that is acquainted with
the mystery of God could so significantly relate the law of God, as a
man far removed from the knowledge of the truth has set forth that law?
But I consider that they who speak true things unconsciously are to be
so regarded as though they prophesied(2) under the influence of some
spirit. But if he had known or explained this also, in what precepts
the law itself consisted, as he clearly saw the force and purport of
the divine law, he would not have discharged the office of a
philosopher, but of a prophet. And because he was unable to do this, it
must be done by us, to whom the law itself has been delivered by the
one great Master and Ruler of all, God.
CHAP. IX.--OF THE LAW AND PRECEPT OF GOD; OF MERCY, AND THE ERROR OF
THE PHILOSOPHERS.
The first head of this law is, to know God Himself,
to obey Him alone, to worship Him alone. For he cannot maintain the
character of a man who is ignorant of God, the parent of his soul:
which is the greatest impiety. For this ignorance causes him to serve
other gods, and no greater crime than this can be committed. Hence
there is now so easy a step to wickedness through ignorance of the
truth and of the chief good; since God, from the knowledge of whom he
shrinks, is Himself the fountain of goodness. Or if he shall wish to
follow the justice of God, yet, being ignorant of the divine law, he
embraces the laws of his own country as true justice, though they were
clearly devised not by justice, but by utility. For why is it that
there are different and various laws amongst all people, but that each
nation has enacted for itself that which it deemed useful for its own
affairs? But how greatly utility differs from justice the Roman people
themselves teach, who, by proclaiming war through the Fecials, and by
inflicting injuries according to legal forms, by always desiring and
carrying off the property of other, have gained for themselves the
possession of the whole world.(3) But these persons think themselves
just if they do nothing against their own laws; which may be even
ascribed to fear, if they abstain from crimes through dread of present
punishment. But let us grant that they do that naturally, or, as the
philosopher says, of their own accord, which they are compelled to do
by the laws. Will they therefore be just, because they obey the
institutions of men, who may themselves have erred, or have been
unjust?--as it was with the framers of the twelve tables, who certainly
promoted the public advantage according to the condition of the times.
Civil law is one thing, which varies everywhere according to customs;
but justice is another thing, which God has set forth to all as uniform
and simple: and he who is ignorant of God must also be ignorant of
justice.
But let us suppose it possible that any one, by
natural and innate goodness, should gain true virtues, such a man as we
have heard that Cimon was at Athens, who both gave alms to the needy,
and entertained the poor, and clothed the naked; yet, when that one
thing which is of the greatest importance is wanting--the
acknowledgment of God--then all those good things are superfluous and
empty, so that in pursuing them he has laboured in vain.(4) For all his
justice will resemble a human body which has no head, in which,
although all the limbs are in their proper position, and figure, and
proportion, yet, since that is wanting which is the chief thing of all,
it is destitute both of life and of all sensation. Therefore those
limbs have only the shape of limbs, but admit of no use, as much so as
a head without a body; and he resembles this who is not without the
knowledge of God, but yet lives unjustly. For he has that only which is
of the greatest importance; but he has it to no purpose, since he is
destitute of the virtues, as it were, of limbs.
Therefore, that the body may be alive, and capable
of sensation, both the knowledge of God is necessary, as it were the
head, and all the virtues, as it were the body. Thus there will exist a
perfect and living man; but, however, the whole substance is in the
head; and although this cannot exist in the absence of all, it may
exist in the absence of some. And it will be an imperfect and faulty
animal, but yet it will be alive, as he who knows God and yet sins in
some respect. For God pardons sins. And
172
thus it is possible to live without some of the limbs, but it is by no
means possible to live without a head. This is the reason why the
philosophers, though they may be naturally good, yet have no knowledge
and no intelligence. All their learning and virtue is without a head,
because they are ignorant of God, who is the Head of virtue and
knowledge; and he who is ignorant of Him, though he may see, is blind;
though he may hear, is deaf; though he may speak, is dumb. But when he
shall know the Creator and Parent of all things, then he will both see,
and hear, and speak. For he begins to have a head, in which all the
senses are placed, that is, the eyes, and ears, and tongue. For
assuredly he sees who has beheld with the eyes of his mind the truth in
which God is, or God in whom the truth is; he hears, who imprints on
his heart the divine words and life-giving precepts; he speaks, who, in
discussing heavenly things, relates the virtue and majesty of the
surpassing God. Therefore he is undoubtedly impious who does not
acknowledge God; and all his virtues, which he thinks that he has or
possesses, are found in that deadly road which belongs altogether to
darkness. Wherefore there is no reason why any one should congratulate
himself if he has gained these empty virtues, because he is not only
wretched who is destitute of present goods, but he must also be
foolish, since he undertakes the greatest labours in his life without
any purpose. For if the hope of immortality is taken away, which God
promises to those who continue in His religion, for the sake of
obtaining which virtue is to be sought, and whatever evils happen are
to be endured, it will assuredly be the greatest folly to wish to
comply with virtues which in vain bring calamities and labours to man.
For if it is virtue to endure and undergo with fortitude, want, exile,
pain, and death, which are feared by others, what goodness, I pray, has
it in itself, that philosophers should say that it is to be sought for
on its own account? Truly they are delighted with superfluous and
useless punishments, when it is permitted them to live in tranquillity.
For if our souls are mortal, if virtue is about to have no
existence after the dissolution of the body, why do we avoid the goods
assigned to us, as though we were ungrateful or unworthy of enjoying
the divine gifts? For, that we may enjoy these blessings, we must live
in wickedness and impiety, because virtue, that is, justice, is
followed by poverty. Therefore he is not of sound mind, who, without
having any greater hope set before him, prefers labours, and tortures,
and miseries, to those goods which others enjoy in life.(1) But if
virtue is to be taken up,
as is most rightly said by these, because it is evident that man is
born to it, it ought to contain some greater hope, which may apply a
great and illustrious solace for the ills and labours which it is the
part of virtue to endure. Nor can virtue, since it is difficult in
itself, be esteemed as a good in any other way than by having its
hardship compensated by the greatest good. We can in no other way
equally abstain from these present goods, than if there are other
greater goods on account of which it is worth while to leave the
pursuit of pleasures, and to endure all evils. But these are no other,
as I have shown in the third book,(2) than the goods of everlasting
life. Now who can bestow these except God, who has proposed to us
virtue itself? Therefore the sum and substance of everything is
contained in the acknowledging and worship of God; all the hope and
safety of man centres in this; this is the first step of wisdom, to
know who is our true Father, and to worship Him alone with the piety
which is due to Him, to obey Him, to yield ourselves to His service
with the utmost devotedness: let our entire acting, and care, and
attention, be laid out in gaining His favour.(3)
CHAP. X.--OF RELIGION TOWARDS GOD, AND MERCY TOWARDS MEN; AND OF THE
BEGINNING OF THE WORLD.
I have said what is due to God, I will now say what
is to be given to man; although this very thing which you shall give to
man is given to God, for man is the image of God. But, how ever, the
first office of justice is to be united with God, the second with man.
But the former is called religion; the second is named mercy or
kindness;(4) which virtue is peculiar to the just, and to the
worshippers of God, because this alone comprises the principle of
common life. For God, who has not given wisdom to the other animals,
has made them more safe from attack in danger by natural defences. But
because He made him naked and defenceless,(5) that He might rather
furnish him with wisdom, He gave him, besides other things, this
feeling of kindness;(6) so that man should protect, love, and cherish
man, and both receive and afford assistance against all dangers.
Therefore kindness is the greatest bond of human society; and he who
has broken this is to be deemed impious, and a parricide. For if we all
derive our origin from one man, whom God
173
created, we are plainly of one blood; and therefore it must be
considered the greatest wickedness to hate a man, even though guilty.
On which account God has enjoined that enmities are never to be
contracted by us, but that they are always to be removed, so that we
soothe those who are our enemies, by reminding them of their
relationship. Likewise, if we are all inspired and animated by one God,
what else are we than brothers? And, indeed, the more closely united,
because we are united in soul rather than in body.(1) Accordingly
Lucretius does not err when he says:(2) "In short, we are all sprung
from a heavenly seed; all have that same father." Therefore they are to
be accounted as savage beasts who injure man; who, in opposition to
every law and right of human nature, plunder, torture, slay, and banish.
On account of this relationship of brotherhood, God
teaches us never to do evil, but always good. And He also prescribes(3)
in what this doing good consists: in affording aid to those who are
oppressed and in difficulty, and in bestowing food on those who are
destitute. For God, since He is kind,(4) wished us to be a social
animal. Therefore, in the case of other men, we ought to think of
ourselves. We do not deserve to be set free in our own dangers, if we
do not succour others; we do not deserve assistance, if we refuse to
render it. There are no precepts of philosophers to this purport,
inasmuch as they, being captivated by the appearance of false virtue,
have taken away mercy from man, and while they wish to heal, have
corrupted.(5) And though they generally admit that the mutual
participation of human society is to be retained, they entirely
separate themselves from it by the harshness of their inhuman virtue.
This error, therefore, is also to be refuted, of those who think that
nothing is to be bestowed on any one. They have introduced not one
origin only, and cause of building a city; but some relate that those
men who were first born from the earth, when they passed a wandering
life among the woods and plains, and were not united by any mutual bond
of speech or justice, but had leaves and grass for their beds, and
caves and grottos for their dwellings, were a prey to the beasts and
stronger animals. Then, that those who had either escaped, having been
torn, or had seen their neighbours torn, being admonished of their own
danger, had recourse to other
men, implored protection, and at first made their wishes known by nods;
then that they tried the beginnings of conversation, and by attaching
names to each object, by degrees completed the system of speech. But
when they saw that numbers themselves were not safe against the beasts,
they began also to build towns, either that they might make their
nightly repose safe, or that they might ward off the incursions and
attacks of beasts, not by fighting, but by interposing barriers.(6)
O minds unworthy of men, which produced these
foolish trifles! O wretched and pitiable men, who committed to writing
and handed down to memory the record of their own foil),; who, when
they saw that the plan of assembling themselves together, or of mutual
intercourse, or of avoiding danger, or of guarding against evil, or of
preparing for themselves sleeping-places and lairs, was natural even to
the dumb animals, thought, however, that men could not have been
admonished and learned, except by examples, what they ought to fear,
what to avoid, and what to do, or that they would never have assembled
together, or have discovered the method of speech, had not the beasts
devoured them! These things appeared to others senseless, as they
really were; and they said that the cause of their coming together was
not the tearing of wild beasts, but rather the very feeling of humanity
itself; and that therefore they collected themselves together, because
the nature of men avoided solitude, and was desirous of communion and
society. The discrepancy between them is not great; since the causes
are different, the fact is the same. Each might have been true, because
there is no direct opposition. But, however, neither is by any means
true, because men were not born from the ground throughout the world,
as though sprung from the teeth of some dragon, as the poets relate;
but one man was formed by God, and from that one man all the earth was
filled with the human race, in the same way as again took place after
the deluge, which they certainly cannot deny.(7) Therefore no
assembling together of this kind took place at the beginning; and that
there were never men on the earth who could not speak except those who
were infants,(8) every one who is possessed of sense will understand.
Let us suppose, however, that these things are true which idle and
foolish old men vainly say, that we may refute them especially by their
own feelings and arguments.
If men were collected together on this account,
174
that they might protect their weakness by mutual help, therefore we
must succour man, who needs help. For, since men entered into and
contracted fellowship with men for the sake of protection, either to
violate or not to preserve that compact which was entered into among
men from the commencement of their origin, is to be considered as the
greatest impiety. For he who withdraws himself from affording
assistance must also of necessity withdraw himself from receiving it;
for he who refuses his aid to another thinks that he stands in need of
the aid of none. But he who withdraws and separates himself from the
body(1) at large, must live not after the custom of men, but after the
manner of wild beasts. But if this cannot be done, the bond of human
society is by all means to be retained, because man can in no way live
without man. But the preservation(2) of society is a mutual sharing of
kind offices; that is, the affording help, that we may be able to
receive it. But if, as those others assert, the assembling together of
men has been caused on account of humanity itself, man ought
undoubtedly to recognise man. But if those ignorant and as yet
uncivilized men did this, and that, when the practice of speaking was
not yet established, what must we think ought to be done by men who are
polished, and connected together by interchange of conversation and all
business, who, being accustomed to the society of men, cannot endure
solitude?
CHAP. XI.--OF THE PERSONS UPON WHOM A BENEFIT IS TO BE
CONFERRED.
Therefore humanity is to be preserved, if we wish
rightly to be called men. But what else is this preservation of
humanity than the loving a man because he is a man, and the same as
ourselves? Therefore discord and dissension are not in accordance with
the nature of man; and that expression of Cicero is true, which says(3)
that man, while he is obedient to nature, cannot injure man. Therefore,
if it is contrary to nature to injure a man, it must be in accordance
with nature to benefit a man; and he who does not do this deprives
himself of the title of a man, because it is the duty of humanity to
succour the necessity and peril of a man. I ask, therefore, of those
who do not think it the part of a wise man to be prevailed upon and to
pity, If a man were seized by some beast, and were to implore the aid
of an armed man, whether they think that he ought to be succoured or
not? They are not so shameless as to deny that that ought to be done
which humanity demands and requires. Also, if any one were surrounded
by fire, crushed by the downfall of a building, plunged in the sea, or
carried away by a river, would they think it the duty of a man not to
assist him? They themselves are not men if they think so; for no one
can fail to be liable to dangers of this kind. Yes, truly, they will
say that it is the part of a human being, and of a brave man too, to
preserve one who was on the point of perishing. If, therefore, in
casualties of this nature which imperil the life of man, they allow
that it is the part of humanity to give succour, what reason is there
why they should think that succour is to be withheld if a man should
suffer from hunger, thirst, or cold? But though these things are
naturally on an equality with those accidental circumstances, and need
one and the same humanity, yet they make a distinction between these
things, because they measure all things not by the truth itself, but by
present utility. For they hope that those whom they rescue from peril
will make a return of the favour to them. But because they do not hope
for this in the case of the needy, they think that whatever they bestow
on men of this kind is thrown away. Hence that sentiment of Plantus is
detestable:(4)--
"He
deserves ill who gives food to a beggar;
For
that which he gives is thrown away, and
It
lengthens out the life of the other to his misery."
But perhaps the poet spoke for the actor.(5)
What does Marcus Tullius say in his books respecting
Offices? Does he not also advise that bounty should not be employed at
all? For thus he speaks:(6) "Bounty, which proceeds from our estate,
drains the very source of our liberality; and thus liberality is
destroyed by liberality: for the more numerous they are towards whom
you practise it, the less you will be able to practise it towards
many." And he also says shortly afterwards: "But what is more foolish
than so to act that you may not be able to continue to do that which
you do willingly?" This professor of wisdom plainly keeps men back from
acts of kindness, and advises them carefully to guard their property,
and to preserve their money-chest in safety, rather than to follow
justice. And when he perceived that this was inhuman and wicked, soon
afterwards, in another chapter, as though moved by repentance, he thus
spoke: "Sometimes, however, we must exercise bounty in giving: nor is
this kind of liberality altogether to be rejected; and we must give
from our property to suitable(7) persons when they are in need of
assistance." What is the meaning of "suit-
175
able?" Assuredly those who are able to restore and give back the
favour.(1) If Cicero were now alive, I should certainly exclaim: Here,
here, Marcus Tullius, you have erred from true justice; and you have
taken it away by one word, since you measured the offices of piety and
humanity by utility. For we must not bestow our bounty on suitable
objects, but as much as possible on unsuitable objects. For that will
be done with justice, piety, and humanity, which you shall do without
the hope of any return!
This is that true and genuine justice, of which you
say that you have no real and life-like figure.(2) You yourself exclaim
in many places that virtue is not mercenary; and you confess in the
books of your Laws(3) that liberality is gratuitous, in these words:
"Nor is it doubtful that he who is called liberal and generous is
influenced by a sense of duty, and not by advantage." Why therefore do
you bestow your bounty on suitable persons, unless it be that you may
afterwards receive a reward? With you, therefore, as the author and
teacher of justice, whosoever shall not be a suitable person will be
worn out with nakedness, thirst, and hunger; nor will men who are rich
and abundantly supplied, even to luxuriousness, assist his last
extremity. If virtue does not exact a reward; if, as you say, it is to
be sought on its own account, then estimate justice, which is the
mother and chief of the virtues, at its own price, and not according to
your advantage: give especially to him from whom you hope for nothing
in return. Why do you select persons? Why do you look at bodily forms?
He is to be esteemed by you as a man, whoever it is that implores you,
because he considers you a man. Cast away those outlines and sketches
of justice, and hold fast justice itself, true and fashioned to the
life. Be bountiful to the blind, the feeble, the lame, the destitute,
who must die: unless you bestow your bounty upon them. They are useless
to men, but they are serviceable to God, who retains them in life, who
endues them with breath, who vouchsafes to them the light. Cherish as
far as in you lies, and support with kindness, the lives of men, that
they may not be extinguished. He who is able to succour one on the
point of perishing, if he fails to do so, kills him. But they, because
they neither retain their nature, nor know what reward there is in
this, while they fear to lose, do lose, and fall into that which they
chiefly guard against; so that whatever they bestow is either lost
altogether, or profits only for the briefest time. For they who refuse
a small gift to the wretched, who wish to preserve humanity without any
loss to themselves, squander their property, so that they
either acquire for themselves frail and perishable things, or they
certainly gain nothing by their own great loss.
For what must be said of those who, induced by the
vanity of popular favour,(4) expend on the exhibition of shows wealth
that would be sufficient even for great cities? Must we not say that
they are senseless and mad who bestow upon the people that which is
both lost to themselves, and which none of those on whom it is bestowed
receives? Therefore, as all pleasure is short and perishable, and
especially that of the eyes and ears, men either forget and are
ungrateful for the expenses incurred by another, or they are even
offended if the caprice of the people is not satisfied: so that most
foolish men ,have even acquired evil for themselves by evil; or if they
have thus succeeded in pleasing, they gain nothing more than empty
favour and the talk(5) of a few days. Thus every day the estates of
most trifling men are expended on superfluous matters. Do they then act
more wisely who exhibit to their fellow-citizens more useful and
lasting gifts? They, for instance, who by the building of public works
seek a lasting memory for their name? Not even do they act rightly in
burying their property in the earth; because the remembrance of them
neither bestows anything upon the dead, nor are their works eternal,
inasmuch as they are either thrown down and destroyed by a single
earthquake, or are consumed by an accidental fire, or they are
overthrough by some attack of an enemy, or at any rate they decay and
fall to pieces by mere length of time. For there is nothing, as the
orator says,(6) made by the work of man's hand which length of time
does not weaken and destroy. But this justice of which we speak, and
mercy, flourish more every day. They therefore act better who bestow
their bounty on their tribesmen and clients, for they bestow something
on men. and profit them; but that is not true and just bounty, for
there is no conferring of a benefit where there is no necessity.
Therefore, whatever is given to those who are not in need, for the sake
of popularity, is thrown away; or it is repaid with interest, and thus
it will not be the conferring of a benefit. And although it is pleasing
to those to whom it is given, still it is not just, because if it is
not done, no evil follows. Therefore the only sure and true office of
liberality is to support the needy and unserviceable.
CHAP. XII.--OF THE KINDS OF BENEFICENCE, AND WORKS OF
MERCY.
This is that perfect justice which protects human
society, concerning which philosophers
176
speak. This is the chief and truest advantage of riches; not to use
wealth for the particular, pleasure of an individual, but for the
welfare of many; not for one's own immediate enjoyment, but for
justice, which alone does not perish. We must therefore by all means
keep in mind, that the hope of receiving in return must be altogether
absent from the duty of showing mercy: for the reward of this work and
duty must be expected from God alone; for if you should expect it from
man, then that will not be kindness, but the lending of a benefit at
interest;(1) nor can he seem to have deserved well who affords that
which he does, not to another, but to himself. And yet the matter comes
to this, that whatever a man has bestowed upon another, hoping for no
advantage from him, he really bestows upon himself, for he will receive
a reward from God. God has also enjoined, that if at any time we make a
feast, we should invite to the entertainment those who cannot invite us
in return, and thus make us a recompense, so that no action of our life
should be without the exercise of mercy. Nor, however, let any one
think that he is debarred from intercourse with his friends or kindness
with his neighbours. But God has made known to us what is our true and
just work: we ought thus to live with our neighbours, provided that we
know that the one manner of living relates to man, the other to God.(2)
Therefore hospitality is a principal virtue, as the
philosophers also say; but they turn it aside from true justice, and
forcibly apply(3) it to advantage. Cicero says:(4) "Hospitality was
rightly praised by Theophrastus. For (as it appears to me) it is highly
becoming that the houses of illustrious men should be open to
illustrious guests." He has here committed the same error which he then
did, when he said that we must bestow our bounty on "suitable" persons.
For the house of a just and wise man ought not to be open to the
illustrious, but to the lowly and abject. For those illustrious and
powerful men cannot be in want of anything, since they are sufficiently
protected and honoured by their own opulence. But nothing is to
be done by a just man except that which is a benefit. But if the
benefit is returned, it is destroyed and brought to an end; for we
cannot possess in its completeness that for which a price has been paid
to us. Therefore the principle of justice is employed about those
benefits which have remained safe and uncorrupted; but they cannot thus
remain by any other means than if they are be stowed upon those men who
can in no way profit us. But in receiving illustrious men, he looked to
nothing else but utility; nor did the ingenious man conceal what
advantage he hoped from it. For he says that he who does that will
become powerful among foreigners by the favour of the leading men, whom
he will have bound to himself by the right of hospitality and
friendship. O by how many arguments might the inconsistency of Cicero
be proved, if this were my object! Nor would he be convicted so much by
my words as by his own. For he also says, that the more any one refers
all his actions to his own advantage, the less he is a good man. He
also says, that it is not the part of a simple and open man to
ingratiate himself in the favour of others,(5) to pretend and allege
anything, to appear to be doing one thing when he is doing another, to
feign that he is bestowing upon another that which he is bestowing upon
himself; but that this is rather the part of one who is designing(6)
and crafty, deceitful and treacherous. But how could he maintain that
that ambitious hospitality was not evil intention?(7) "Do you run round
through all the gates, that you may invite to your house the chief men
of the nations and cities as they arrive, that by their means you may
acquire influence with their citizens; and wish yourself to be called
just, and kind, and hospitable, though you are studying to promote your
own advantage?" But did he not say this rather incautiously? For what
is less suitable for Cicero? But through his ignorance of true justice
he knowingly and with foresight fell into this snare. And that he might
be pardoned for this, he testified that he does not give precepts with
reference to true justice, which he does not hold, but with reference
to a sketch and outline of justice. Therefore we must pardon this
teacher who uses sketches and outlines,(8) nor must we require the
truth from him who admits that he is ignorant of it.
The ransoming of captives is a great and noble
exercise of justice, of which the same Tullius also approved.(9) "And
this liberality," he says, "is serviceable even to the state, that
captives should be ransomed from slavery, and that those of slender
resources should be provided for. And I greatly prefer this practice of
liberality to lavish expenditure on shows. This is the part of great
and eminent men." Therefore it is the appropriate work of the just to
support the poor and to ransom captives, since
177
among the unjust if any do these things they are called great and
eminent. For it is deserving of the greatest praise for those to confer
benefit from whom no one expected such conduct. For he who does good to
a relative, or neighbour, or friend, either deserves no praise, or
certainly no great praise, because he is bound to do it, and he would
be impious and detestable if he did not do that which both nature
itself and relationship require; and if he does it, he does it not so
much for the sake of obtaining glory as of avoiding censure. But he who
does it to a stranger and an unknown person, he truly is worthy of
praise, because he was led to do it by kindness only. Justice therefore
exists there, where there is no obligation of necessity for conferring
a benefit. He ought not therefore to have preferred this duty of
generosity to expenditure on shows; for this is the part of one making
a comparison, and of two goods choosing that which is the better. For
that profusion of men throwing away their property into the sea is vain
and trifling, and very far removed from all justice. Therefore they are
not even to be called girls,(1) in which no one receives but he who
does not deserve to receive.
Nor is it less a great work of justice to protect
and defend orphans and widows who are destitute and stand in need of
assistance; and therefore that divine law prescribes this to all, since
all good judges deem that it belongs to their office to favour them
with natural kindness, and to strive to benefit them. But these works
are especially ours, since we have received the law, and the words of
God Himself giving us instructions. For they perceive that it is
naturally just to protect those who need protection, but they do not
perceive why it is so. For God, to whom everlasting mercy belongs, on
this account commands that widows and orphans should be defended and
cherished, that no one through regard and pity for his pledges(2)
should be prevented from undergoing death in behalf of justice and
faith, but should encounter it with promptitude and boldness, since he
knows that he leaves his beloved ones to the care of God, and that they
will never want protection. Also to undertake the care and support of
the sick, who need some one to assist them, is the part of the greatest
kindness, and of great beneficence;(3) and he who shall do this will
both gain a living sacrifice to God, and that which he has given to
another for a time he will himself receive from God for eternity. The
last and greatest office of piety is the burying of strangers and the
poor; which subject those teachers
of virtue and justice have not touched upon at all. For they were
unable to see this, who measured all their duties by utility. For in
the other things which have been mentioned above, although they did not
keep the true path, yet, since they discovered some advantage in these
things, retained as it were by a kind of inkling(4) of the truth, they
wandered to a less distance; but they abandoned this because they were
unable to see any advantage in it.
Moreover, there have not been wanting those who
esteemed burial as superfluous, and said that it was no evil to lie
unburied and neglected; but their impious wisdom is rejected alike by
the whole human race, and by the divine expressions which command the
performance of the rite.(5) But they do not venture to say that it
ought not to be done, but that, if it happens to be omitted, no
inconvenience is the result. Therefore in that matter they discharge
the office, not so much of those who give precepts, as of those who
suggest consolation, that if this shall by chance have occurred to a
wise man, he should not deem himself wretched on this account. But we
do not speak of that which ought to be endured by a wise man, but of
that which he himself ought to do. Therefore we do not now inquire
whether the whole system of burial is serviceable or not; but this,
even though it be useless, as they imagine, must nevertheless be
practised, even on this account only, that it appears among men to be
done rightly and kindly. For it is the feeling which is inquired into,
and it is the purpose which is weighed. Therefore we will not suffer
the image and workmanship of God to lie exposed as a prey to beasts and
birds, but we will restore it to the earth, from which it had its
origin; and although it be in the case of an unknown man, we will
fulfil the office of relatives, into whose place, since they are
wanting, let kindness succeed; and wherever there shall be need of man,
there we will think that our duty is required.(6) But in what does the
nature of justice more consist than in our affording to strangers
through kindness, that which we render to our own relatives through
affection? And this kindness is much more sure and just when it is now
afforded, not to the man who is insensible, but to God alone, to whom a
just work is a most acceptable sacrifice. Some one will perhaps say: If
I shall do all these things, I shall have no possessions. For what if a
great number of men shall be in want, shall suffer cold, shall be taken
captive, shall die, since one who acts thus must deprive himself of his
property even in a single day, shall I throw away the es-
178
tate acquired by my own labour or by that of my ancestors, so that
after this I myself must live by the pity of others?
Why do you so pusillanimously fear poverty, which
even your philosophers praise, and bear witness that nothing is safer
and nothing more calm than this? That which you fear is a haven against
anxieties. Do you not know to how many dangers, to how many accidents,
you are exposed with these evil resources? These will treat you well if
they shall pass without your bloodshed. But you walk about laden with
booty, and you bear spoils which may excite the minds even of your own
relatives. Why, then, do you hesitate to lay that out well which
perhaps a single robbery will snatch away from you, or a proscription
suddenly arising, or the plundering of an enemy? Why do you fear to
make a frail and perishable good everlasting, or to entrust your
treasures to God as their preserver, in which case you need not fear
thief and robber, nor rust, nor tyrant? He who is rich towards God can
never be poor.(1) If you esteem justice so highly, lay aside the
burthens which press you, and follow it; free yourself from fetters and
chains, that you may run to God without any impedient. It is the part
of a great and lofty mind to despise and trample upon mortal affairs.
But if you do not comprehend this virtue, that you may bestow your
riches upon the altar(2) of God, in order that you may provide for
yourself firmer possessions than these frail ones, I wiIl free you from
fear. All these precepts are not given to you alone, but to all the
people who are united in mind, and hold together as one
man. If you are not adequate to the performance of great
works alone, cultivate justice with all your power, in such a
manner, however, that you may excel others in work as much as you excel
them in riches. And do not think that you are advised to lessen
or exhaust your property; but that which you would have expended on
superfluities, turn to better uses. Devote to the ransoming
of captives that from which you purchase beasts; maintain the poor with
that from which you feed wild beasts; bury the innocent dead with
that from which you provide men for the sword.(3) What does it
profit to enrich men of abandoned wickedness, who fight with beasts,(4)
and to equip them for crimes? Transfer things about to be miserably
thrown away to the great sacrifice, that in return for these true gifts
you may have an everlasting gift from God. Mercy has a great reward;
for God promises it, that He will remit all sins. If you
shall hear, He says, the prayers of your suppliant, I also will hear
yours; if you shall pity those in distress, I also will pity you in
your distress. But if you shall not regard nor assist them, I also will
bear a mind like your own against you, and I will judge you by your own
laws.(5)
CHAP. XIII.--OF REPENTANCE, OF MERCY, AND THE FORGIVENESS OF SINS.
As often, therefore, as you are asked for aid,
believe that you are tried by God, that it may be seen whether you are
worthy of being heard. Examine your own conscience, and, as far as you
are able, heal your wounds. Nor, however, because offences are removed
by bounty, think that a licence is given you for sinning. For they are
done away with, if you are bountiful to God because you have sinned;
for if you sin through reliance on your bounty, they are not done away
with. For God especially desires that men shall be cleansed from their
sins, and therefore He commands them to repent. But to repent is
nothing else than to profess and to affirm that one will sin no more.
Therefore they are pardoned who unawares and incautiously glide into
sin; he who sins wilfully has no pardon. Nor, however, if any one shall
have been purified from all stain of sin, let him think that he may
abstain from the work of bounty because he has no faults to blot out.
Nay, in truth, he is then more bound to exercise justice when he is
become just, so that that which he had before done for the healing of
his wounds he may afterwards do for the praise and glory of virtue. To
this is added, that no ODe can be without fault as long as he is
burthened with a covering of flesh, the infirmity of which is subject
to the dominion of sin in a threefold manner--in deeds, in words, and
thoughts.
By these steps justice advances to the greatest
height. The first step of virtue is to abstain from evil works; the
second, to abstain also from evil worsts; the third, to abstain even
from the thoughts of evil things. He who ascends the first step is
sufficiently just; he who ascends the second is now of perfect virtue,
since he offends neither in deeds nor in conversation;(6) he who
ascends the third appears truly to have attained the likeness of God.
For it is almost beyond the measure of man not even to admit to the
thought(7) that which is either bad in action or improper in speech.
Therefore even just men, who can refrain from every unjust work, are
sometimes, however, overcome by frailty itself, so that they either
speak evil in anger, or, at the sight of delightful things, they desire
them with silent thought. But if the condition of mortality does not
suffer a man to
179
be pure from every stain, the faults of the flesh ought therefore to be
done away with by continual bounty. For it is the single work of a man
who is wise, and just, and worthy of life, to lay out his riches on
justice alone; for assuredly he who is without this, although he should
surpass Croesus or Crassus in riches, is to be esteemed as poor, as
naked, as a beggar. Therefore we must use our efforts that we may be
clothed with the garment of justice and piety, of which no one
may deprive us, which may furnish us with an everlasting ornament. For
if the worshippers of gods adore senseless images, and bestow upon them
whatever they have which is precious, though they can neither
make use of them nor give thanks because they have received them, how
much more just and true is it to reverence the living images of God,
that you may gain the favour of the living God! For as these make use
of what they have received, and give thanks, so God, in whose sight you
shall have done that which is good, will both approve of it and reward
your piety.
CHAP. XIV.--OF THE AFFECTIONS, AND THE OPINION OF THE STOICS RESPECTING
THEM; AND OF VIRTUE, THE VICES, AND MERCY,
If, therefore, mercy is a distinguished and
excellent gift in man, and that is judged to be very good by the
consent both of the good and the evil, it appears that philosophers
were far distant from the good of man, who neither enjoined nor
practised anything of this kind, but always esteemed as a vice that
virtue which almost holds the first place in man. It pleases me here to
bring forward one subject of philosophy, that we may more fully refute
the errors of those who call mercy, desire, and fear, diseases of the
soul. They indeed attempt to distinguish virtues from vices, which is
truly a very easy matter. For who cannot distinguish a liberal man from
one who is prodigal (as they do), or a frugal man from one who is mean,
or a calm man from one who is slothful, or a cautious man from one who
is timid? Because these things which are good have their limits,
and if they shall exceed these limits, fall into vices; so that
constancy, unless it is undertaken for the truth, becomes
shamelessness. In like manner, bravery, if it shall undergo certain
danger, without the compulsion of any necessity, or not for an
honourable cause, is changed into rashness. Freedom of speech
also, if it attack; others rather than oppose those who attack
it, is obstinacy. Severity also, unless it restrain itself within
the befitting punishments of the guilty, becomes savage cruelty.
Therefore they say, that those who appear evil do
not sin of their own accord, or choose
evils by preference, but that, erring(1) through the appearance of
good, they fall into evils, while they are ignorant of the distinction
between good things and evil. These things are not indeed false, but
they are all referred to the body. For to be frugal, or constant, or
cautious, or calm, or grave, or severe, are virtues indeed, but virtues
which relate to this short(2) life. But we who despise this life have
other virtues set before us, respecting which philosophers could not by
any means even conjecture. Therefore they regarded certain virtues as
vices, and certain vices as virtues. For the Stoics take away from man
all the affections, by the impulse of which the soul is moved--desire,
joy, fear, sorrow: the two former of which arise from good things,
either future or present; the latter from evil things. In the same
manner, they call these four (as I said) diseases, not so much inserted
in us by nature as undertaken through a perverted opinion; and
therefore they think that these can be eradicated, if the false notion
of good and evil things is taken away. For if the wise man thinks
nothing good or evil, he will neither be inflamed with desire, nor be
transported with joy, nor be alarmed with fear, nor suffer his spirits
to droop(3) through sadness. We shall presently see whether they effect
that which they wish, or what it is which they do effect: in the
meantime their purpose is arrogant and almost mad, who think that they
apply a remedy, and that they are able to strive in opposition to the
force and system of nature.
CHAP. XV.--OF THE AFFECTIONS, AND THE OPINION OF THE PERIPATETICS
RESPECTING THEM.
For, that these things are natural and not
voluntary, the nature of all living beings shows, which is moved by all
these affections. There fore the Peripatetics act better, who say that
all these cannot be taken from us, because they were born
with us; and they endeavour to show how providently and how
necessarily God, or nature (for so they term it), armed us with
these affections; which, however, because they generally become vicious
if they are in excess, can be advantageously regulated by man,--a limit
being applied, so that there may be left to man as much as is
sufficient for nature. Not an unwise disputation, if, as I said, all
things were not referred to this life. The Stoics therefore are mad who
do not regulate but cut them out, and wish by some means or other to
deprive man of powers implanted in him by nature. And this is
equivalent to a desire of taking away timidity from stags, or poison
from serpents, or
180
rage from wild beasts, or gentleness from cattle. For those qualities
which have been given separately to dumb animals, are altogether given
to man at the same time. But if, as physicians affirm, the affection of
joy has its seat in the spleen,(1) that of anger in the gall, of desire
in the liver, of fear in the heart, it is easier to kill the animal
itself than to tear anything from the body; for this is to wish to
change the nature of the living creature. But the skilful men do not
understand that when they take away vices from man, they also take away
virtue, for which alone they are making a place. For if it is virtue in
the midst of the impetuosity of anger to restrain and check oneself,
which they cannot deny, then he who is without anger is also without
virtue. If it is virtue to control the lust of the body, he must be
free from virtue who has no lust which he may regulate. If it is virtue
to curb the desire from coveting that which belongs to another, he
certainly can have no virtue who is without that, to the restraining of
which the exercise of virtue is applied. Where, therefore, there are no
vices, there is no place even for virtue, as there is no place for
victory where there is no adversary. And so it comes to pass that there
can be no good in this life without evil. An affection therefore is a
kind of natural fruitfulness(2) of the powers of the mind. For as a
field which is naturally fruitful produces an abundant crop of
briars,(3) so the mind which is uncultivated is overgrown with vices
flourishing of their own accord, as with thorns. But when the true
cultivator has applied himself, immediately vices give way, and the
fruits of virtues spring up.
Therefore God, when He first made man, with
wonderful foresight first implanted in him these emotions of the mind,
that he might be capable of receiving virtue, as the earth is of
cultivation; and He placed the subject-matter of vices in the
affections, and that of virtue in vices. For assuredly virtue will have
no existence, or not be in exercise, if those things are wanting by
which its power is either shown or exists. Now let us see what they
have effected who altogether removes vices. With regard to those four
affections(4) which they imagine to arise from the opinion of things
good and evil, by the eradication of which they think that the mind of
the wise man is to be healed, since they understand that they are
implanted by nature, and that without these nothing can be put in
motion, nothing be done, they put certain other things into their place
and room: for desire they substitute inclination, as though it were not
much better to desire a good than to feel inclination for it; they in
like manner substitute for joy gladness, and for fear caution. But in
the case of the fourth they are at a loss for a method of exchanging
the name. Therefore they have altogether taken away grief, that is,
sadness and pain of mind, which cannot possibly be done. For who can
fail to be grieved if pestilence has desolated his country, or an enemy
overthrown it, or a tyrant crushed its liberty? Can any one fail to be
grieved if he has beheld the overthrow of liberty,(5) and the
banishment or most cruel slaughter of neighbours, friends, or good
men?--unless the mind of any one should be so struck with astonishment
that all sensibility should be taken from him. Wherefore they ought
either to have taken away the whole, or this defective(6) and weak
discussion ought to have been completed; that is, something ought to
have been substituted in the place of grief, since, the former ones
having been so arranged, this naturally followed.
For as we rejoice in good things that are present,
so we are vexed and grieved with evil things. If, therefore, they gave
another name to joy because they thought it vicious, so it was
befitting that another name should be given to grief because they
thought it also vicious. From which it appears that it was no, the
object itself which was wanting to them, but a word, through want of
which they wished, contrary to what nature allowed, to take away that
affection which is the greatest. For I could have refuted those changes
of names at greater length, and have shown that many names are attached
to the same objects, for the sake of embellishing the style and
increasing its copiousness, or at any rate that they do not greatly
differ from one another. For both desire takes its beginning from the
inclination, and caution arises from fear, and joy is nothing
else than the expression of gladness. But let us suppose that they are
different, as they themselves will have it. Accordingly they will say
that desire is continued and perpetual inclination, but that joy is
gladness bearing itself immoderately; and that fear is caution in
excess, and passing the limits of moderation. Thus it comes to pass,
that they do not take away those things which they think ought to be
taken away, but regulate them, since the names only are changed, the
things themselves remain. They therefore return unawares to that point
at which the Peripatetics arrive by argument, that vices, since they
cannot be taken away, are to be regulated with moderation. Therefore
they err, be cause they do not succeed in effecting that which
they aim at, and by a circuitous route, which is long and rough, they
return to the same path.
181
CHAP. XVI.--OF THE AFFECTIONS, AND THE REFUTATION OF THE OPINION OF THE
PERIPATETICS CONCERNING THEM; WHAT IS THE PROPER USE OF THE AFFECTIONS,
AND WHAT IS A BAD USE OF THEM.
But I think that the Peripatetics did not even
approach the truth, who allow that they are vices, but regulate them
with moderation. For we must be free even from moderate vices; yea,
rather, it ought to have been at first effected that there should be no
vices. For nothing can be born vicious;(1) but if we make a bad use of
the affections they become vices, if we use them well they become
virtues. Then it must be shown that the causes of the affections, and
not the affections themselves, must be moderated. We must not, they
say, rejoice with excessive joy, but moderately and temperately.
This is as though they should say that we must not run swiftly, but
walk quietly. But it is possible that he who walks may err, and
that he who runs may keep the right path. What if I show that
there is a case in which it is vicious not only to rejoice
moderately, but even in the smallest degree; and that there is
another case, on the contrary, in which even to exult with transports
of joy is by no means faulty? What then, I pray, will this
mediocrity profit us? I ask whether they think that a wise man ought to
rejoice if he sees any evil happening to his enemy; or whether he ought
to curb his joy, if by the conquest of enemies, or the overthrow of a
tyrant, liberty and safety have been acquired by his countrymen.(2)
No one doubts but that in the former case to rejoice
a little, and in the latter to rejoice too little, is a very great
crime. We may say the same respecting the other affections. But, as I
have said, the object of wisdom does not consist in the regulation of
these, but of their causes, since they are acted upon from without; nor
was it befitting that these themselves should be restrained; since they
may exist in a small degree with the greatest criminality, and in the
greatest degree without any criminality. But they ought to have been
assigned to fixed times, and circumstances, and places, that they may
not be vices, when it is permitted us to make a right use of them. For
as to walk in the right course is good, but to wander from it is evil,
so to be moved by the affections to that which is right is good, but to
that which is corrupt is evil. For sensual desire, if it does not
wander from its lawful object, although it be ardent, yet is without
fault. But if it desires an unlawful object, although it be moderate,
yet it is a great vice. Therefore it is not a disease to be angry, nor
to desire, nor to be excited by lust; but to be passionate, to be
covetous or licentious, is a disease. For he who is passionate is angry
even with him with whom he ought not to be angry or at times when
he ought not. He who is covetous desires even that which is
unnecessary. He who is licentious pursues even that which is forbidden
by the laws. The whole matter ought to have turned on this, that since
the impetuosity of these things cannot be restrained, nor is it right
that it should be, because it is necessarily implanted for maintaining
the duties of life, it might rather be directed into the right way,
where it may be possible even to run without stumbling and danger.
CHAP. XVII.--OF THE AFFECTIONS AND THEIR USE; OF PATIENCE, AND THE
CHIEF GOOD OF CHRISTIANS.
But I have been carried too far in my desire of
refuting them; since it is my purpose to show that those things which
the philosophers thought to be vices, are so far from being vices, that
they are even great virtues. Of others, I will take, for the sake of
instruction, those which I think to be most closely related to the
subject. They regard dread or fear as a very great vice, and think that
it is a very great weakness of mind; the opposite to which is
bravery: and if this exists in a man, they say that there is no place
for fear. Does any one then believe that it can possibly happen that
this same fear is the highest fortitude? By no means. For nature does
not appear to admit that anything should fall back to its contrary. But
yet I, not by any skilful conclusion, as Socrates does in the writings
of Plato, who compels those against whom he disputes to admit those
things which they had denied, but in a simple manner, will show that
the greatest fear is the greatest virtue. No one doubts but that it is
the part of a timid and feeble mind either to fear pain, or want, or
exile, or imprisonment, or death; and if any one does not dread all
these, he is judged a man of the greatest fortitude. But he who fears
God is free from the fear of all these things. In proof of which, there
is no need of arguments: for the punishments inflicted on the
worshippers of God have been witnessed at all times, and are
still witnessed through the world, in the tormenting of whom new and
unusual tortures have been devised. For the mind shrinks from the
recollection of various kinds of death, when the butchery of savage
monsters has raged even beyond death itself. But a happy and
unconquered patience endured these execrable lacerations of their
bodies without a groan. This virtue afforded the greatest astonishment
to all people and provinces, and to the torturers themselves, when
182
cruelty was overcome by patience. But this virtue was caused by nothing
else than the fear of God. Therefore (as I said) fear is not to be
uprooted, as the Stoics maintain, nor to be restrained, as the
Peripatetics wish, but to be directed into the right way; and
apprehensions are to be taken away, but so that this one only may be
left: for since this is the only lawful and true one, it alone effects
that all other things may not be feared. Desire also is reckoned among
vices; but if it desires those things which are of the earth, it is a
vice; on the other hand, if it desires heavenly things, it is a virtue.
For he who desires to obtain justice, God, perpetual life, everlasting
light, and all those things which God promises to man, will despise
these riches, and honours, and commands, and kingdoms themselves.
The Stoic will perhaps say that inclination is
necessary for the attainment of these things, and not desire; but, in
truth, the inclination is not sufficient. For many have the
inclination; but when pain has approached the vitals, inclination gives
way, but desire perseveres: and if it effects that all things which are
sought by others are objects of contempt to him, it is the greatest
virtue, since it is the mother of self-restraint. And therefore we
ought rather to effect this, that we may rightly direct the affections,
a corrupt use of which is vice. For these excitements of the mind
resemble a harnessed chariot, in the right management of which the
chief duty of the driver is to know the way; and if he shall keep to
this, with whatever swiftness he may go, he will not strike against an
obstacle. But if he shall wander from the course, although he may go
calmly and gently, he will either be shaken over rough places, or will
glide over precipices, or at any rate will be carried where he does not
need to go. So that chariot of life which is led by the affections as
though by swift horses, if it keeps the right way, will discharge its
duty. Dread, therefore, and desire, if they are cast down to the earth,
will become vices, but they will be virtues if they are referred to
divine things. On the other hand, they esteem parsimony as a virtue;
which, if it is eagerness for possessing, cannot be a virtue, because
it is altogether employed in the increase or preservation of earthly
goods. But we do not refer the chief good to the body, but we
measure every duty by the preservation of the soul only. But if,
as I have before taught, we must by no means spare our property that we
may preserve kindness and justice, it is not a virtue to be frugal;
which name beguiles and deceives under the appearance of virtue. For
frugality is, it is true, the abstaining from pleasures; but in this
respect it is a vice, because it arises from the love of possessing,
whereas we ought both to abstain from pleasures, and by no means to
withhold money. For to use money sparingly, that is, moderately, is a
kind of weakness of mind, either of one fearing lest he should be in
want, or of one despairing of being able to recover it, or of one
incapable of the contempt of earthly things. But, on the other hand,
they call him who is not sparing of his property prodigal. For thus
they distinguish between the liberal man and the prodigal: that he is
liberal who bestows on deserving objects, and on proper occasions, and
in sufficient quantities; but that he is prodigal who lavishes on
undeserving objects, and when there is no need, and without any regard
to his property.
What then? shall we call him prodigal who through
pity gives food to the needy? But it makes a great difference, whether
on account of lust you bestow your money on harlots, or on account of
benevolence on the wretched; whether profligates, gamesters, and pimps
squander your money, or you bestow it on piety and God; whether you
expend it upon your own appetite,(1) or lay it up in the treasury of
justice. As, therefore, it is a vice to lay it out badly, so it is a
virtue to lay it out well. If it is a virtue not to be sparing of
riches, which can be replaced, that you may support the life of man,
which cannot be replaced; then parsimony is a vice. Therefore I can
call them by no other name than mad, who deprive man, a mild and
sociable animal, of his name; who, having uprooted the affections, in
which humanity altogether consists, wish to bring him to an immoveable
insensibility of mind, while they desire to free the soul from
perturbations, and, as they themselves say, to render it calm and
tranquil; which is not only impossible, because its force and nature
consist in motion, but it ought not even to be so. For as water which
is always still and motionless is unwholesome and more muddy, so the
soul which is unmoved and torpid is useless even to itself: nor will it
be able to maintain life itself; for it will neither do nor think
anything, since thought itself is nothing less than agitation of the
mind. In fine, they who assert this immoveableness of the soul wish to
deprive the soul of life; for life is full of activity, but death is
quiet. They also rightly esteem some things as virtues, but they do not
maintain their due proportion.(2)
Constancy is a virtue; not that we resist those who
injure us, for we must yield to these; and why this ought to be done I
will show presently: but that when men command us to act in
opposition to the law of God, and in opposition to justice, we should
be deterred by no threats or punishments from preferring the command of
God to the command of man. Likewise
183
it is a virtue to despise death; not that we seek it, and of our own
accord inflict it upon ourselves, as many and distinguished
philosophers have often done, which is a wicked and impious thing; but
that when compelled to desert God, and to betray our faith, we should
prefer to undergo death, and should defend our liberty against the
foolish and senseless violence of those who cannot govern themselves,
and with fortitude of spirit we should challenge all the threats and
terrors of the world. Thus with lofty and invincible mind we trample
upon those things which others fear--pain and death. This is virtue;
this is true constancy--to be maintained and preserved in this one
thing alone, that no terror and no violence may be able to turn us away
from God. Therefore that is a true sentiment of Cicero: "No one," he
says, "can be just who fears death, or pain, or exile, or want." Also
of Seneca, who says, in his books of moral philosophy: "This is that
virtuous man, not distinguished by a diadem or purple, or the
attendance of lictors, but in no respect inferior, who, when he
sees death at hand, is not so disturbed as though he saw a fresh
object; who, whether torments are to be suffered by his whole body, or
a flame is to be seized by his mouth, or his hands are to be stretched
out on the cross,(2) does not inquire what he suffers, but how well."
But he who worships God suffers these things without fear. Therefore he
is just. By these things it is effected, that he cannot know or
maintain at all either the virtues or the exact limits of the virtues,
whoever is estranged from the religion of the one God.
CHAP. XVIII.--OF SOME
COMMANDS OF GOD, AND OF PATIENCE.
But let us leave the philosophers, who either know
nothing at all, and hold forth this very ignorance as the greatest
knowledge; or who, inasmuch as they think they know that of which they
are ignorant, are absurdly and arrogantly foolish. Let us therefore
(that we may return to our purpose), to whom alone the truth has been
revealed by God, and wisdom has been sent from heaven, practise those
things which God who enlightens us commands: let us sustain and endure
the labours of life, by mutual assistance towards each other; nor,
however, if we shall have done any good work, let us aim at glory from
it. For God admonishes us that the doer of justice ought not to
be boastful, lest he a should appear to have discharged the duties of s
benevolence, not so much from a desire of obeying the divine commands,
as of pleasing men, and should already have the reward of glory
which he has aimed at, and should not receive the recompense of that
heavenly and divine reward. The other things which the worshipper of
God ought to observe are easy, when these virtues are comprehended,
that no one should ever speak falsely for the sake of deceiving or
injuring. For it is unlawful for him who cultivates truth to be
deceitful in anything, and to depart from the truth itself which he
follows. In this path of justice and all the virtues there is no place
for falsehood. Therefore the true and just traveller will not use the
saying of Lucilius:(3)--
"It is not for me to speak falsely to a man who is a friend and
acquaintance;"
but he will think that it is not his part to speak falsely even to an
enemy and a stranger; nor will he at any time so act, that his tongue,
which is the interpreter of his mind, should be at variance with his
feeling and thought. If he shall have lent any money, he will not
receive interest, that the benefit may be unimpaired t which
succours necessity, and that he may entirely abstain from the property
of another. For in this kind of duty he ought to be content with
that which is his own; since it is his duty in other respects not to be
sparing of his property, in order that he may do good; but to receive
more than he has given is unjust. And he who does this lies in wait in
some manner, that he may gain booty from the necessity of another.
But the just man will omit no opportunity of doing
anything mercifully: nor will he pollute himself with gain of this
kind; but he will so act that without any loss to himself, that which
he lends may be reckoned among his good works. He must not receive a
gift from a poor man; so that if he himself has afforded anything, it
may be good, inasmuch as it is gratuitous. If any one reviles, he must
answer him with a blessing;(4) he himself must never revile, that no
evil word may proceed out of the mouth of a man who reverences the good
Word.(5) Moreover, he must also diligently take care, lest by any fault
of his he should at any time make an enemy; and if any one should be so
shameless as to inflict injury on a good and just man, he must bear it
with calmness and moderation, and not take upon himself his revenge,
but reserve it for the judgment of God.(6) He must at all times and in
all places guard innocence. And this precept is not limited to this,
that lie should not himself inflict injury, but that lie should not
avenge it when inflicted on himself. For there sits on the
judgment-seat a very great and impartial Judge, the observer and
witness of all. Let him prefer Him to man; let him rather
184
choose that He should pronounce judgment respecting his cause, whose
sentence no one can escape, either by the advocacy of any one or by
favour. Thus it comes to pass, that a just man is an object of contempt
to all; and because it will be thought that he is unable to defend
himself, he will be regarded as slothful and inactive; but if any one
shall have avenged himself upon his enemy, he is judged a man of spirit
and activity--aIl honour and reverence him. And although the good man
has it in his power to profit many, yet they look up to him who is able
to injure, rather than to him who is able to profit. But the depravity
of men will not be able to corrupt the just man, so that he will not
endeavour to obey God; and he would prefer to be despised, provided
that he may always discharge the duty of a good man, and never of a bad
man. Cicero says in those same books respecting Offices: "But if any
one should wish to unravel this indistinct conception of his soul,(1)
let him at once teach himself that he is a good man who profits those
whom he can, and injures no one(2) unless provoked by injury."
Oh how he marred a simple and true sentiment by the
addition of two words! For what need was there of adding these words,
"unless provoked by injury?" that he might append vice as a most
disgraceful tail to a good man and might represent him as without
patience, which is the greatest of all the virtues. He said that a good
man would inflict injuries if he were provoked: now he must necessarily
lose the name of a good man from this very circumstance, if he shall
inflict injury. For it is not less the part of a bad man to return an
injury than to inflict it. For from what source do contests, from what
source do fightings and contentions, arise among men, except that
impatience opposed to injustice often excites great tempests? But if
you meet injustice with patience, than which virtue nothing can be
found more true, nothing more worthy of a man, it will immediately be
extinguished, as though you should pour water upon a fire. But if that
injustice which provokes opposition has met with impatience equal(3) to
itself, as though overspread with oil, it will excite so great a
conflagration, that no stream can extinguish it, but only the shedding
of blood. Great, therefore, is the advantage of patience, of which the
wise man has deprived the good man. For this alone causes that no evil
happens; and if it should be given to all, there will be no wickedness
and no fraud in the affairs of men. What, therefore, can be so
calamitous to a good man, so opposed to his
character, as to let loose the reins to anger, which deprives him
not only of the title of a good man, but even of a man; since to injure
another, as he himself most truly says, is not in accordance with the
nature of man? For if you provoke cattle or horses,(4) they turn
against you either with their hoof or their horn; and serpents and wild
beasts, unless you pursue them that you may kill them, give no trouble.
And to return to examples of men, even the inexperienced and the
foolish, if at any time they receive an injury, are led by a blind and
irrational fury, and endeavour to retaliate upon those who injure them.
In what respect, then, does the wise and good man differ from the evil
and foolish, except that he has invincible patience, of which the
foolish are destitute; except that he knows how to govern himself, and
to mitigate his anger, which those, because they are without virtue,
are unable to curb? But this circumstance manifestly deceived him,
because, when inquiry is made respecting virtue, he thought that it is
the part of virtue to conquer in every kind of contention. Nor was he
able in any way to see, that a man who gives way to grief and anger,
and who indulges these affections, against which he ought rather to
struggle, and who rushes wherever injustice shall have called him, does
not fulfil the duty of virtue. For he who endeavours to return an
injury, desires to imitate that very person by whom he has been
injured. Thus he who imitates a bad man can by no means be good.
Therefore by two words he has taken away from the
good and wise man two of the greatest virtues, innocence and patience.
But, as Sallustius relates was said by Appius, because he himself
practised that canine s eloquence, be wished man also to live after the
manner of a dog, so as, when attacked, to bite in return. And to show
how pernicious this repayment of insult is, and what carnage it is
accustomed to produce, from what can a more befitting example be
sought, than from the most melancholy disaster of the teacher himself,
who, while he desired to obey these precepts of the philosophers,
destroyed himself? For if, when attacked with injury, he had preserved
patience--if he had learned that it is the part of a good man to
dissemble and to endure insult, and his impatience, vanity, and madness
had not poured forth those noble orations, inscribed with a name
derived from another source,(6) he would never, by his head affixed to
them, have polluted the rostra on which he had formerly distinguished
himself, nor would that proscription have utterly destroyed
185
the state. Therefore it is not the part of a wise and good man to wish
to contend, and to commit himself to danger, since to conquer is not in
our power, and every contest is doubtful; but it is the part of a wise
and excellent man not to wish to remove his adversary, which cannot be
done without guilt and danger, but to put an end to the contest itself,
which may be done with advantage and with justice. Therefore patience
is to be regarded as a very great virtue; and that the just man might
obtain this, God willed, as has been before said, that he should be
despised as sluggish. For unless he shall have been insulted, it will
not be known what fortitude he has in restraining himself. Now if, when
provoked by injury, he has begun to follow up his assailant with
violence, he is overcome. But if he shall have repressed that emotion
by reasoning, he altogether has command over himself: he is able to
rule himself. And this restraining(1) of oneself is rightly named
patience, which single virtue is opposed to all vices and affections.
This recalls the disturbed and wavering mind to its tranquillity; this
mitigates, this restores a man to himself. Therefore, since it is
impossible and useless to resist nature, so that we are not excited at
all; before, however, the emotion bursts forth to the infliction of
injury, as far(2) as is possible let it be calmed(3) in time. God has
enjoined us not to let the sun go down upon our wrath,(4) lest he
should depart as a witness of our madness. Finally, Marcus Tullius, in
opposition to his own precept, concerning which I have lately spoken,
gave the greatest praises to the forgetting of injuries. "I entertain
hopes," he says, "O Caesar, who art accustomed to forget nothing except
injuries."(5) But if he thus acted--a man most widely removed not only
front heavenly, but also from public and civil justice--how much more
ought we to do this, who are, as it were, candidates for immortality?
CHAP. XIX.--OF THE AFFECTIONS AND THEIR USE; AND OF THE THREE
FURIES.
When the Stoics attempt to uproot the affections
from man as diseases, they are opposed by the Peripatetics, who not
only retain, but also defend them, and say that there is nothing in man
which is not produced in him with great reason and foresight. They say
this indeed rightly, if they know the true limits of each
subject. Accordingly they say that this very affection of anger is the
whetstone of virtue, as though no one could fight bravely against
enemies unless he were excited by anger; by which they plainly show
that they neither know what virtue is, nor why God gave anger to
man. And if this was given to us for this purpose, that we may employ
it for the slaying of men, what is to be thought more savage than man,
what more resembling the wild beasts, than that animal which God formed
for communion and innocence? There are, then, three affections which
drive men headlong to all crimes:(1) anger,(2) desire, and (3) lust.(6)
On which account the poets have said that there are three furies which
harass the minds of men: anger longs for revenge, desire for riches,
lust for pleasures. But God has appointed fixed limits to all of these;
and if they pass these limits and begin to be too great, they must
necessarily pervert their nature, and be changed into diseases and
vices. And it is a matter of no great labour to show what these limits
are.(7) Cupidity(8) is given us for providing those things which are
necessary for life; con-cupiscence,(9) for the procreation of
offspring; the affection of indignation,(10) for restraining the faults
of those who are in our power, that is, in order that tender age may be
formed by a severer discipline to integrity and justice: for if this
time of life is not restrained by fear,(11) licence will produce
boldness, and this will break out into every disgraceful and
daring action. Therefore, as it is both just and necessary to employ
anger towards the young, so it is both pernicious and impious to use it
towards those of our own age. It is impious, because humanity is
injured; pernicious, because if they oppose, it is necessary either to
destroy them or to perish. But that this which I have spoken of is the
reason why the affection of anger has been given to man, may be
understood from the precepts of God Himself, who commands that we
should not be angry with those who revile and injure us, but that
we should always have our hands over the young; that is, that when they
err, we should correct them with continual stripes,(12) lest by useless
love and excessive indulgence they should be trained to evil and
nourished to vices. But those who are inexperienced in affairs
and ignorant of reason, have expelled those affections which have been
given to man for good uses, and they wander more widely than reason de-
186
mands. From this cause they live unjustly and impiously. They employ
anger against their equals in age: hence disagreements, hence
banishments, hence wars have arisen contrary to justice. They use
desire for the amassing of riches: hence frauds, hence robberies, hence
all kinds of crimes have originated. They use lust only for the
enjoyment of pleasures: hence debaucheries, hence adulteries, hence all
corruptions have proceeded. Whoever, therefore, has reduced those
affections within their proper limits, which they who are ignorant of
God cannot do, he is patient, he is brave, he is just.(1)
CHAP. XX.--OFTHE SENSES, AND THEIR PLEASURES IN THEBRUTES AND IN MAN;
AND OF PLEASURES OFTHE EYES, AND SPECTACLES.
It remains that I should speak against the pleasures
of the five senses, and this briefly, for the measure of the book
itself now demands moderation; all of which, since they are vicious and
deadly, ought to be overcome and subdued by virtue, or, as I said a
little before respecting the affections, be recalled to their proper
office. The other animals have no pleasure, except the one only which
relates to generation. Therefore they use their senses for the
necessity of their nature: they see, in order that they may seek those
things which are necessary for the preservation of life; they hear one
another, and distinguish one another, that they may be able to assemble
together; they either discover from the smell, or perceive from the
taste, the things which are useful for food; they refuse and reject the
things which are useless, they measure the business of eating and
drinking by the fulness of their stomach. But the foresight of the most
skilful Creator gave to man pleasure without limit, and liable to
fall into vice, because He set before him virtue, which might always be
at variance with pleasure, as with a domestic enemy. Cicero says,
in the Cato Major:(2) "In truth, debaucheries, and adulteries, and
disgraceful actions are excited by no other enticements than those of
pleasure. And since nature or some God has given to man nothing more
excellent than the mind, nothing is so hostile to this divine benefit
and gift as pleasure. For when lust bears sway there is no place for
temperance, nor can virtue have any existence when pleasure reigns
supreme." But, on the other hand, God gave virtue on this
account, that it might subdue and conquer pleasure, and that,
when it passed the boundaries assigned to it, it might restrain
it within the prescribed limits, lest it should soothe
and captivate man with enjoyments, render him subject to its control,
and punish him with everlasting death.
The pleasure arising from the eyes is various and
manifold, which is derived from the sight of objects which are pleasant
in intercourse with men, or in nature or workmanship. The philosophers
rightly took this away. For they say that it is much more excellent and
worthy of man to look upon the heaven(3) rather than carved works, and
to admire this most beautiful work adorned with the lights of the stars
shining through,(4) as with flowers, than to admire things painted and
moulded, and varied with jewels. But when they have eloquently exhorted
us to despise earthly things, and have urged us to look up to the
heaven, nevertheless they do not despise these public spectacles.
Therefore they are both delighted with these, and are gladly present at
them; though, since they are the greatest incitement to vices, and have
a most powerful tendency to corrupt our minds, they ought to be
taken away from us; for they not only contribute in no respect to a
happy life, but even inflict the greatest injury. For he who reckons it
a pleasure, that a man, though justly condemned, should be slain in his
sight, pollutes his conscience as much as if he should become a
spectator and a sharer of a homicide which is secretly committed.(5)
And yet they call these sports in which human blood is shed. So far has
the feeling of humanity departed from the men, that when they destroy
the lives of men, they think that they are amusing themselves with
sport, being more guilty than all those whose blood-shedding they
esteem a pleasure. I ask now whether they can be just and pious men,
who, when they see men placed under the stroke of death, and
entreating mercy, not only suffer them to be put to death, but also
demand it, and give cruel and inhuman votes for their death, not being
satiated with wounds nor contented with bloodshed. Moreover, they order
them, even though wounded and prostrate, to be attacked again, and
their caresses to he wasted(6) with blows, that no one may delude them
by a pretended death. They are even angry with the combatants, unless
one of the two is quickly slain; and as though they thirsted for human
blood, they hate delays. They demand that other and fresh combatants
should be given to them, that they may satisfy their eyes
187
as soon as possible. Being imbued with this practice, they have lost
their humanity. Therefore they do not spare even the innocent, but
practise upon all that which they have learned in the slaughter of the
wicked. It is not therefore befitting that those who strive to keep to
the path of justice should be companions and sharers in this public
homicide. For when God forbids us to kill, He not only prohibits us
from open violence,(1) which is not even allowed by the public laws,
but He warns us against the commission of those things which are
esteemed lawful among men. Thus it will be neither lawful for a just
man to engage in warfare, since his warfare is justice itself, nor to
accuse any one of a capital charge, because it makes no difference
whether you put a man to death by word, or rather by the sword, since
it is the act of putting to death itself(2) which is prohibited.
Therefore, with regard to this precept of God, there ought to be no
exception at all but that it is always unlawful to put to death a man,
whom God willed to be a sacred animal.(3)
Therefore let no one imagine that even this is
allowed, to strangle(4) newly-born children, which is the greatest
impiety; for God breathes into their souls for life, and not for death.
But men, that there may be no crime with which they may not pollute
their hands, deprive souls as yet innocent and simple of the light
which they themselves have not given. Can any one, indeed, expect that
they would abstain from the blood of others who do not abstain even
from their own? But these are without any controversy wicked and
unjust. What are they whom a false piety(5) compels to expose their
children? Can they be considered innocent who expose their own
offspring(6) as a prey to dogs, and as far as it depends upon
themselves, kill them in a more cruel manner than if they had strangled
them? Who can doubt that he is impious who gives occasion(7) for the
pity of others? For, although that which he has wished should befall
the child--namely, that it should be brought up--he has certainly
consigned his own offspring either to servitude or to the brothel? But
who does not understand, who is ignorant what things may happen, or are
accustomed to happen, in the case of each sex,
even through error? For this is shown by the example of OEdipus alone,
confused with twofold guilt. It is therefore as wicked to expose as it
is to kill. But truly parricides complain of the scantiness of their
means, and allege that they have not enough for bringing up more
children; as though, in truth, their means were in the power of those
who possess them, or God did not daily make the rich poor, and the poor
rich. Wherefore, if any one on account of poverty shall be unable to
bring up children, it is better to abstain from marriage s than with
wicked hands to mar the work of God.
If, then, it is in no way permitted to commit
homicide, it is not allowed us to be present at all,(9) lest any
bloodshed should overspread the conscience, since that blood is offered
for the gratification of the people. And I am inclined to think that
the corrupting influence of the stage is still more contaminating.(10)
For the subject of comedies are the dishonouring of virgins, or the
loves of harlots; and the more eloquent they are who have composed the
accounts of these disgraceful actions, the more do they persuade by the
elegance of their sentiments; and harmonious and polished verses more
readily remain fixed in the memory of the hearers. In like manner, the
stories of the tragedians place before the eyes the parricides and
incests of wicked kings, and represent tragic(11) crimes. And what
other effect do the immodest gestures of the players produce, but both
teach and excite lusts? whose enervated bodies, rendered effeminate
after the gait and dress of women, imitate(12) unchaste women by their
disgraceful gestures. Why should I speak of the actors of mimes,(13)
who hold forth instruction in corrupting influences, who teach
adulteries while they feign them, and by pretended actions train to
those which are true? What can young men or virgins do, when they see
that these things are practised without shame, and willingly beheld by
all? They are plainly admonished of what they can do, and are inflamed
with lust, which is especially excited by seeing; and every one
according to his sex forms(14) himself in these representations. And
they approve of these things, while they laugh at them, and with vices
clinging to them, they return more corrupted to their apartments; and
not boys only, who ought not to be inured to vices prematurely, but
also old men, whom it does not become at their age to sin.
188
What else does the practice of the Circensian games
contain but levity, vanity, and madness? For their souls are hurried
away to mad excitement with as great impetuosity as that with which the
chariot races are there carried on; so that they who come for the sake
of beholding the spectacle now themselves exhibit more of a spectacle,
when they begin to utter exclamations, to be thrown into
transports, and to leap from their seats. Therefore all
spectacles ought to be avoided, not only that no vice may settle
in our breasts, which ought to be tranquil and peaceful;
but that the habitual indulgence of any pleasure may not soothe and
captivate us, and turn us aside from God and from good works.(1) For
the celebrations of the games are festivals in honour of the
gods, inasmuch as they were instituted on account of their
birthdays, or the dedication of new temples. And at first the huntings,
which are called shows, were in honour of Saturnus, and the scenic
games in honour of Liber, but the Circensian in honour of Neptune. By
degrees, however, the same honour began to be paid also to the other
gods, and separate games were dedicated to their names, as Sisinnius
Capita teaches in his book on the games. Therefore, if any one is
present at the spectacles to which men assemble for the sake of
religion, he has departed from the worship of God, and has be-taken
himself to those deities whose birthdays and festivals he has
celebrated.(2)
CHAP. XXI.--OF THE PLEASURES OF THE EARS, AND OF SACRED
LITERATURE.
Pleasure of the ears is received from the sweetness
of voices and strains, which indeed is as productive of vice as that
delight of the eyes of which we have spoken. For who would not deem him
luxurious anti worthless who should have scenic arts at his house? But
it makes no difference whether you practise luxury alone at home, or
with the people in the theatre. But we have already spoken of
spectacles:(3) there remains one thing which is to be overcome by us,
that we be not captivated by those things which penetrate to the
innermost perception. For all those things which are unconnected with
words, that is, pleasant sounds of the air and of strings, may be
easily disregarded, because they do not adhere to its, and cannot be
written. But a well-composed poem, and a speech be-guiling with its
sweetness, captivate the minds of men, and impel them in what direction
they please. Hence, when learned men have applied themselves to the
religion of God, unless they have been instructed by some skilful
teacher,
they do not believe. For, being accustomed to sweet and polished
speeches or poems, they de spise the simple and common language of
the sacred writings as mean. For they seek that t which may
soothe the senses. But whatever is e pleasant to the ear effects
persuasion, and while it delights fixes itself deeply within the
breast. Is God, therefore, the contriver both of the mind, and of the
voice, and of the tongue, unable to speak eloquently? Yea, rather, with
the greatest foresight, He wished those things which are divine to be
without adornment, that all might understand the things which He
Himself spoke to all.
Therefore he who is anxious for the truth, who does
not wish to deceive himself, must lay aside hurtful and injurious
pleasures, which would bind the mind to themselves, as pleasant food
does the body: true things must be preferred to false, eternal things
to those which are of short duration, useful things to those which are
pleasant. Let nothing be pleasing to the sight but that which you see
to be done with piety and justice; let nothing be agreeable to the
hearing but that which nourishes the soul and makes you a better
man. And especially this sense ought not to be distorted to vice, since
it is given to us for this pur pose, that we might gain the knowledge
of God. Therefore, if it be a pleasure to hear melodies and songs, let
it be pleasant to sing and hear the praises of God. This is true
pleasure, which is the attendant and companion of virtue. This is not
frail and brief, as those which they desire, who, like cattle, are
slaves to the body; but lasting, and affording delight without any
intermission. And if any one shall pass its limits, and shall seek
nothing else from pleasure but pleasure itself, he designs for himself
death; for as there is perpetual life in virtue, so there is death in
pleasure. For he who shall choose temporal things will be without
things eternal; he who shall prefer earthly things will not have
heavenly things.
CHAP. XXII.--OF THE PLEASURES OF TASTE AND SMELL.
But with regard to the pleasures of taste and smell,
which two senses relate only to the body, there is nothing to be
discussed by us; unless by chance any one requires us to say that it is
dis graceful to a wise and good man if he is the slave of his
appetite, if he walks along besmeared with unguents and crowned
with flowers: and he who does these things is plainly foolish and
senseless, and is worthless, and one whom not even a notion of virtue
has reached. Perhaps some one will say, Why, then, have these things
been made, except that we may enjoy them? However, it has often been
said that there would have been no virtue unless it had things
which it
189
might overpower. Therefore God made all things to supply a contest
between two things. Those enticements of pleasures, then, are the
instruments of that whose only business it is to subdue virtue, and to
shut out justice from men. With these soothing influences and
enjoyments it captivates their souls; for it knows that pleasure is the
contriver of death. For as God calls man to life only through virtue
and labour, so the other calls us to death by delights and pleasures;
and as men arrive at real good through deceitful evils, so they arrive
at real evil through deceitful goods. Therefore those enjoyments are to
be guarded against, as snares or nets, lest, captivated by the
softness of enjoyments, we should be brought under the dominion
of death with the body itself, to which we have enslaved ourselves.
CHAP. XXIII.(1)--DE TACTUS VOLUPTATE ET LIBIDINE, ATQUE DE MATRIMONIO
ET CONTINENTIA.
Venio nunc ad eam, quae percipitur ex tactu,
voluptatem: qui sensus est quidem totius corporis. Sed ego non de
ornamentis, aut vestibus, sed de sola libidine dicendum mihi puto; qum
maxime coercenda est, quia maxime nocet. Cure excogitasset Deus duorum
sexuum rationero, attribuit iis, ut se invicem appeterent, et
conjunctione gauderent. Itaque ardentissimam cupiditatem cunctorum
animantium corporibus admiscuit, ut in hos affectus avidissime ruerent,
eaque ratione propagari et multiplicari genera possent. Quae cupiditas
et appetentia in homine vehementior et acrior invenitur; vel quia
hominum multitudinem voluit esse majorem, vel quoniam virtutem soli
homini dedit, ut esset laus et gloria in coercendis voluptatibus, et
abstinentia sui. Seit ergo adversarius ille noster, quanta sit vis
hujus cupiditatis, quam quidam necessitatem dicere maluerunt; eamque a
recto et bono, ad malum et pravum transfert. Illicita enim desideria
immittit, ut aliena contaminent, quibus habere propria sine delicto
licet. Objicit quippe oculis irritabiles formas, suggeritque fomenta,
et vitiis pabulum subministrat: tum intimis visceribus stimulos omnes
conturbat et commovet, et naturalem illum incitat atque inflammat
ardorem, donee irretitum hominem implicatumque decipiat. Ac ne quis
esset, qui poenarum metu abstineret alieno, lupanaria quoque
constituit; et pudorem infelicium mulierum publicavit, ut ludibrio
haberet tam eos qui faciunt, quam quas pati necesse est.
His obscoenitatibus animas, ad sanctitatem genitas,
velut in coeni gurgite demersit, pudorem extinxit, pudicitiam
profligavit. Idem etiam mares maribus admiscuit; et nefandos coitus
contra naturam contraque institutum Dei machinatus est: sic imbuit
homines, et armavit ad nefas omne. Quid enim potest esse sanctum iis,
qui aetatem imbecillam et praesidio indigentem, libidini suae
depopulandam foedandamque substraverint? Non potest haec res pro
magnitudine sceleris enarrari. Nihil amplius istos appellare possum,
quam implos et parricidas, quibus non sufficit sexus a Deo datus, nisi
eliare suum profane ac petulanter illudant. Haec tamen apud illos
levia, et quasi honesta sunt. Quid dicam de iis, qui abominandam non
libidinem, sod insaniam potius exercent! Piget dicere: sed quid his
fore credamus, quos non piget facere? et tamen dicendum est, quia fit.
De istis loquor, quorum teterrima libido et execrabilis furor ne capiti
quidem parcit. Quibus hoc verbis, aut qua indignatione tantum nefas
prosequar? Vincit officium linguae sceleris magnitudo. Cum igitur
libido haec edat opera, et haec facinora designer, armandi adversus
earn virtute maxima sumus. Quisquis affectus illos fraenare non potest,
cohibeat eos intra praescriptum legitimi tori, ut et illud, quod avide
expetat, consequatur, et tamen in peccatum non incidat. Nam quid sibi
homines perditi volunt? Nempe honesta opera voluptas sequitur: si ipsam
per se appetunt, justa et legitima frui licet.
Quod si aliqua necessitas prohibebit tum vero maxima
adhibenda virtus erit, ut cupiditati continentia reluctetur. Nec
tanturn alienis, quae attingere non licet, veriun etiam publicis
vulgatisque corporibus abstinendum, Deus praecepit; docetque nos, cum
duo inter se corpora fuerint copulata, unum corpus efficere. Ita qui se
coeno immerserit, coeno sit oblitus necesse est; et corpus quidem cito
ablui potest: mens autem contagione impudici corporis inquinata non
potest, nisi et longo tempore, et multis bonis operibus, ab ea quae
inhaeserit colluvione purgari. Oportet ergo sibi quemque proponere,
duorum sexuum conjunctionem generandi causa datam esse viventibus,
eamque legera his affectibus positam, ut successionera parent. Sicut
autem dedit nobis oculos Deus, non ut spectemus, voluptatemque
capiamus, sed ut videamus propter eos actus, qui pertinent ad vitae
necessitatem, ita genitalem corporis partem, quod nomen ipsum docet,
nulla alia causa nisi efficiendae sobolis accepimus. Huic divinae legi
summa devotione parendum est. Sint omnes, qui se discipulos Dei
profitebuntur, ita morati et instituti, ut imperare sibi possint. Nam
qui voluptatibus indulgent, qui libidini obsequuntur, ii animam suam
corpori mancipant, ad mortemque condemnant: quia se corpori addixerunt,
in quod habet mors potestatem. Unusquisque igitur, quantum potest,
formet se ad verecundiam, pudorem colat, castitatem conscientia et
mente tueatur; nec tantum legibus publicis pareat: sed sit supra omnes
leges, qui legem Dei sequitur. Quibus
190
bonis si assueverit, jam pudebit eum ad deteriora desciscere: modo
placeant recta et honesta, quae melioribus jucundiora sunt quam prava
et inhonesta pejoribus.
Nondum omnia castitatis officio exsecutus sum: quam
Deus fion modo intra privatos parietes, sed etiam praescripto lectuli
terminat; ut cum quis hobeat uxorem, neque servam, neque liberam habere
insuper velit, sed matrimonio fidem server. Non enim, sicut juris
publici ratio est, solo mulier adultera est, quae habet allure, maritus
outem, etiam si plures habeat, a crimine adulterii solutus est. Sed
divina lex ira duos in matrimonium, quod est in corpus unum, pari jure
conjungit, ut adulter habeatur, quisquis compagem corporis in diversa
distraxerit. Nec ob aliam cansam Deus, cam caeteras animantes suscepto
foetu maribus repugnare voluisset, solam omnium mulierem patientem viri
fecit; scilicet ne foeminis repugnantibus, libido cogeret viros aliud
appetere, eoque facto, castitatis gloriam non tenerent.(1) Sed neque
mulier virtutem pudicitiae caperet, si peccare non posset. Nam quis
mutum animal pudicum esse dixerit, quod suscepto foetu mari repugnat?
Quod ideo facit, quia necesse est in dolorem atque in periculum veniat,
si admiserit. Nulla igitur Iaus est, non facere quod facere non possis.
Ideo autem pudicitia in homine laudatur, quia non naturalis est, sed
voluntaria. Servanda igitur fides ab utroque alteri est: immo exemplo
continentia: docenda uxor, ut se caste gerat. Iniquum est enim, ut id
exigas, quod praestare ipse non possis. Quae iniquitas effecit
profecto, ut essent adulteria, foeminis aegre ferentibus praestare se
fidem non exhibentibus mutuam charitatem. Denique nulla est tam perditi
pudoris adultera, quae non hanc causam vitiis suis praetendat; injuriam
se peccando non facere, sed referre. Quod optime Quintilianus
expressit: Homo, inquit, neque alieni matrimonii abstinens, neque sui
custos, quae inter se natura. connexa sunt. Nam neque maritus circa
corrumpendas aliorum conjuges occupatus potest vacare domesticae
sanctitati; et uxor, cum in tale incidit matrimonium, exemplo ipso
concitara, out imitari se putat, out vindicari.
Cavendum igitur, ne occasionem vitiis nostra
intemperantia demus: sed assuescant invicem mores duorum, et jugum
paribus animis ferant. Nos ipsos in altero cogitemus. Nam fere in hoc
justitiae summa consistit, ut non facias alteri, quidquid ipse ab
altero pati nolis. Haec sunt quae ad continentiam praecipiuntur a Deo.
Sed tamen ne quis divina praecepta circumscribere se putet posse,
adduntur ilia, ut omnis calumnia, et occasio fraudis removeatur,
adulterum esse, qui a marito dimissam duxerit, et eum qui praeter
crimen adulterii uxorem dimiserit, ut alteram ducat; dissociari enim
corpus et distrahi Deus noluit. Praeterea non tanturn adulterium esse
vitandum, sed etiam cogitationem; ne quis aspiciat alienam, et animo
concupiscat: adulteram enim fieri mentem, si vel imaginem voluptatis
sibi ipsa depinxerit. Mens est enim profecto quae peccat; quae
immoderata: libidinis fructum cogitatione complectitur; in hac crimen
est, in hac omne delictum. Nam etsi corpus nulla sit lobe maculatum,
non constat tamen pudicitiae ratio, si animus incestus est; nec
illibata castitas videri potest, ubi conscientiam cupiditas inquinavit.
Nec verb aliquis existimet, difficile esse fraenos imponere voluptati,
eamque vagam et errantem castitatis pudicitiaeque limitibus includere,
cum propositum sit hominibus etiam vincere, ac plurimi beatam atque
incorruptam corporis integritatem retinuerint, multique sint, qui hoc
coelesti genere vitae felicissime perfruantur. Quod quidem Deus non ira
fieri praecepit, tanquam astringat, quia generari homines oportet; sed
tanquam sinat. Scit enim, quantam his affectibus imposuerit
necessitatem. Si quis hoc, inquit, facere potuerit, habebit eximiam
incomparabilemque mercedem. Quod continentiae genus quasi fastigium
est, omniumque consummatio virtutum. Ad quam si quis eniti atque
eluctari potuerit, hunc servum dominus, hunc discipulum magister
agnoscet; hic terrain triumphabit, hic erit consimilis Deo, qui
virtutem Dei cepit. Haec quidem difficilia videntur; sed de eo
loquimur, cui calcatis omnibus terrenis, iter in coelum paratur. Nam
quia virtus in Dei agnitione consistit, omnia gravia sunt, dum ignores;
ubi cognoveris, facilia: per ipsas difficultates nobis exeundum est,
qui ad summum bonum tendimus.
CHAP. XXIV.--OF REPENTANCE, OF PARDON, AND
THE COMMANDS OF GOD.
Nor, however, let any one be disheartened, or
despair concerning himself, if, overcome by passion, or impelled by
desire, or deceived by error, or compelled by force, he has turned
aside to the way of unrighteousness. For it is possible for him to be
brought back, and to be set free, if he repents of his actions, and,
turning to better things, makes satisfaction to God. Cicero, indeed.
thought that this was impossible, whose words in the third book of the
Academics(2) are: "But if, as in the case of those who have gone astray
on a journey, it were permitted those who have followed a devious
course to correct their error by repentance, it would be more easy to
amend rashness." It is altogether permitted them. For if we think that
our children are
191
corrected when we perceive that they repent of their faults, and though
we have disinherited and cast them off, we again receive, cherish, and
embrace them, why should we despair that the mercy of God our Father
may again be appeased by repentance? Therefore He who is at once tile
Lord and most indulgent Parent promises that He will remit the sins of
the penitent, and that He will blot out all the iniquities of him who
shall begin afresh to practise righteousness. For as the uprightness of
his past life is of no avail to him who lives badly, because the
subsequent wickedness has destroyed his works of righteousness, so
former sins do not stand in the way of him who has amended his life,
because the subsequent righteousness has effaced the stain of his
former life. For he who repents of that which he has done, understands
his former error; and on this account the Greeks better and more
significantly speak of metanoia,(1) which we may speak of in Latin ass
return to a right understanding.(2) For he returns to a right
understanding, and recovers his mind as it were from madness, who is
grieved for his error; and he reproves himself of madness, and confirms
his mind to a better course of life: then he especially guards against
this very thing, that he may not again be led into the same snares. In
short, even the dumb animals, when they are ensnared by fraud, if by
any means they have extricated themselves so as to escape, become more
cautious for the future, and always avoid all those things in which
they have perceived wiles and snares. Thus repentance makes a man
cautious and diligent to avoid the faults into which he has once fallen
through deceit.
For no one can be so prudent and so circumspect as
not at some time to slip; and therefore God, knowing our weakness, of
His compassion(3) has opened a harbour of refuge for man, that the
medicine of repentance might aid this necessity to which our frailty is
liable.(4) Therefore, if any one has erred, let him retrace his step,
and as soon as possible recover and reform himself.
"But
upward to retrace the way,
And pass into the light of day,
Then comes the stress of labour."(5)
For when men have tasted sweet pleasures to their destruction,(6) they
can scarcely be separated from them: they would more easily follow
right things if they had not tasted their attractions. But if they tear
themselves away from this pernicious slavery, all their error will be
forgiven them, if they shall have corrected their error by a better
life. And let not any one imagine that he is a gainer if he shall have
no witness of his fault: for all things are known to Him in whose sight
we live; and if we are able to conceal anything from all men, we cannot
conceal it from God, to whom nothing can be hidden, nothing secret.
Seneca closed his exhortations with an admirable sentiment: "There is,"
he says," some great deity, and greater than can be imagined; and for
him we endeavour to live. Let us approve ourselves to him. For it is of
no avail that conscience is confirmed; we lie open to the sight of
God." What can be spoken with greater truth by him who knew God, than
has been said by a man who is ignorant of true religion? For he both
expressed the majesty of God, by saying that it is too great for the
reflecting powers of the human mind to receive; and he touched upon the
very fountain of truth, by perceiving that the life of men is not
superfluous,(7) as the Epicureans will have it, but that they make it
their endeavour to live to God, if indeed they live with justice and
piety. He might have been a true worshipper of God, if any one had
pointed out to him God;(8) and he might assuredly have despised Zeno,
and his teacher Sotion, if he had obtained a true guide of wisdom. Let
us approve ourselves to him, he says. A speech truly heavenly, had it
not been preceded by a confession of ignorance. It is of no avail that
conscience is confined; we lie open to the sight of God. There is then
no room for falsehood, none for dissimulation; for the eyes of men are
removed by walls, but the divine power of God cannot be removed by the
inward parts from looking through and knowing the entire man. The same
writer says, in the first book of the same work: "What are you doing?
what are you contriving? what are you hiding? Your guardian follows
you; one is withdrawn from you by foreign travel, another by death,
another by infirm health; this one adheres to you, and you can never be
without him. Why do you choose a secret place, and remove the witness?
Suppose that yon have succeeded in escaping the notice of all, foolish
man! What does it profit you not to have a witness,(9) if you have the
witness of your own conscience?
And Tully speaks in a manner no less remarkable
concerning conscience and God: "Let him
192
remember," he says, "that he has God as a witness, that is, as I judge,
his own mind, than which God has given nothing more divine to man."(1)
Likewise, in speaking of the just and good man, he says: "Therefore
such a man will not dare not merely to do, but even to think, anything
which he would not dare to proclaim." Therefore let us cleanse our
conscience, which is open to the eyes of God; and, as the same writer
says, "let us always so live as to remember that we shall have to give
an account;"(2) and let us reckon that we are looked upon at every
moment, not, as he said, in some theatre of the world by men, but from
above by Him who is about to be both the judge and also the witness, to
whom, when He demands an account of our life, it will not be permitted
any one to deny his actions. Therefore it is better either to flee from
conscience, or ourselves to open our mind of our own accord, and
tearing open our wounds to pour forth destruction; which wounds no one
else can heat but He alone who made the lame to walk, restored sight to
the blind, cleansed the polluted limbs, and raised the dead. He will
quench the ardour of desires, He will root out lusts, He will remove
envy, He will mitigate anger. He will give true and lasting health.
This remedy should be sought by all, inasmuch as the soul is harassed
by greater danger than the body, and a cure should be applied as soon
as possible to secret diseases. For if any one has his eyesight clear,
all his limbs perfect, and his entire body in the most vigorous health,
nevertheless I should not call him sound if he is carried away by
anger, swollen and puffed up with pride, the slave of lust, and burning
with desires; but I should rather call him sound who does not raise his
eyes to the prosperity of another, who does not admire riches, who
looks upon another's wife with chaste eye, who covets nothing at all,
does not desire that which is another's, envies no one, disdains no
one; who is lowly, merciful, bountiful, mild, courteous: peace
perpetually dwells in his mind.
That man is sound, he is just, he is perfect.
Whoever, therefore, has obeyed all these heavenly precepts, he is a
worshipper of the true God, whose sacrifices are gentleness of spirit,
and an innocent life, and good actions. And he who exhibits all these
qualities offers a sacrifice as often as he performs any good and pious
action. For God does not desire the sacrifice of a dumb animal, nor of
death and blood, but of man and life. And to this sacrifice there is
neither need of sacred boughs, nor of purifications,(3) nor of sods of
turf, which things are plainly most vain, but of those things which are
put forth from the innermost breast. Therefore, upon the altar of God,
which is truly very great,(4) and which is placed in the heart of man,
and cannot be defiled with blood, there is placed righteousness,
patience, faith, innocence, chastity, and abstinence. This is the
truest ceremony, this is that law of God, as it is called by Cicero,
illustrious and divine, which always commands things which are right
and honourable, and forbids things which are wrong and disgraceful; and
he who obeys this most holy and certain law cannot fail to live justly
and lawfully. And I have laid down a few chief points of this law,
since I promised that I would speak only of those: things which
completed the character(5) of virtue and righteousness. If any one
shall wish to comprise all the other parts, let him seek them from the
fountain itself, from which that stream flowed to us.
CHAP. XXV.--OF SACRIFICE, AND OF AN OFFERING WORTHY OF GOD, AND OF THE
FORM OF PRAISING GOD.
Now let us speak briefly concerning sacrifice
itself. "Ivory," says Plato, "is not a pure offering to God." What
then? Are embroidered and costly textures? Nay, rather nothing is a
pure offering to God which can be corrupted or taken away secretly. But
as he saw this, that nothing which was taken from a dead body ought to
be offered to a living being, why did he not see that a corporeal
offering ought not to be presented to an incorporeal being? How much
better and more truly does Seneca speak: "Will you think of God as
great and placid, and a friend to be reverenced with gentle majesty,
and always at hand? not to be worshipped with the immolation of victims
and with much blood--for what pleasure arises from the slaughter of
innocent animals?--but with a pure mind and with a good and honourable
purpose. Temples are not to be built to Him with stones piled up on
high; He is to be consecrated by each man in his own breast."
Therefore, if any one thinks that garments, and jewels, and other
things which are esteemed precious, are valued by God, he is altogether
ignorant of what God is, since he thinks that those things are pleasing
to Him which even a man would be justly praised for despising. What,
then, is pure, what is worthy of God, but that which He Himself has
demanded in that divine law of His?
There are two things which ought to be offered, the
gift(6) and the sacrifice; the gift as a per-
193
petual offering, the sacrifice for a time. But with those who by no
means understand the nature of the Divine Being, a gift is anything
which is wrought of gold or silver; likewise anything which is woven of
purple and silk: a sacrifice is a victim, and as many things as are
burnt upon the altar. But God does not make use either of the one or
the other, because He is free from corruption, and that is altogether
corruptible. Therefore, in each case, that which is incorporeal must be
offered to God, for He accepts this. His offering is innocency of soul;
His sacrifice praise and a hymn.(1) For if God is not seen, He ought
therefore to be worshipped with things which are not seen. Therefore no
other religion is true but that which consists of virtue and justice.
But in what manner God deals with the justice of man is easily
understood. For if man shall be just, having received immortality, he
will serve God for ever. But that men are not born except for justice,
both the ancient philosophers and even Cicero suspects. For, discussing
the Laws,(2) he says: "But of all things which are discussed by learned
men, nothing assuredly is of greater importance than that it should be
entirely understood that we are born to justice." We ought therefore to
hold forth I and offer to God that alone for the receiving of which He
Himself produced us. But how true this twofold kind of sacrifice is,
Trismegistus Hermes is a befitting witness, who agrees with us, that
is, with the prophets, whom we follow, as much in fact as in words. He
thus spoke concerning justice: "Adore and worship this word, O son."
But the worship of God consists of one thing, not to be wicked. Also in
that perfect discourse, when he heard Asclepius inquiring from his son
whether it pleased him that incense and other odours for divine
sacrifice: were offered to his father, exclaimed: "Speak words of good
omen, O Asclepius. For it is the greatest impiety to entertain any such
thought concerning that being of pre-eminent goodness. For these
things, and things resembling these, are not adapted to Him. For He is
full of all things, as many as exist, and He has need of nothing at
all. But let us give Him thanks, and adore Him. For His sacrifice
consists only of blessing." And he spoke rightly.(3)
For we ought to sacrifice to God in word; inasmuch
as God is the Word, as He Himself confessed. Therefore the chief
ceremonial in the worship of God is praise from the mouth of a just man
directed towards God.(3) That this, however, may be accepted by God,
there is need of humility, and fear, and devotion in the greatest
degree, lest any one should chance to place confidence in his integrity
and innocence, and thus incur the charge of pride and arrogance, and by
this deed lose the recompense of his virtue. But that he may obtain the
favour of God, and be free from every stain, let him always implore the
mercy of God, and pray for nothing else but pardon for his sins, even
though he has none.(4) If he desires anything else, there is no need of
expressing it in word to one who knows what we wish; if anything good
shall happen to him, let him give thanks; if any evil, let him make
amends,(5) and let him confess that the evil has happened to him on
account of his faults; and even in evils let him nothing less give
thanks, and make amends in good things, that he may be the same at all
times, and be firm, and unchangeable, and unshaken. And let him not
suppose that this is to be done by him only in the temple, but at home,
and even in his very bed. In short, let him always have God with
himself, consecrated in his heart, inasmuch as he himself is a temple
of God. But if he has served God, his Father and Lord, with this
assiduity, obedience, and devotion, justice is complete and perfect;
and he who shall keep this, as we before testified, has obeyed God, and
has satisfied the obligations of religion and his own duty.
194
THE DIVINE INSTITUTES
BOOK VII.
OF A HAPPY LIFE.
CHAP. I.--OF THE WORLD, AND THOSE WHO ARE ABOUT TO BELIEVE, AND THOSE
WHO ARE NOT; AND IN THIS THE CENSURE OF THE FAITHLESS.
It is well: the foundations are laid, as the
illustrious orator says. But we have not only laid the
foundations, which might be firth and suitable for the support of the
work; but we have raised the entire edifice, with great and strong
buildings, almost to the summit. There remains, a matter which is much
easier, either to cover or adorn it; without which, however, the former
works are both useless and displeasing. For of what avail is it, either
to be freed from false religions(1) or to understand the true(2) one?
Of what avail, either to see the vanity of false wisdom,(3) or to know
what is true?(4) Of what avail is it, I say, to defend that
heavenly justice?(5) Of what avail to hold the worship of God(2)
with great difficulties, which is the greatest virtue, unless the
divine reward of everlasting blessedness attends it? Of which
subject we must speak in this book, lest all that is gone before
should appear vain and unprofitable: if. we should leave this, on
account of which they were undertaken, in uncertainty, lest any one
should by chance think that such great labours are undertaken in vain;
while he distrusts their heavenly reward, which God has appointed for
him who shall have despised the present sweet enjoyments of earth in
comparison of solitary and unrewarded(6) virtue. Let us satisfy
this part of our subject also, both by the testimonies of the sacred
writings and also by probable arguments, that it may be equally
manifest that future things are to be preferred to those which are
present; heavenly things to earthly: and eternal things to those which
are temporal: since the rewards of vices are temporal, those of virtues
are eternal.
I will therefore set forth the system of the world,
that it may easily be understood both when and how it was made by God;
which Plato, who discoursed about the making of the world, could
neither know nor explain, inasmuch as he was ignorant of the heavenly
mystery, which is not learned except by the teaching of prophets and
God; and therefore he said that it was created for eternity. Whereas
the case is far different, since whatever is of a solid and heavy body,
as it received a beginning at some time, so it must needs have an end.
For Aristotle, when he did not see how so great a magnitude of things
could perish, and wished to escape this objection,(7) said that the
world always had existed, and always would exist. He did not at all
see, that whatever material thing exists must at some time have had a
beginning, and that nothing can exist at all unless it bad a beginning.
For when we see that earth, and water, and fire perish, are consumed,
and extinguished, which are clearly parts of the world, it is
understood that that is altogether mortal the members of which are
mortal. Thus it comes to pass, that whatever is liable to destruction
must have been produced. But everything which comes within the sight of
the eyes must of necessity be material, and capable of dissolution.
Therefore Epicurus alone, following the authority of Democritus, spoke
truly in this matter, who said that it had a beginning at some time,
and that it would at some time perish. Nor, however, was he able to
assign any reason, either through what causes or at what time this work
of such magnitude should be destroyed. But since God has revealed this
to us, and we do not arrive at it by conjectures, but by instruction
from heaven, we will carefully teach it, that it may at length be
evident to those who are desirous of the truth, that the
195
philosophers did not see nor comprehend the truth; but that they had so
slight a knowledge of it, that they by no means perceived from what
source that fragrance(2) of wisdom, which was so pleasant and
agreeable, breathed upon them.
In the meantime, I think it necessary to admonish
those who are about to read this, that depraved and vicious minds,
since the acuteness of their mind is blunted by earthly passions, which
weigh down all the perceptions and render them weak, will either
altogether fail to understand these things which we relate, or, even if
they shall understand them, they will dissemble and be unwilling for
them to be true: because they are drawn away by vices, and they
knowingly favour their own evils, by the pleasantness of which they are
captivated, and they desert the way of virtue, by the bitterness of
which they are offended. For they who are inflamed with avarice and a
certain insatiable thirst for riches--because, when they have sold or
squandered the things in which they delight, they are unable to live in
a simple style--undoubtedly prefer that by which they are compelled to
renounce their eager desires. Also, they who, urged on by the
incitements of lusts, as the poet says,(3)
"Rush into madness and fire,"
say that we bring forward things plainly incredible; because the
precepts about self-restraint wound their ears, which restrain them
from their pleasures, to which they have given(4) up their soul,
together with their body. But those who, swollen with ambition or
inflamed with the love of power, have bestowed all their efforts on the
acquisition of honours, will not, even if we should bear the sun
himself in our hands, believe that teaching which commands them to
despise all power and honour, and to live in humility, and in such
humility that they may be able to receive an injury, and if they have
received one, be unwilling to return it. These are the men who cry
out(5) in any way against the truth with closed eyes. But they who are
or shall be of sound mind, that is, not so immersed in vices as to be
incurable, will both believe these things, and will readily approach
them; and whatever things we say, they will appear to them open, and
plain, and simple, and that which is chiefly necessary, true and
unassailable.
No one favours virtue but he who is able to follow
it; but it is not easy for all to follow it: they can do so whom
poverty and want have exercised, and made capable of virtue. For if the
endurance of evils is virtue, it follows that they
are not capable of virtue who have always lived in the enjoyment
of good things; because they have never experienced evils, nor
can they endure them, through their long-continued use and desire of
good things, which alone they know. Thus it comes to pass that the poor
and humble, who are unencumbered, more readily believe God than the
rich, who are entangled with many hindrances;(6) yea, rather, in chains
and fetters they are enslaved to the nod of desire, their mistress,
which has ensnared them with inextricable bonds; nor are they able to
look up to heaven, since their mind is bent down to the earth, and
fixed on the ground. But the way of virtue does not admit those
carrying great burthens. The path is very narrow by which justice leads
man to heaven; no one can keep this unless he is unencumbered and
lightly equipped. For those wealthy men, who are loaded with many and
great burthens, proceed along the way of death, which is very broad,
since destruction rules with extended sway. The precepts which God
gives for justice, and the things which we bring forward under the
teaching of God respecting virtue and the truth, are bitter and as
poisons to these. And if they shall dare to oppose these things, they
must own themselves to be enemies of virtue and justice. I will now
come to the remaining part of the subject, that an end may be put to
the work. But this remains, that we should treat of the judgment of
God, which will then be established when our Lord shall return to the
earth to render to every one either a reward or punishment, according
to his desert. Therefore, as we spoke in the fourth book
concerning His first advent,(7) so in this book we will relate His
second advent, which the Jews also both confess and hope for; but in
vain, since He must return to the confusion(8) of those for whose call
He had before come. For they who impiously treated Him with violence in
His humiliation, will experience Him in His power as a conqueror; and,
God requiting them, they will suffer all those things which they read
and do not understand; inasmuch as, being polluted with all sins, and
moreover sprinkled with the blood of the Holy One, they were devoted to
eternal punishment by that very One on whom they laid wicked hands. But
we shall have a separate subject against the Jews, in which we shall
convict them of error and guilt.
CHAP. II.--OF THE ERROR OF THE PHILOSOPHERS, AND OF THE DIVINE WISDOM,
AND OF THE GOLDEN AGE.
Now let us instruct those who are ignorant of
the truth. It has been so determined by the
196
arrangement of the Most High God, that this unrighteous age, having run
the course(1) of its appointed times, should come to an end; and all
wickedness being immediately extinguished, and the souls of the
righteous being recalled to a happy life, a quiet, tranquil, peaceful,
in short, golden age, as the poets call it, should flourish, under the
rule of God Himself. This was especially the cause of all the errors of
the philosophers, that they did not comprehend the system of the world,
which comprises the whole of wisdom. But it cannot be comprehended by
our own perception and innate intelligence, which they wished to do by
themselves without a teacher. Therefore they fell into various and
ofttimes contradictory opinions, out of which they had no way of escape,
And they remained fixed in the same mire, as the
comic writer(2) says, since their conclusion does not correspond with
their assumptions;(3) inasmuch as they had assumed things to be true
which could not be affirmed, and proved without the knowledge of the
truth and of heavenly things. And this knowledge, as I have often said
already, cannot exist in a man unless it is derived from the teaching
of God. For if a man is able to understand divine things, he will be
able also to perform them; for to understand is, as it were, to follow
in their track. But he is not able to do the things which God does,
because he is clothed with a mortal body; therefore he cannot even
understand those things which God does. And whether this is possible is
easy for every one to measure, from the immensity of the divine actions
and works. For if you will contemplate the world, with all the things
which it contains, you will assuredly understand how much the work of
God surpasses the works of men. Thus, as great as is the difference
between divine and human works, so great must be the distance between
the wisdom of God and man. For because God is incorruptible and
immortal, and therefore perfect because He is everlasting, His wisdom
also is perfect, as He Himself is; nor can anything oppose it, because
God Himself is subject to nothing.
But because man is subject to passion, his wisdom
also is subject to error; and as many things hinder the life of man, so
that it cannot be perpetual, so also his wisdom must be hindered by
many things: so that it is not perfect in entirely perceiving the
truth. Therefore there is no human wisdom, if it strives by itself to
attain to the conception and knowledge of the truth; inasmuch as the
mind of man, being bound up with a frail body, and enclosed in a
dark abode, is neither able to wander at large, nor clearly to perceive
the truth, the knowledge of which belongs to the divine nature. For His
works are known to God alone. But man cannot attain this knowledge by
reflection or disputation, but by learning and hearing from Him who
alone is able to know and to teach. Therefore Marcus Tullius,(4)
borrowing from Plato the sentiment of Socrates, who said that the time
had come for himself to depart from life, but that they before whom he
was pleading his cause were still alive, says: Which is better is known
to the immortal gods; but I think that no man knows. Wherefore all the
sects of philosophers must be far removed from the truth, because they
who established them were men; nor can those things have any foundation
or firmness which are unsupported by any utterances of divine voices.
CHAP. III.--OF NATURE, AND OF THE WORLD; AND A CENSURE OF THE STOICS
AND EPICUREANS.
And since we are speaking of the errors of
philosophers, the Stoics divide nature into two parts--the one which
effects, the other which affords itself tractable for action. They say
that in the former is contained all the power of perception, in the
latter the material, and that the one cannot act without the other. How
can that which handles and that which is handled be one and the same
thing? If any one should say that the potter is the same as the clay,
or that the clay is the same as the potter, would he not plainly appear
to be mad? But these men comprehend under the one name of nature two
things which are most widely different, God and the world, the Maker
and the work; and say that the one can do nothing without the other, as
though God were mixed up in nature with the world. For sometimes they
so mix them together, that God Himself is the mind of the world, and
that the world is the body of God; as though the world and God began to
exist at the same time, and God did not Himself make the world. And
they themselves also confess this at other times, when they say that it
was made for the sake of men, and that God could, if He willed it,
exist without the world, inasmuch as God is the divine and l eternal
mind, separate and free from a body. And since they were unable to
understand His power and majesty, they mixed Him(5) with the
world, that is, with His own work. Whence is that saying of Virgil:(6)--
"A spirit whose celestial flame
Glows in each member of the frame,
And stirs the mighty whole."
197
What, then, becomes of their own saying, that the world was both
made and is governed by the divine providence? For if He made the
world, it follows that He existed without the world; if He governs it,
it is plain that it is not as the mind governs the body, but as a
master rules the house, as a pilot the ship, as a charioteer the
chariot. Nor, however, are they mixed with those things which they
govern. For if all these things which we see are members of God, then
God is rendered insensible by them, since the members are without
sensibility, and mortal, since we see that the members are mortal.
I can enumerate how often lands shaken by sudden
motions(1) have either opened or sunk down precipitously; how often
cities and islands have been overwhelmed by waves, and gone into the
deep; marshes have inundated fruitful plains, rivers and pools have
been dried up;(2) mountains also have either fallen precipitously, or
have been levelled with plains. Many districts, and the foundations of
many mountains, are laid waste by latent and internal fire. And this is
not enough, if God does not spare His own members, unless it is
permitted man also to have some power over the body of God. Seas are
built up, mountains are cut down, and the innermost bowels of the earth
are dug out to draw forth riches. Why, should I say that we cannot even
plough without lacerating the divine body? So that we are at once
wicked and impious in doing violence to the members of God. Does God,
then, suffer His body to be harassed, and endure to weaken Himself, or
permit this to be done by man? Unless by chance that divine
intelligence which is mixed with the world, and with all parts of the
world, abandoned the first outer aspect(3) of the earth, and plunged
itself into the lowest depths, that it might be sensible of no pain
from continual laceration. But if this is trifling and absurd, then
they themselves were as devoid of intelligence as those are who have
not perceived that the divine spirit is everywhere diffused, and that
all things are held together by it, not however in such a manner that
God, who is incorruptible, should Himself be mixed with heavy and
corruptible elements. Therefore that is more correct which they derived
from Plato, that the world was made by God, and is also governed by His
providence. It was therefore befitting that Plato, and those who held
the same opinion, should teach and explain what was the cause, what the
reason, for the contriving of so great a work; why or for the
sake of whom He made it.
But the Stoics also say the world was made for the
sake of men I hear But Epicurus is ignorant on what account or who made
men themselves. For Lucretius, when he said that the world was
not made by the gods, thus spoke:(4)
"To say, again, that for the sake of men they have
willed to set in order the glorious nature of the world"--
then he introduced:--
"Is sheer folly. For what advantage can our
gratitude bestow on immortal and blessed beings, that for our, sake
they should take in hand to administer aught?"
And with good reason. For they brought forward no reason why the human
race was created or established by God. It is our business to set forth
the mystery of the world and man, of which they, being destitute, were
able neither to reach nor see the shrine of truth. Therefore, as I said
a little before, when they had assumed that which was true, that is,
that the world was made by God, and was made for the sake of men, yet,
since their argument failed them in the consequences, they were unable
to defend that which they had assumed. In fine, Plato, that he might
not make the work of God weak and subject to ruin, said that it would
remain for ever. If it was made for the sake of men, and so made as to
be eternal, why then are not they on whose account it was made eternal?
If they are mortal on account of whom it was made, it must also itself
be mortal and subject to dissolution, for it is not of more value than
those for whose sake it was made. But if his argument(5) were
consistent, he would understand that it must perish because it was
made, and that nothing can remain for ever except that which cannot be
touched.
But he who says that it was not made for the sake of
men has no argument. For if he says that the Creator contrived these
works of such magnitude on His own account, why then were we produced?
Why do we enjoy the world itself? what means the creation of the human
race, and of the other living creatures? why do we intercept the
advantages of others? why, in short, do we grow, decrease, and perish?
What reason is implied in our production itself? what in our perpetual
succession? Doubtless God wished us to be seen, and to frame, as it
were, impressions(6) with various representations of Himself, with
which He might delight Himself. Nevertheless, if it were so, He would
esteem living creatures as His care, and especially man. to whose
command He made all things subject. But with regard to those who
say that the world always existed: I omit that point, that itself
cannot exist without some beginning, from which they are unable to
extricate themselves; but I
198
say this, if the world always existed, it can have no systematic
arrangement. For what could arrangement have effected in that which
never had a beginning? For before anything is done or arranged, there
is need of counsel that it may be determined how it should be done; nor
can anything be done without the foresight of a settled
plan. Therefore the plan precedes every work. Therefore that which has
not been made has no plan. But the world has a plan by
which it both exists and is governed; therefore also it was made:
if it was made, it will also be destroyed. Let them therefore assign a
reason, I if they can, why it was either made in the beginning or will
hereafter be destroyed.
And because Epicurus or Democritus was unable to
teach this, he said that it was produced of its own accord, the
seeds(2) coming together in all directions; and that when these are
again resolved, discord and destruction will follow. Therefore he
perverted(3) that which he had correctly seen, and by his ignorance of
system entirely overthrew the whole system, and reduced the world, and
all things which are done in it, to the likeness of a most trifling
dream, if no plan exists in human affairs. But since the world and all
its parts, as we see, are governed by a wonderful plan; since the
framing of the heaven, and the course of the stars and of the heavenly
bodies, which is harmonious(4) even in variety itself, the constant and
wonderful arrangement of the seasons, the varied fruitfulness of the
lands, the level plains, the defences and heapings up of mountains, the
verdure and productiveness of the woods, the most salubrious bursting
forth of fountains, the seasonable over-flowings of rivers, the rich
and abundant flowing(5) in of the sea, the opposite and useful
breathing(6) of the winds, and all things, are fixed with the greatest
regularity: who is so blind as to think that they were made without a
cause, in which a wonderful disposition of most provident arrangement
shines forth? If, therefore, nothing at all exists nor is done without
a cause; if the providence of the Supreme God is manifest from the
disposition of things, His excellency from their greatness, and His
power from their government: therefore they are dull and mad who have
said that there is no providence. I should not disapprove if they
denied the existence of gods with this object, that they might affirm
the existence of one; but when they did it with this intent, that they
might say that there is none, he who does not think that they were
senseless is himself senseless.
CHAP. IV.--THAT ALL THINGS WERE CREATED FOR SOME USE, EVEN THOSE THINGS
WHICH APPEAR EVIL; ON WHAT ACCOUNT MAN ENJOYS REASON IN SO FRAIL A BODY.
But we have spoken sufficiently on the subject of
providence in the first book. For if it has any existence, as appears
from the wonderful nature of its works, it must be that the same
providence created man and the other animals. Let us therefore see what
reason there was for the creation of the human race, since it is
evident, as the Stoics say, that the world was made for the sake of
men, although they make no slight error in this very matter, in saying
it was not made for the sake of man, but of men. For the naming of one
individual comprehends the whole human race. But this arises from the
fact that they are ignorant that one man only was made by God, and they
think that men were produced in all lands and fields like mushrooms.
But Hermes was not ignorant that man was both made by God and after the
likeness of God. But I return to my subject. There is nothing, as I
imagine, which was made on its own account; but whatever is made at all
must necessarily be made for some purpose. For who is there either so
senseless or so unconcerned as to attempt to do anything at random,
from which he expects no utility, no advantage? He who builds a house
does not build it merely for this purpose, that it may be a house, but
that it may be inhabited. He who builds a ship does not bestow his
labour on this account, only that the ship may be visible, but that men
may sail in it. Likewise he who designs and forms any vessel does not
do it on this account, that he may only appear to have done it, hut
that the vessel when made may contain something necessary for
use. In like manner, other things, whatever are made, are plainly not
made superfluously, but for some useful purposes.
It is plain, therefore, that the world was made by
God, not on account of the world itself; for since it is without
sensibility, it neither needs the warmth of the sun, or light, or the
breath of the winds, or the moisture of showers, or the nourishment of
fruits. But it cannot even be said that God made the world for His own
sake, since He can exist without the world, as He did before it was
made; and God Himself does not make use of all those things which are
contained in it, and which are produced. It is evident, therefore, that
the world was constructed for the sake of living beings, since living
beings enjoy those things of which it consists; and that these may live
and exist, all things necessary for them are supplied at fixed times.
Again, that the other living beings were made for the sake of man, is
plain from this, that they are subservient
199
to man, and were given for his protection and service; since, whether
they are of the earth or of the water, they do not perceive the system
of the world as man does. We must here reply to the philosophers, and
especially to Cicero, who says: "Why should God, when He made all
things on our account, make so large a quantity of snakes and vipers?
why should He scatter so many pernicious things by land and by sea?" A
very wide subject for discussion, but it must be briefly touched upon,
as in passing. Since man is formed of different and opposing elements,
soul and body, that is, heaven and earth, that which is slight and that
which is perceptible to the senses, that which is eternal and that
which is temporal, that which has sensibility and that which is
senseless, that which is endued with light and that which is dark,
reason itself and necessity require that both good and evil things
should be set before man--good things which he may use, and evil things
which he may guard against and avoid.
For wisdom has been given to him on this account,
that, knowing the nature of good and evil things, he may exercise the
force of his reason in seeking the good and avoiding the evil. For
because wisdom was not given to the other animals, they were both
defended with natural clothing and were armed; but in the place of all
these He gave to man that which was most excellent, reason only.
Therefore He formed him naked and unarmed, that wisdom might be both
his defence and covering. He placed his defence and ornament not
without, but within not in the body, but in the heart Unless,
therefore, there were evils which he might guard against, and which he
might distinguish from good and useful things, wisdom was not necessary
for him. Therefore let Marcus Tullius know that reason was either
given to man that he might take fishes on account of his own use,
and avoid snakes and vipers for the sake of his own safety; or that
good and evil things were set before him on this account, because he
had received wisdom, the whole force of which is occupied in
distinguishing things good and evil.(1) Great, therefore, and right,
and admirable is the force, and reason, and power of man, for whose
sake God made the world itself and all things, as many as exist, and
gave him so much honour that He set him over all things, since he alone
could admire the works of God. Most excellently, therefore, does our
Asclepiades,(2) in discussing the providence of the Supreme God in
that book which he wrote to me, say: "And on this account any one may
with good reason think that the divine providence gave the place
nearest to itself to him who was able to understand its arrangement.
For that is the sun: who so beholds it as to understand why it is the
sun, and what amount of influence it has upon the other parts of the
system? this is the heaven, who looks up to it? this is the earth, who
inhabits it? this is the sea, who sails upon it? this is fire, who
makes use of it?" Therefore the Supreme God did not arrange these
things on account of Himself, because He stands in need of nothing, but
on account of man, who might fitly make use of them.
CHAP. V.--OF THE CREATION OF MAN, AND OF THE ARRANGEMENT OF THE WORLD,
AND OF THE CHIEF GOOD.
Let us now assign the reason why He made man
himself. For if the philosophers bad known this, they would either have
maintained those things which they had found to be true, or would
not have fallen into the greatest errors. For this is the
chief thing; this is the point on which everything turns. And if any
one does not possess this, the truth altogether glides away from him.
It is this, in short, which causes them to be inconsistent with
reason;(3)for if this had shone upon them, if they had known all the
mystery(4) of man, the Academy would never have been in entire
opposition(5) to their disputations, and to all philosophy.As,
therefore, God did not make the world for His own sake, because He does
not stand in need of its advantages, but for the sake of man, who
has the use of it, so also He made man himself for His own sake. What
advantage is there to God in man, says Epicurus, that He should make
him for His own sake? Truly, that there might be one who might
understand His works; who might be able both to admire with his
understanding, and to express with his voice, the foresight displayed
in their arrangement, the order of their creation, the power exerted in
their completion. And the sum of all these things is, that he should
worship God.(6) For he who understands these things worships Him; he
follows Him with due veneration as the Maker of all things, He as his
true Father, who measures the excellence of His majesty according to
the invention, the commencement, and completion of His works.
200
What more evident argument can be brought forward that God both made
the world for the sake of man, and man for His own sake, than that he
alone of all living creatures has been so formed that his eyes are
directed towards heaven, his face looking towards God, his countenance
is in fellowship with his Parent, so that God appears, as it were, with
outstretched hand to have raised man from the ground, and to have
elevated him to the contemplation of Himself. "What, then," he says,
"does the worship paid by man confer on God, who is blessed, and in
want of nothing? Or if He gave such honour to man as to create the
world for his sake, to furnish him with wisdom, to make him lord of all
things living, and to love him as a son, why did He make him subject to
death and decay? why did He expose the object of His love to all evils?
when it was befitting that man should be happy, as though closely
connected with God, and everlasting as He is, to the worship and
contemplation of whom he was formed."
Although we have taught these things for the most
part in a scattered manner in the former books, nevertheless, since the
subject now specially requires it, because we have undertaken to
discuss the subject of a happy life, these things are to be explained
by us more carefully and fully, that the arrangement made by God, and
His work and will, may be known. Though He was always able by His own
immortal Spirit to produce innumerable souls, as He produced the
angels, to whom there exists immortality without any danger and fear of
evils, yet He devised an unspeakable work, in what manner He might
create an infinite multitude of souls, which being at first united with
frail and feeble bodies, He might place in the midst between good and
evil, that He might set virtue before them composed as they were of
both natures; that they might not attain to immortality by a delicate
and easy course of life, but might arrive at that unspeakable reward of
eternal life with the utmost difficulty and great labours. Therefore,
that He might clothe them with limbs which were heavy and liable to
injury,(1) since they were unable to exist in the middle void, the
weight and gravity of the body sinking downwards, He determined that an
abode and dwelling-place should first be built for them. And thus with
unspeakable energy and power He contrived the surpassing works of the
world; and having suspended the light elements on high, and depressed
the heavy ones to the depths below, He strengthened the heavenly
things, and established the earthly. It is not necessary at present to
follow out each point separately, since we discussed them all together
in the second book.
Therefore He placed in the heaven lights, whose
regularity, and brightness, and motion, were most suitably proportioned
to the advantage of living beings. Moreover, He gave to the earth,
which He designed as their dwelling-place, fruitfulness for bringing
forth and producing various, things, that by the abundance of fruits
and green herbs it might supply nourishment according to the nature and
requirements of each kind. Then, when He had completed all things which
belonged to the condition of the world, He formed man from the earth
itself, which He prepared for him from the beginning as a habitation;
that is, He clothed and covered his spirit with an earthly body, that,
being compacted of different and opposing materials, he might be
susceptible of good and evil; and as the earth itself is fruitful for
the bringing forth of grain, so the body of man, which was taken
from the earth, received the power of producing offspring, that,
inasmuch as he was formed of a fragile substance, and could not exist
for ever, when tim space of his temporal life was past, he might
depart, and by a perpetual succession renew that which he bore, which
was frail and feeble. Why, then, did He make him frail and mortal, when
He had built the world for his sake? First of all, that an infinite
number of living beings might be produced, and that He
might fill all the earth with a multitude; in the next place, that He
might set before man virtue, that is, endurance of evils and
labours, by which he might be able to gain the reward of immortality.
For since man consists of two parts, body and soul, of which the one is
earthly, the other heavenly, two lives have been assigned to man: the
one temporal, which is appointed for the body; the other everlasting,
which belongs to the soul. We received the former at our birth we
attain to the latter by striving, that immortality might not exist to
man without any difficulty. That earthly one is as the body, and
therefore has an end; but this heavenly one is as the soul, and
therefore has no limit. We received the first when we were ignorant of
it, this second knowingly; for it is given to virtue, not to nature,
because God wished that we should procure life for ourselves in life.
For this reason He has given us this present life,
that we may either lose that true and eternal life by our vices, or win
it(3) by virtue. The chief good is not contained in this bodily life,
since, as it was given to us by divine necessity, so it will again be
destroyed by divine necessity. Thus that which has an end does not
contain the chief good. But the chief good is contained in that
spiritual life which we acquire by ourselves, because it cannot contain
evil, or have
201
an end; to which subject nature and the system of the body afford an
argument. For other animals incline towards the ground, because they
are earthly, and are incapable of immortality, which is from heaven;
but man is upright and looks towards heaven,[1] because immortality is
proposed to him; which, however, does not come, unless it is given to
man by God. For otherwise there would be no difference between the just
and the unjust, since every man who is born would become immortal.
Immortality, then, is not the consequence[2] of nature, but the reward
and recompense of virtue. Lastly, man does not immediately upon his
birth walk upright, but at first on all fours,[3] because the nature of
his body and of this present life is common to us with the dumb
animals; afterwards, when his strength is confirmed, he raises himself,
and his tongue is loosened so that he speaks plainly, and he ceases to
be a dumb animal. And this argument teaches that man is born mortal;
but that he afterwards becomes immortal, when he begins to live in
conformity with the will[4] of God, that is, to follow
righteousness,[5] which is comprised in the worship of God, since God
raised man to a view of the heaven and of Himself. And this takes place
when man, purified in the heavenly laver, lays aside[6] his infancy
together with all the pollution of his past life, and having received
an increase of divine vigour, becomes a perfect and complete man.
Therefore, because God has set forth virtue before
man, although the soul and the body are connected together, yet they
are contrary, and
oppose one another. The things which are good for the soul are evil to
the body, that is, the avoiding of riches, the prohibiting of
pleasures, the contempt of pain and death. In like manner, the things
which are good for the body are evil to the soul, that is, desire and
lust, by which riches are desired, and the enjoyments of various
pleasures, by which the soul is weakened and destroyed? Therefore it is
necessary, that the just and wise man should be engaged in all evils,
since fortitude is victorious over evils; but the unjust in riches, in
honours, in power. For these goods relate to the body, and are earthly;
and these men also lead an earthly life, nor are they able to attain to
immortality. because they have given themselves up to pleasures which
are the enemies of virtue. Therefore this temporal life ought to be
subject to that eternal life, as the body is to the soul. Whoever,
then, prefers the life of the soul must despise the life of the body;
nor will he in any other way be able to strive after that which is
highest, unless he shall have despised the things which are lowest. But
he who shall have embraced the life of the body, and shall have turned
his desires downwards[8] to the earth, is unable to attain to that
higher life. But he who prefers to live well for eternity, will live
badly[9] for a time, and will be subjected to all troubles and labours
as long as he shall be on earth, that he may have divine and heavenly
consolation. And he who shall prefer to live well[10] for a time, will
live ill to eternity; for he will be condemned by the sentence of God
to eternal punishment, be cause he has preferred earthly to heavenly
goods. On this account, therefore, God seeks to be worshipped,
and to be honoured by man as a Father, that he may have virtue and
wisdom, which alone produce' immortality. For because no other but
Himself is able to confer that immortality, since He alone possesses
it, He will grant[11] to the piety of the man, with which he has
honoured God, this reward, to be blessed to all eternity, and to be for
ever in the presence of God and in the society of God.
N.B.--The following paragraphs to the end of the chapter are wanting m
many MSS., and it is very doubtful whether they were
written byLactantius.
Nor can any one shelter himself under the pretext
that the fault belongs to Him who made both good and evil. For why did
He will that evil should exist if He hated it? Why did He not make good
only, that no one might sin, no one commit evil? Although I have
explained this in almost all the former books, and have touched upon
it, though slightly, above, yet it must be mentioned repeatedly,
because the whole matter turns on this point. For there could be no
virtue unless He had made contrary things; nor can the power of good be
at all manifest, except from a comparison with evil. Thus evil is
nothing else but the explanation of good. Therefore if evil is taken
away, good must also be taken away. If you shall cut off
202
your left hand or foot, your body will not be entire, nor will life
itself remain the same. Thus, for the due adjustment of the framework
of the body, the left members are most suitably joined with the right.
In like manner, if you make chessmen[1] all alike, no one will play. If
you shall give one colour[2] only to the circus, no one will think it
worth while to be a spectator, all the pleasure of the Circensian games
being taken away. For he who first instituted the games was a favourer
of one colour; but he introduced another as a rival, that there might
be a contest, and some partisanship[3] in the spectacle. Thus God, when
He was fixing that which was good, and giving virtue, appointed also
their contraries, with which they might contend. If an enemy and a
fight be wanting, there is no victory. Take away a contest, and even
virtue is nothing. How many are the mutual contests of men, and with
what various arts are they carried on! No one, however, would be
regarded as surpassing in bravery, swiftness, or excellence, if he bad
no adversary with whom he might contend. And where victory is wanting,
there also glory and the reward of victory must be absent together with
it. Therefore, that he might strengthen virtue itself by continual
exercise, and might make it perfect from its conflict with evils, He
gave both together, because each of the two without the other is unable
to retain its force. Therefore there is diversity, on which the whole
system of truth depends.
It does not escape my notice what may here be urged
in opposition by more skilful persons. If good cannot exist without
evil, how do you say that, before he had offended God, the first man
lived in the exercise of good only, or that be will hereafter live in
the exercise of good only? This question is to be examined by us, for
in the former books I omitted it, that I might here fill up the
subject. We have said above that the nature of man is made up of
opposing elements; for the body, because it is earth, is capable of
being grasped, of temporary duration, senseless, and dark. But the
soul, because it is from heaven, is unsubstantial,[4] everlasting,
endued with sensibility, and full of lustre;[5] and because these
qualities are opposed to one another, it follows of necessity that man
is subject to good and evil. Good is ascribed to the soul, because it
is incapable of dissolution; evil to the body, because it is frail.
Since, therefore, the body and the soul are connected and united
together, the good and the evil must necessarily hold together;
nor can they be separated from one another, unless when they (the body
and soul) are separated. Finally, the knowledge of good and of evil was
given at the same time to the first man; and when he understood this,
he was immediately driven from the holy place in which there is no
evil; for when he was conversant with that which was good only, he was
ignorant that this itself was good. But after that he had received the
knowledge of good and evil, it was now unlawful for him to remain in
that place of happiness, and he was banished to this common world, that
he might at once experience both of those things with the nature of
which he had at once become acquainted. It is plain, therefore, that
wisdom has been given to man that he may disitinguish good from
evil--that he may discriminate between things advantageous and things
disadvantageous, between things useful and things useless--that
he may have judgment and consideration as to what he ought to guard
against, what to desire, what to avoid, and what to follow. Wisdom
therefore cannot exist without evil; and that first author[6] of the
human race, as long as he was conversant with good only, lived as an
infant, ignorant of good and evil. But, indeed, hereafter man must be
both wise and happy without any evil; but this cannot take place as
long as the soul is clothed with the abode of the body.
But when a separation shall have been made between
the body and the soul, then evil will be disunited from good; and as
the body perishes and the soul remains, so evil will perish and good be
permanent. Then man, having received the garment of immortality, will
be wise and free from evil, as God is. He, therefore, who wishes that
we should be conversant with good only, especially desires this, that
we should live without the body, in which evil is. But if evil is taken
away, either wisdom, as I have said, or the body, will be taken from
man; wisdom, that he may be ignorant of evil; the body, that he may not
be sensible of it. But now, since man is furnished with wisdom to know,
and a body to perceive, God willed that both should exist alike in this
life, that virtue and wisdom may be in agreement. Therefore He placed
man in the midst, between both, that he might have liberty to follow
either good or evil. But He mingled with evil some things which appear
good, that is, various and delightful enjoyments, that by the
203
enticements of these He might lead men to the concealed evil. And He
likewise mingled with good some things which appear evil--that is,
hardships, and miseries, and labours--by the harshness and
unpleasantness of which the soul, being offended, might shrink back
from the concealed good. But here the office of wisdom is needed, that
we may see more with the mind than with the body, which very few are
able to do; because while virtue is difficult and rarely to be found,
pleasure is common and public. Thus it necessarily happens that the
wise man is accounted as a fool, who, while he seeks good things which
are not seen, permits those which are seen to slip from his hands; and
while he avoids evils which are not seen, runs into evils which are
before the eyes; which happens to us when we refuse neither torture nor
death in behalf of the faith, since we are driven to the greatest
wickedness, so as to betray the faith and deny the true God, and to
sacrifice to dead and death-bearing gods. This is the cause why God
made man mortal, and made him subject to evils, although he had framed
the world for his sake, namely, that he might be capable of
virtue, and that his virtue might reward him with immortality. Now
virtue, as we have shown, is the worship of the true God.
CHAP. VI.--WHY THE WORLD AND MAN WERE CREATED. HOW UNPROFITABLE IS THE
WORSHIP OF FALSE GODS.
Now let us mark the whole argument by a brief
definition.[1] The world has been created for this purpose, that we may
be born; we are born for this end, that we may acknowledge the Maker of
the world and of ourselves--God; we acknowledge Him for this end, that
we may worship Him; we worship Him for this end that we may receive
immortality as the reward of our labours, since the worship of God
consists of the greatest labours; for this end we are rewarded with
immortality, that being made like to the angels, we may serve the
Supreme Father and Lord for ever, and may be to all eternity a kingdom
to God. This is the sum of all things, this the secret of God, this the
mystery of the world, from which they are estranged, who, following
present gratification, have devoted themselves to the pursuit of
earthly and frail goods, and by means of deadly enjoyments have sunk as
it were in mire and mud their souls, which were born for heavenly
pursuits.
Let us now, in the next place, inquire whether there
is anything reasonable in the worship of these gods; for if they are
many, if they are worshipped only on this account by men, that they may
afford them riches, victories, honours, and all things, which are of no
avail except for the present; if we are produced without cause--if no
providence is employed in the production of men--if we are brought
forth by chance for ourselves, and for the sake of our own pleasure--if
we are nothing after death,--what can be so superfluous, so empty, so
vain, as the affairs of man, and the world itself? which, though it is
of incredible magnitude, and constructed with such wonderful
arrangement, is nevertheless occupied with trifling subjects. For
why should the breathings of the winds put the clouds in motion? Why
should lightnings shine forth, thunders roar, or showers fall, that the
earth may bring forth its increase, and nourish its various
productions? Why, in short, should all nature labour that nothing may
be wanting of those things by which the life of man is sustained, if it
is vain, if we utterly perish, if there is in us nothing of greater
advantage to God? But if it is unlawful to be spoken, and is not to be
thought possible, that that which you see to be most in accordance with
reason was not established on account of some reason of importance,
what reason can there be in these errors of depraved religions, and in
this persuasion of philosophers, by which they imagine that souls
perish? Assuredly there is none; for what have they to say why the gods
so regularly supply to men everything in its season? Is it that we may
present to them corn and wine, and the odour of incense, and the blood
of cattle? Which things cannot be acceptable to the immortals, because
they are perishable; nor can they be of use to beings destitute of
bodies, because these things have been given for the use of those
possessed of bodies; and yet if they required these things, they could
bestow them upon themselves when they wished. Whether, therefore, souls
perish or exist for ever, what principle is involved in the worship of
the gods, or by whom was the world established? Why, or when, or how
long, or how far were men produced, or on what account? Why do they
arise, die, succeed one another, are renewed? What do the gods obtain
from the worship of those who after death are about to have no
existence? What do they perform, what do they promise, What do they
threaten, which is worthy of men or of gods? Or if souls remain after
death, what do they do or are they about to do respecting them? What
need is there to them of a treasure-house of souls? From what source do
they themselves arise? How, or why, or whence are they so many? Thus it
comes to pass, that if yon depart from that sum of things which we
comprised above, all system is destroyed, and all things return[2] to
nothing.
204
CHAP. VII.--OF THE VARIETY OF PHILOSOPHERS, AND THEIR TRUTH.
And because the philosophers did not comprehend this
main point, they were neither able to comprehend truth, although they
for the most part both saw and explained those things of which the main
point itself consists. But different persons brought forward all these
things, and in different ways, not connecting the causes of things, nor
the consequences, nor the reasons, so that they might join together and
complete that main point which comprises the whole. But it is easy to
show that almost the whole truth has been divided by philosophers and
sects. For we do not overthrow philosophy, as the Academics are
accustomed to do, whose plan was to reply to everything, which is
rather to calumniate and mock; but we show that no sect was so much out
of the way, and no philosopher so vain, as not to see something of the
truth.[1] But while they are mad with the desire of contradicting,
while they defend their own arguments even though false, and overthrow
those of others even though true, not only has the truth escaped from
them, which they pretended that they were seeking, but they themselves
lost it chiefly through their own fault. But if there had been any
one to collect together the truth which was dispersed
amongst individuals and scattered amongst sects, and to reduce it to a
body, he assuredly would not disagree with us. But no one is able to do
this, unless he has experience[2] and knowledge of the truth. But to
know the truth belongs to him only who has been taught by God. For he
cannot in any other way reject the things which are false, or choose
and approve of those which are true; but if even by chance he should
effect this, he would most surely act the part of the philosopher; and
though he could not defend those things by divine testimonies, yet the
truth would explain itself by its own light. Wherefore the error of
those is incredible, who, when they have approved of any sect, and have
devoted themselves to it, condemn all others as false and vain, and arm
themselves for battle, neither knowing what they ought to defend nor
what to refute; and make attacks everywhere, without distinction,[3]
upon all things which are brought forward by those who disagree with
them.
On account of these most obstinate contentions of
theirs, no philosophy existed which made a nearer approach to the
truth, for the whole truth has been comprised by these in separate
portions.[4] Plato said[5] that the world was made by God: the
prophets[6] speak the same; and the same is apparent from the verses of
the Sibyl. They therefore are in error, who have said either that all
things were produced of their own accord or from an assemblage of
atoms;[7] since so great a world, so adorned and of such magnitude,
could neither have been made nor arranged and set in order without some
most skilful author, and that very arrangement by which all things are
perceived to be kept together and to be governed bespeaks[8] an
artificer with a most skilful mind. The Stoics say that the world, and
all things which are in it, were made for the sake of men: the sacred
writings[9] teach us the same thing. Therefore Democritus was in error,
who thought that they were poured forth from the earth like worms,
without any author or plan. For the reason of man's creation belongs to
a divine mystery; and because he was unable to know this, he drew[10]
down man's life to nothing. Aristo asserted that men were born to the
exercise of virtue; we are also reminded of and learn the same from the
prophets. Therefore Aristippus is deceived, who made man subject to
pleasure, that is, to evil, as though he were a beast. Pherecydes and
Plato contended that souls were immortal; but this is a peculiar
doctrine in our religion. Therefore Dicaearchus was mistaken, together
with Democritus, who argued that souls perished with the body and were
dissolved, Zeno the Stoic taught that there were infernal regions, and
that the abodes of the good were separated from the wicked; and that
the former enjoyed peaceful and delightful regions, but that the latter
suffered punishment in dark places, and in dreadful abysses of mire:
the prophets show the same thing. Therefore Epicurus was mistaken, who
thought that that was an invention[11] of the poets, and explained
those punishments of the infernal regions, which are spoken of, as
happening in this life. Therefore the philosophers touched upon the
whole truth, and every secret of our holy religion; but when others
denied it, they were unable to defend that which they had found,
because the system did not agree[12] with the particulars; nor were
they able to reduce to a summary those things which they had perceived
to be true, as we have done above.
CHAP. VIII.--OF THE IMMORTALITY OF THE SOUL.
The one chief good, therefore, is immortality, for
the reception of which we were originally formed and born. To this we
direct our course; human nature regards this; to this virtue exalts us.
And because we have discovered this good, it remains that we should
also speak of immor-
205
tality itself. The arguments of Plato, although they contribute
much to the subject, have little strength to prove and fill up
the truth, since he had neither summed up and collected into one the
plan of the whole of this great mystery, nor had he comprehended the
chief good. For although he perceived the truth respecting the
immortality of the soul, yet he did not speak respecting it as though
it were the chief good. We, therefore, are able to elicit the truth by
more certain signs; for we have not collected it by doubtful
surmise,[1] but have known it by divine instruction. Now Plato thus
reasoned, that whatever has perception by itself, and always moves, is
immortal; for that that which has no beginning of motion is not about
to have an end, because it cannot be deserted by itself. But this
argument would give eternal existence even to dumb animals, unless he
had made a distinction by the addition of wisdom. He added, therefore,
that he might escape this common[2] linking together, that the soul of
man could not be otherwise than immortal, since its wonderful skill in
invention, its quickness in reflection, and its readiness in perceiving
and learning, its memory of the past, and its foresight of the future,
and its knowledge of innumerable arts and subjects, which other living
creatures do not possess, appear divine and heavenly; because of the
soul, which conceives such great things, and contains such great
things, no origin can be found on earth, since it has nothing of
earthly admixture united with it. But that which is ponderous in man,
and liable to dissolution, must be resolved into earth; whereas that
which is slight and subtle is incapable of division, and when freed
from the abode of the body, as from prison, it flies to the heaven, and
to its own nature. This is a brief summary of the tenets of Plato,
which are widely and copiously explained in his own writings.
Pythagoras also was previously of the same
sentiments, and his teacher Pherecydes, whom Cicero reported to have
been the first who discoursed respecting the immortality of the soul.
And although all these excelled in eloquence, nevertheless in this
contest at least, those who argued against this opinion had no less
authority; Dicaearchus first, then Democritus, and lastly Epicurus: so
that the matter itself, respecting which they were contending, was
called into doubt. Finally, Tullius also having set forth the opinions
of all these respecting immortality and death, declared that he did not
know what was the truth. "Which of these opinions is true," he said,
"some God may see."[3] And again he says in another place: "Since each
of these opinions had most learned defenders, it cannot be divined what
is certainty." But we have no need of divination, since the divinity
itself has laid open to us the truth.
CHAP. IX.--OF THE IMMORTALITY OF THE SOUL,
AND OF VIRTUE.
By these arguments, therefore, which neither Plato
nor any other invented, the immorality of souls can be proved and
perceived: which arguments we will briefly collect, since my discourse
hastens on to relate the great judgment of God, which will be
celebrated on the earth at the approaching end of the world.[4] Before
all things, since God cannot be seen by man, lest any one should
imagine from this circumstance that God does not exist, because He was
not seen by mortal eyes, among other wonderful arrangements s He also
made many things the power of which is manifest, but the substance is
not seen, as the voice, smell, the wind, that by the token and example
of these things we might perceive God from His power and operation and
works, although He did not fall under the notice of our eyes. What is
clearer than the voice, or stronger than the wind, or more forcible
than smell? Yet these, when they are borne through the air and come to
our senses, and impel them by their efficacy, are not distinguished by
the eyesight, but are perceived by other parts of the body. In like
manner, God is not to be perceived by us through the sight or other
frail sense; but He is to be beheld by the eyes of the mind, since we
see His illustrious and wonderful works. For as to those who have
altogether denied the existence of God, I should not only refuse to
call them philosophers, but even deny them the name of men, who, with a
close resemblance to dumb animals, consisted of body only, discerning
nothing with their mind, and referring all things to the bodily senses,
who thought that nothing existed but that which they beheld with their
eyes. And because they saw that adversity befell the wicked, or
prosperity happened to the good, they believed that all things were
carried on by fortune, and that the world was established by nature,
and not by providence.
Hence they at once fell into the absurdities[6]
which necessarily followed such a sentiment. But if there is a God who
is incorporeal, invisible, and eternal, therefore it is credible that
the soul, since it is not seen, does not perish after its
departure from the body; for it is manifest that something exists
which perceives and is vigorous, and yet does not come into sight.
206
But, it is said, it is difficult to comprehend with the mind how the
soul can retain its perception without those parts of the body in which
the office of perception is contained. What about God? Is it easy to
comprehend how He is vigorous without a body? But if they believe in
the existence of gods who, if they exist, are plainly destitute of
bodies, it must be that human souls exist in the same way, since it is
perceived from reason itself, and discernment, that there is a certain
resemblance in man and God. Finally, that proof which even Marcus
Tullius[1] saw is of sufficient strength: that the immortality of the
soul may be discerned from the fact that there is no other animal which
has any knowledge of God; and religion is almost the only thing which
distinguishes man from the dumb creation. And since this falls to man
alone, it assuredly testifies that we may aim at, desire, and cultivate
that which is about to be familiar and very near.
Can any one, when he has considered the nature of
other animals, which the providence of the Supreme God has made abject,
with bodies bending down and prostrated to the earth, so that it may be
understood from this that they have no intercourse with heaven, fail to
understand that man alone of all animals is heavenly and divine, whose
body raised from the ground,[2] elevated countenance, and upright
position, goes in quest of its origin, and despising, as it were, the
lowliness of the earth, reaches forth to that which is on high, because
he perceives that the highest good is to be sought by him in the
highest place, and mindful of his condition in which God made him
illustrious, looks towards his Maker? And Trismegistus most rightly
called this looking a contemplation of God,[3] which has no existence
in the dumb animals. Since therefore wisdom, which is given to man
alone, is nothing else but the knowledge of God, it is evident that the
soul does not perish, nor undergo dissolution, but that it remains for
ever, because it seeks after and loves God, who is everlasting, by the
impulse of its very nature perceiving either from what source it has
sprung, or to what it is about to return. Moreover, it is no slight
proof of immortality that man alone makes use of the heavenly element.
For, since the nature of the world consists of two elements[4] which
are opposed to one another--fire and
water--of which the one is assigned to the heaven, the other to the
earth, the other living creatures, because they are of the earth and
mortal, make use of the element which is earthly and heavy: man alone
makes use of fire, which is an element light, rising upward,[5] and
heavenly. But those things which are weighty depress to death, and
those which are light elevate to life; because life is on high, and
death below. And as there cannot be light without fire, so there cannot
be life without light. Therefore fire is the element of light and life;
from which it is evident that man who uses it is a partaker of an
immortal condition, because that which causes life is familiar to him.
The gift of virtue also to man alone is a great
proof that souls are immortal. For this will not be in accordance with
nature if the soul is extinguished; for it is injurious to this present
life. For that earthly life, which we lead in common with dumb animals,
both seeks pleasure, by the varied and agreeable fruits of which it is
delighted, and avoids pain, the harshness of which, by its unpleasant
sensations, injures the nature of living beings, and endeavours to lead
them to death, which dissolves the living being. If, therefore, virtue
both prohibits man from those goods which are naturally desired, and
impels him to endure evils which are naturally avoided, it follows that
virtue is an evil, and opposed to nature; and he must necessarily be
judged foolish who pursues it, since he injures himself both by
avoiding present goods, and by seeking equally evils, without hope of
greater advantage. For when it is permitted us to enjoy the sweetest
pleasures, should we not appear to be without sense if we should not
prefer to live in lowliness, in want, in contempt and ignominy, or not
to live at all, but to be tormented with pain, and to die, when from
these evils we should gain nothing to compensate us for the pleasure
which we have given up? But if virtue is not an evil, and acts
honourably, inasmuch as it despises vicious and shameful pleasures, and
bravely, inasmuch as it neither fears pain nor death, that it may
discharge its duty, therefore it must obtain some greater good than
those things are which it despises. But when death has been undergone,
what further good can be hoped for except immortality?
CHAP. X.--OF VICES AND VIRTUES, AND OF LIFE
AND DEATH.
Let us now in turn pass on to those things which are
opposed to virtue, that from these also the immortality of the soul may
be inferred. All vices are for a time; for they are excited for the
present. The impetuosity of anger is appeased when vengeance has been
taken; the pleasure of the body puts an end[6] to lust; desire is
destroyed either by the full enjoyment of the ob-
207
jects which it seeks, or by the excitement of other affections;
ambition, when it has gained the honours which it wished for, loses[1]
its strength; likewise the other vices are unable to stand their ground
and remain, but they are ended by the very enjoyment which they desire.
Therefore they withdraw and return. But virtue is perpetual, without
any intermission; nor can he who has once taken it up depart from it.
or if it should have any interruption[2] if we can at any time do
without it, vices, which always oppose virtue, will return. Therefore
it has not been grasped, if it deserts its post, if at any time it
withdraws itself. But when it has established for itself a firm abode,
it must necessarily be engaged in every act; nor can it faithfully
drive away and put to flight vices, unless it shall fortify with a
perpetual guard the breast which it inhabits. Therefore the
uninterrupted duration[3] of virtue itself shows that the soul of man,
if it has received virtue, remains permanent, because virtue is
perpetual, and it is the human mind alone which receives virtue. Since,
therefore, vices are contrary to virtue, the whole systems must of
necessity differ from and be contrary to each other. Because vices are
commotions and perturbations of the soul; virtue, on the contrary, is
mildness and tranquillity of mind. Because vices are temporary, and of
short duration; virtue is perpetual and constant, and always consistent
with itself. Because the fruits of vices, that is, pleasures, equally
with themselves, are short and temporary, therefore the fruit and
reward of virtue are everlasting. Because the advantage of vices is
immediate, therefore that of virtue is future.
Thus it happens that in this life there is no reward
of virtue, because virtue itself still exists. For as, when vices are
completed in their performance, pleasure and their rewards follow; so,
when virtue has been ended, its reward follows. But virtue is never
ended except by death, since its highest office is in the undergoing of
death: therefore the reward of virtue is after death. In fine, Cicero,
in his Yusculan Disputations,[4] perceived, though with doubt, that the
chief good does not happen to man except after death. "A man will go,"
he says, "with confident spirit, if circumstances shall so happen, to
death in which we have ascertained that there is either the chief good
or no evil." Death, therefore, does not extinguish man, but admits him
to the reward of virtue. But he who has contaminated himself,[5] as the
same writer says, with vices and crimes, and has been the slave of
pleasure, he truly, being condemned, shall suffer eternal punishment,
which the sacred writings call the second death, which is both eternal
and full of the severest torments.[6] For as two lives are proposed to
man, of which the one belongs to the soul, the other to the body;
so also two deaths are proposed,--one relating to the body, which all
must undergo according to nature, the other relating to the soul,
which is acquired by wickedness and avoided by virtue. As this life is
temporary and has fixed limits, because it belongs to the body;
so also death is in like manner temporary and has a fixed end, because
it affects the body.
CHAP. XI.--OF THE LAST
TIMES, AND OF THE SOUL AND BODY.
Therefore, when the times which God has appointed
for death shall be completed, death itself shall be ended. And because
temporal death follows temporal life, it follows that souls rise again
to everlasting life, because temporal death has received an end. Again,
as the life of the soul is everlasting, in which it receives
the divine and unspeakable fruits of its immortality; also its
death must be eternal, in which it suffers perpetual punishments and
infinite torments for its faults. Therefore things are in this
position, that they who are happy in this life, pertaining to the body
and the earth, are about to be miserable for ever, because they have
already enjoyed the good things which they preferred, which happens to
those who adore false gods and neglect the true God. In the next place,
they who, following righteousness, have been miserable, and despised,
and poor in this life, and have often been harassed with insults and
injuries on account of righteousness itself, because virtue
cannot otherwise be attained, are about to be always happy, that since
they have already endured evils, they may also enjoy goods. Which
plainly happens to those who, having despised gods of the earth and
frail goods, follow the heavenly religion of God, whose goods are
everlasting, as He Himself who gave them. What shall I say of the works
of the body and soul? Do not they show that the soul is not subject to
death? For, as to the body, since it is itself frail and mortal,
whatever works it contrives are equally perishable. For Tullius says
that there is nothing which is wrought by the hands of man which is not
at some time reduced to destruction, either through injury caused by
men, or through length of time, which is the destroyer of all things.
But truly we see that the productions of the mind
are immortal. For as many as, devoting themselves to the contempt of
present things,
208
have handed down to memory the monuments of their genius and great
deeds, have plainly gained by these an imperishable name for their mind
and virtue. Therefore, if the deeds of the body are mortal for this
reason, because the body itself is mortal, it follows that the soul is
shown to be immortal from this, because we see that its productions are
not mortal. In the same manner also, the desires of the body and of the
soul declare that the one is mortal, the other everlasting. For the
body desires nothing except what is temporal, that is, food, drink,
clothing, rest, and pleasure; and it cannot desire or attain to these
very things without the assent and assistance[1] of the soul. But the
soul of itself desires many things which do not extend[2] to the duty
or enjoyment of the body; and those are not frail, but eternal, as the
fame of virtue, as the remembrance of the name. For the soul even in
opposition to the body desires the worship of God, which consists in
abstinence from desires and lusts, in the enduring of pain, in
the contempt of death. From which it is credible that the soul
does not perish, but is separated from the body, because the body can
do nothing without the soul, but the soul can do many and great things
without the body. Why should I mention that those things which are
visible to the eyes, and capable of being touched by the
hand, cannot be eternal, because they admit of external violence; but
those things which neither come under the touch nor tinder the sight,
but are apparent only in their force and method and effect, are
eternal because they suffer no violence from without? But if the body
is mortal on this account, because it is equally open to the sight and
to the touch, therefore the soul is immortal for this reason, because
it can be neither touched nor
seen.
CHAP. XII.--OF THE SOUL AND THE BODY, AND OF THEIR UNION AND SEPARATION
AND RETURN.
Now let us refute the arguments of those who
maintain the opposite opinions, which Lucretius has related in
his third book. Since, he says, the soul is born together with the
body, it must necessarily die with the body. But the two cases are not
similar. For the body is solid, and capable of being grasped[3]
both by the eyes and the hand; but the soul is slight,[4] and eluding
the touch and sight. The body is formed from the earth, and made firm;
the soul has in it nothing concrete, nothing of earthly weight, as
Plato maintained. For it could not have such great force, such great
skill, such great rapidity, unless it derived its origin from heaven.
The body, therefore, since it is made up of a ponderous and corruptible
element, and is tangible and visible, is corrupted and dies; nor is it
able to repel violence, because it comes under the sight and under the
touch; but the soul, which by its slightness avoids all touch, can be
dissolved by no attack. Therefore, although they are joined and
connected together from birth, and the one which is formed of earthly
material[5] is, as it were, the vessel of the other, which is drawn out
from heavenly fineness, when any violence has separated the two, which
separation is called death, then each returns into its own nature; that
which was of earth is resolved into earth; that which is of heavenly
breath remains fixed, and flourishes always, since the divine spirit is
everlasting. In fine, the same Lucretius, forgetting what he asserted,
and what dogma he defended, wrote these verses:[6]--
"That also which before was from the earth passes back into the earth,
and that which was sent from the borders of ether is carried again by
the quarters of heaven."[7]
But this language was not for him to employ, who contended that souls
perished with the bodies; but he was overcome by the truth, and the
true system stole upon him unawares. Moreover, that very inference
which he draws, that the soul suffers dissolution, that is, that it
perishes together with the body, since they are produced together, is
both false, and is capable of being turned to the opposite direction.
For the body does not perish together with the soul; but when the soul
departs it remains entire for many days. and frequently by medical
preparations it remains entire for a very long time. For if they both
perished together, as they are produced together, the soul would not
hastily depart and desert the body, but both would be dispersed alike
at one point of time; and the body also, while the breath still
remained in it, would dissolve and perish as quickly as the soul
departs: yes, truly, the body, being dissolved, the soul would vanish,
as moisture poured forth from a broken vessel. For if the earthly and
frail body after the departure of the soul does not immediately flow
away and waste into earth, from which it has its origin, therefore the
soul, which is not frail, endures to eternity, since its origin is
eternal. He says, since the understanding increases in boys, and is
vigorous in young men, and is lessened in the aged, it is evident that
it is mortal. First, the soul is not the same thing as the mind; for it
is one thing that we live, another that we reflect. For it is the mind
of those who are asleep which is at rest,[8] not
209
the soul; and in those who are mad, the mind is extinguished, the soul
remains; and therefore they are not said to be without a soul, but to
be deprived of their mind.[1] Therefore the mind, that is, the
understanding, is either increased or lessened according to age. The
soul is always in its own condition; and from the time when it receives
the power of breathing, it remains the same even to the end, until,
being sent forth from the confinement of the body, it flies back to its
own abode. In the next place, the soul, although inspired by God, yet,
because it is shut up in a dark abode of earthly flesh, does not
possess knowledge, which belongs to divinity. Therefore it hears and
learns all things, and receives wisdom by learning and hearing; and old
age does not lessen wisdom, but increases it, if the age of youth has
been passed in virtue; and if excessive old age shall have enfeebled
the limbs, it is not the fault of the mind if the sight has vanished,
if the tongue has become benumbed, if the hearing has grown deaf, but
it is the fault of the body. But, it is said, the memory fails. What
wonder, if the mind is oppressed by the ruin of the falling house, and
forgets the past, not about to be divine on any other condition than if
it shall have escaped the prison in which it is confined?
But the soul, be says, is also subject to pain and
grief, and loses its senses through drunkenness, whence it is evidently
frail and mortal. On this account, therefore, virtue and wisdom are
necessary, that both grief, which is contracted by the suffering and
the sight of unworthy objects, may be repelled by fortitude, and that
pleasure may be overcome, not only by abstaining from drinking, but
also from other things. For if it be destitute of virtue, if it be
given up to pleasure, and thus rendered effeminate, it will become
subject to death, since virtue, as we have shown, is the contriver of
immortality, as pleasure is of death. But death, as I have set forth,
does not entirely extinguish and destroy, but visits with eternal
torments. For the soul cannot entirely perish, since it received its
origin from the Spirit of God, which is eternal. The soul, he says, is
sensible even of disease of the body, and suffers forgetfulness of
itself; and as it grows ill, so also it is often healed. This is
therefore the reason why virtue is especially to be used, that the
mind--not the soul[2]--may not be harassed by any pain of the body, or
undergo oblivion of itself. And since this has its seat in a certain
part of the body, when any violence of disease has vitiated that part,
it is moved from its place; and as though shaken, it departs from its
station,
about to return when a cure and health shall have remodelled its abode.
For, since the soul is united with the body, if it is destitute of
virtue, it grows sick by the contagion of the body, and from sharing
its frailty the weakness extends to the mind. But when it shall be
disunited from the body it will flourish by itself; nor will it now be
assailed by any, condition of frailty, because it has laid aside its
frail covering. As the eye, he says, when torn out and separated from
the body, can see nothing, so also the soul, when separated, can
perceive nothing, because it is itself also a part of the body. This is
false, and dissimilar to the case supposed; for the soul is not a part
of the body, but in the body. As that which is contained in a vessel is
not a part of the vessel, and these things which are in a house are not
said to be a part of the house; so the mind is not a part of the body,
because the body is either the vessel or the receptacle of the soul.
Now, that is a much more empty argument which says that
the soul appears to be mortal because it is not quickly sent forth from
the body, but gradually unfolds itself from all the members, beginning
from the extremity of the feet; as though, if it were eternal, it would
burst forth in a single moment of time, which takes place in those who
die by the sword. But they who are slain by disease are longer in
breathing forth their spirit, so that as the limbs grow cold the
soul is breathed forth. For, since it is contained in the material of
the blood, as light is in the oil, that material being consumed by the
heat of fevers, the extremities of the limbs must grow cold; since the
more slender veins are extended into the extremities of the body, and
the extreme and smaller streams are dried up when the fountain-spring
fails. It must not, however, be supposed that, because the perception
of the body fails, the sensibility of the soul is extinguished and
perishes. For it is not the soul that becomes senseless when the body
fails, but it is the body which becomes senseless when the soul takes
its departure, because it draws all sensibility with it. But since the
soul by its presence gives sensibility to the body, and causes it to
live, it is impossible that it should not live and perceive by itself,
since it is in itself both consciousness and life. For as to that which
says,
"But if our mind were immortal, it would not when dying complain so
much of its dissolution as it would rejoice in passing abroad and
quitting its vesture like a snake,"[3]
I never saw any one who complained of his dissolution in death; but he
perhaps had seen some Epicurean philosophizing even in death,
210
and with his latest breath discoursing about his dissolution.
How can it be known whether he feels that he is in a
state of dissolution, or that he is being set free from the body, when
his tongue grows dumb at his departure? For as long as he perceives and
has the power of speech, he is not yet dissolved; when he has suffered
dissolution, he is now unable either to perceive or to speak, so that
either he is not yet able to complain of his dissolution, or he is no
longer able. But, it is said, he understands before he undergoes
dissolution, that he must undergo it. Why should I mention that we see
many of the dying, not complaining that they are undergoing
dissolution, but testifying that they are passing out, and setting
forth on their journey and walking? and they signify this by gesture,
or if they still are able, they express it also by their voice. From
which it is evident that it is not a dissolution which takes place, but
a separation; and this shows that the soul continues to exist. Other
arguments of the Epicurean system are opposed to Pythagoras, who
contends that souls migrate from bodies worn out with old age and
death, and gain admission[1] into those which are new and recently
born; and that the same souls are always reproduced at one time in a
man, at another time in a sheep, at another in a wild beast, at another
in a bird; and that they are immortal on this account, because they
often change their abodes, consisting of various and dissimilar bodies.
And this opinion of a senseless man, since it is ridiculous and more
worthy of a stage-player than of a school of philosophy, ought not even
to have been refuted seriously; for he who does this appears to be
afraid lest any one should believe it. Therefore we must pass by those
things which have been discussed in behalf of falsehood against
falsehood; it is sufficient to have refuted those things which are
against the truth.
CHAP. XIII.--OF THE SOUL, AND THE TESTIMONIES CONCERNING ITS
ETERNITY.
I have made it evident, as I think, that the soul is
not subject to dissolution. It remains that I bring forward witnesses
by whose authority my arguments may be confirmed. And I will not now
allege the testimony of the prophets, whose system and divination
consist in this alone, the teaching that man was created for the
worship of God. and for receiving immortality from Him; but I will
rather bring forward those whom they who reject the truth cannot but
believe. Hermes, describing the nature of man, that he might show how
he was made by God, introduced this statement: "And the same
out of two natures--the immortal and the mortal--made one nature, that
of man, making the same partly immortal, and partly mortal; and
bringing this, he placed it in the midst, between that nature which was
divine and immortal, and that which was mortal and changeable, that
seeing all things, he may admire all things." But some one may perhaps
reckon him in the number of the philosophers, although he has been
placed among the gods, and honoured by the Egyptians under the name of
Mercury, and may give no more authority to him than to Plato or
Pythagoras. Let us therefore seek for greater testimony. A certain
Polites asked Apollo of Miletus whether the soul remains after death or
goes to dissolution; and he replied in these verses:--
"As long as the soul is bound by fetters to the body, perceiving
corruptible sufferings, it yields to mortal pains; but when, after the
wasting of the body, it has found a very swift dissolution of
mortality, it is altogether borne into the air, never growing old, and
it remains always uninjured; for the first-born providence of God made
this disposition."
What do the Sibylline poems say? Do they not declare that this is so,
when they say that the time Will come when God will judge the living
and the dead?--whose authority we will hereafter bring forward.[2]
Therefore the opinion entertained by Democritus, and Epicurus, and
Dicaearchus concerning the dissolution of the soul is false; and they
would not venture to speak concerning the destruction of souls, in the
presence of any magician, who knew that souls are called forth from the
lower regions by certain incantations, and that they are at hand, and
afford themselves to be seen by human eyes, and speak, and foretell
future events; and if they should thus venture, they would be
overpowered by the fact itself, and by proofs presented to them. But
because they did not comprehend the nature of the soul, which is so
subtle that it escapes the eyes of the human mind, they said that it
perishes. What of Aristoxenus, who denied that there is any soul at
all, even while it lives in the body? But as on the lyre harmonious
sound, and the strain which musicians call harmony, is produced by the
tightening of the strings, so he thought that the power of perception
existed in bodies from the joining together of the vitals, and from the
vigour of the limbs; than which nothing can be said more senseless.
Truly he had his eyes uninjured, but his heart was blind, with which he
did not see that he lived, and had the mind by which he had conceived
that very thought. But this has happened to many philosophers,
211
that they did not believe in the existence of any object which is not
apparent to the eyes; whereas the sight of the mind ought to be much
clearer than that of the body, for perceiving those things the force
and nature of which are rather felt than seen.
CHAP. XIV.--OF THE FIRST AND LAST TIMES OF THE WORLD.
Since we have spoken of the immortality of the soul,
it follows that we teach how and when it is given to man; that in this
also they may see the errors of their perverseness and folly, who
imagine that some mortals have become gods by the decrees and dogmas of
mortals; either because they had invented arts, or because they had
taught the use of certain productions of the earth, or because they had
discovered things useful for the life of men, or because they had slain
savage beasts. How far these things were from deserving immortality we
have both shown in the former books, and we will now show, that it may
be evident that it is righteousness alone which procures for man
eternal life, and that it is God alone who bestows the reward of
eternal life. For they who are said to have been immortalized by their
merits, inasmuch as they possessed neither righteousness nor any true
virtue, did not obtain for themselves immortality, but death by their
sins and lusts; nor did they deserve the reward of heaven, but the
punishment of hell, which impends over them, together with all their
worshippers. And I show that the time of this judgment draws near, that
the due reward may be given to the righteous, and the deserved
punishment may be inflicted on the wicked.
Plato and many others of the philosophers, since
they were ignorant of the origin of all things, and of that primal
period at which the world was made, said that many thousands of ages
had passed since this beautiful arrangement of the world was completed;
and in this they perhaps followed the Chaldeans, who, as Cicero has
related in his first book respecting divination,[1] foolishly say[2]
that they possess comprised in their memorials four hundred and seventy
thousand years; in which matter, because they thought that they could
not be convicted, they believed that they were at liberty[3] to speak
falsely. But we, whom the Holy Scriptures instuct to the knowledge of
the truth, know the beginning and the end of the world, respecting
which we will now speak in the end of our work, since we have explained
respecting the beginning in the second book. Therefore let the
philosophers, who enumerate thousands of
ages from the beginning of the world, know that the six thousandth year
is not yet completed, and that when this number is completed the
consummation must take place, and the condition of human affairs be
remodelled for the better, the proof of which must first be related,
that the matter itself may be plain. God completed the world and this
admirable work of nature in the space of six days, as is contained in
the secrets of Holy Scripture, and consecrated the seventh day, on
which He had rested from His works. But this is the Sabbath-day, which
in the language of the Hebrews received its name from the number,[4]
whence the seventh is the legitimate and complete number. For there are
seven days, by the revolutions of which in order the circles of years
are made up; and there are seven stars which do not set, and seven
luminaries which are called planets,[5] whose differing and unequal
movements are believed to cause the varieties of circumstances and
times.[6]
Therefore, since all the works of God were completed
in six days, the world must continue in its present state through six
ages, that is, six thousand years. For the great day of God is limited
by a circle of a thousand years, as the prophet shows, who says[7] "In
Thy sight, O Lord, a thousand years are as one day." And as God
laboured during those six days in creating such great works, so His
religion and truth must labour during these six thousand years, while
wickedness prevails and bears rule. And again, since God, having
finished His works, rested the seventh day and blessed it, at the end
of the six thousandth year all wickedness must be abolished from the
earth, and righteousness reign for a thousand years; and there must be
tranquillity and rest from the labours which the world now has long
endured. But how that will come to pass I will explain in its order. We
have often said that lesser things and things of small importance are
figures and previous shadowings forth of great things; as this day of
ours, which is bounded by the rising and the setting of the sun, is a
representation[8] of that great clay to which the circuit of a thousand
years affixes its limits.[9]
In the same manner also the fashioning of the
earthly man held forth to the future the formation of the heavenly
people. For as, when all things were completed which were contrived for
the use of man, last of all, on the sixth day, He
212
made man also, and introduced him into this world as into a home now
carefully prepared; so now on the great sixth day the true man is being
formed by the word of God, that is, a holy people is fashioned for
righteousness by the doctrine and precepts of God. And as then a mortal
and imperfect man was formed from the earth, that he might live a
thousand years in this world; so now from this earthly age is formed a
perfect man, that being quickened by God, he may bear rule in this same
world through a thousand years. But in what manner the consummation
will take place, and what end awaits the affairs of men, if any one
shall examine the divine writings he will ascertain. But the voices
also of prophets of the world, agreeing with the heavenly, announce the
end and overthrow of all things after a short time, describing as it
were the last old age of the wearied and wasting world. But the things
which are said by prophets and seers to be about to happen before that
last ending comes upon the world, I will subjoin, being collected and
accumulated from all quarters.
CHAP, XV.--OF THE DEVASTATION OF THE WORLD AND CHANGE OF
THE EMPIRES.
It is contained in the mysteries of the sacred
writings, that a prince of the Hebrews, compelled by want of corn,
passed into Egypt with all his family and relatives. And when his
posterity, remaining long in Egypt, had increased into a great nation,
and were oppressed by the heavy and intolerable yoke of slavery, God
smote Egypt with an incurable stroke, and freed His people, leading
them through the midst of the sea, when, the waves being cut asunder
and parted on either side, the people went over on dry ground. And the
king of the Egyptians endeavouring to follow them as they fled, the sea
returning to its place, he was cut off, with all his people. And this
deed so illustrious and so wonderful, although for the present it
displayed to men the power of God, was also a foreshadowing and figure
of a greater deed, which the same God was about to perform at the last
consummation of the times, for He will free His people from the
oppressive bondage of the world. But since at that time the people of
God were one, and in one nation only, Egypt only was smitten. But now,
because the people of God are collected out of all languages, and dwell
among all nations, and are oppressed by those hearing rule over them,
it must come to pass that all nations, that is, the whole world, be
beaten with heavenly stripes, that the righteous people, who are
worshippers of God, may be set free. And as then signs were given by
which the coming destruction was shown to the Egyptians, so at the last
time wonderful prodigies will take place throughout all the elements of
the world, by which the impending destruction may be understood by all
nations.
Therefore, as the end of this world approaches, the
condition of human affairs must undergo a change, and through the
prevalence of wickedness become worse; so that now these times of ours,
in which iniquity and impiety have increased even to the highest
degree, may be judged happy and almost golden in comparison of that
incurable evil. For righteousness will so decrease, and impiety,
avarice, desire, and lust will so greatly increase, that if there shall
then happen to be any good men, they will be a prey to the wicked, and
will be harassed on all sides by the unrighteous; while the wicked
alone will be in opulence, but the good will be afflicted in all
calumnies and in want. All justice will be confounded, and the laws
will be destroyed. No one will then have anything except that which has
been gained or defended by the hand: boldness and violence will possess
all things. There will be no faith among men, nor peace, nor kindness,
nor shame, nor truth; and thus also there will be neither security, nor
government, nor any rest from evils. For all the earth will be in a
state of tumult; wars will everywhere rage; all nations will he
in arms, and will oppose one another; neighbouring states will carry on
conflicts with each other; and first of all, Egypt will pay the
penalties of her foolish superstitions, and will be covered with
blood as if with a river. Then the sword will traverse the world,
mowing down everything, and laying low all things as a crop. And--my
mind dreads to relate it, but I will relate it, because it is about to
happen--the cause of this desolation and confusion will be this;
because the Roman name, by which the world is now ruled, will be taken
away from the earth, and the government return to Asia; and the East
will again bear rule, and the West he reduced to servitude.[1] Nor
ought it to appear wonderful to any one, if a kingdom rounded with such
vastness, and so long increased by so many and such men, and in short
strengthened by such great resources, shall nevertheless at some time
fall. There is nothing prepared by human strength which cannot equally
he destroyed by human strength, since the works of mortals are mortal.
Thus also other kingdoms in former times, though they had long
flourished, were nevertheless destroyed. For it is related that the
Egyptians, and Persians, and Greeks, and Assyrians had the government
of the world; and after the destruction of them all, the chief power
came to the Romans also. And inasmuch as they excel all other kingdoms
in magnitude, with so much
213
greater an overthrow will they fall, because those buildings which are
higher than others have more weight for a downfall.[1]
Seneca therefore not unskilfully divided the times
of the Roman city by ages. For he said that at first was its infancy
under King Romulus, by whom Rome was brought into being, and as it were
educated; then its boyhood under the other kings, by whom it was
increased and fashioned with more numerous systems of instruction and
institutions; but at length, in the reign of Tarquinius, when now it
had begun as it were to be grown up, it did not endure slavery; and
having thrown off the yoke of a haughty tyranny, it preferred to obey
laws rather than kings; and when its youth was terminated by the end of
the Punic war, then at length with confirmed strength it began to be
manly.[2] For when Carthage was taken away, which was long its rival in
power, it stretched out its hands by land and sea over the whole world,
until, having subdued all kings and nations, when the materials[3] for
war now failed, it abused its strength, by which it destroyed itself.
This was its first old age, when, lacerated by civil wars and oppressed
by intestine evil, it again fell back to the government of a single
ruler, as it were revolving to a second infancy.[4] For, having lost
the liberty which it had defended under the guidance and authority of
Brutus, it so grew old, as though it had no strength to support itself,
unless it depended on the aid of its rulers. But if these things are
so, what remains, except that death follow old age? And that it will so
come to pass, the predictions of the prophets briefly announce under
the cover[5] of other names, so that no one can easily understand them.
Nevertheless the Sibyls openly say that Rome is doomed to perish, and
that indeed by the judgment of God, because it held His name in hatred;
and being the enemy of righteousness, it destroyed the people who
kept[6] the truth. Hystaspes also,who was a very ancient king of the
Medes, from whom also the river which is now called Hydaspes received
its name, handed down to the memory of posterity a wonderful dream upon
the interpretation of a boy who uttered divinations, announcing long
before the founding of the Trojan nation, that the Roman empire and
name would be taken away from the world.
CHAP. XVI.--OF THE DEVASTATION OF THE WORLD,
AND ITS PROPHETIC OMENS.[7]
But, test any one should think this incredible, I
will show how it will come to pass. First, the kingdom will be
enlarged, and the chief power, dispersed among many and divided,[8]
will be diminished. Then civil discords will perpetually be sown; nor
will there be any rest from deadly wars, until ten kings arise at the
same time, who will divide the world, not to govern, but to consume it.
These, having increased their armies to an immense extent, and having
deserted the cultivation of the fields, which is the beginning of
overthrow and disaster, will lay waste and break in pieces and consume
all things. Then a most powerful enemy will suddenly arise against him
from the extreme boundaries of the northern region, who, having
destroyed three of that number who shall then be in possession of Asia,
shall be admitted into alliance by the others, and shall be constituted
prince of all. He shall harass the world with an intolerable rule;
shall mingle things divine and human; shall contrive things impious to
relate, and detestable; shall meditate new designs in his breast, that
he may establish the government for himself: he will change the laws,
and appoint his own; he will contaminate, plunder, spoil, and put to
death. And at length, the name being changed and the seat of government
being transferred, confusion and the disturbance of mankind will
follow. Then, in truth, a detestable and abominable time shall come, in
which life shall be pleasant to none of men.
Cities shall be utterly overthrown, and shall
perish; not only by fire and the sword, but also by continual
earthquakes and overflowings of waters, and by frequent diseases and
repeated famines. For the atmosphere will be tainted, and become
corrupt and pestilential--at one time by unseasonable rains, at another
by barren drought, now by colds, and now by excessive heats. Nor will
the earth give its fruit to man: no field, or tree, or vine will
produce anything; but after they have given the greatest hope in the
blossom, they will fail in the fruit. Fountains also shall be dried up,
together with the rivers; so that there shall not be a sufficient
supply for drinking; and waters shall be changed into blood or
bitterness. On account of these things, beasts shall fail on the land,
and birds in the air, and fishes in the sea. Wonderful prodigies also
in heaven shall confound the minds of men with the greatest terrors,
and the trains of comets, and the darkness of the sun, and the colour
of the moon, and the gliding of the falling stars. Nor, however, will
these things take place in the accustomed manner; but there will
suddenly appear stars unknown and unseen by the eyes; the sun will be
perpetually darkened, so that there will be scarcely any distinction
between the night and the day; the moon will now fail, not for three
hours only, but overspread with perpetual blood, will go through
extraordinary movements, so that
214
it will not be easy for man to ascertain the courses of the heavenly
bodies or the system of the times; for there will either be summer in
the winter, or winter in the summer. Then the year will be shortened,
and the month diminished, and the day contracted into a short space;
and stars shall fall in great numbers, so that all the heaven will
appear dark without any lights. The loftiest mountains also will fall,
and be levelled with the plains; the sea will be rendered unnavigable.
And that nothing may be wanting to the evils of men
and the earth, the trumpet shall be heard from heaven, which the Sibyl
foretells in this manner:--
"The trumpet from heaven shall utter its wailing voice."
And then all shall tremble and quake at that mournful sound.[2] But
then, through the anger of God against the men who have not known
righteousness, the sword and fire, famine and disease, shall reign;
and, above all things, fear always overhanging. Then they shall call
upon God, but He will not hear them; death shall be desired, but it
will not come; not even shall night give rest to their fear, nor shall
sleep approach to their eyes, but anxiety and watchfulness shall
consume the souls of men; they shall deplore and lament, and gnash
their teeth; they shall congratulate the dead, and bewail the living.
Through these and many other evils there shall be desolation on the
earth, and the world shall be disfigured and deserted, which is thus
expressed in the verses of the Sibyl:--
"The world shall be despoiled of beauty, through the destruction of
men."
For the human race will be so consumed, that scarcely the tenth part of
men will be left; and from whence a thousand had gone forth,
scarcely a hundred will go forth. Of the worshippers of God also, two
parts will perish; and the third part, which shall have been proved,
will remain.
CHAP. XVII.--OF THE FALSE PROPHET, AND THE HARDSHIPS OF THE RIGHTEOUS,
AND HIS DESTRUCTION.
But I will more plainly set forth the manner in
which this happens. When the close of the times draws nigh, a great
prophet shall be sent from God to turn men to the knowledge of God, and
he shall receive the power of doing wonderful things.[2] Wherever men
shall not hear him, he will shut up the heaven, and cause it to
withhold its rains; he will turn their water into blood, and torment
them with thirst and hunger; and if any one shall endeavour to injure
him, fire, shall come forth out of his mouth, and shall bum that man.
By these prodigies and powers he shall turn many to the worship of God;
and when his works shall be accomplished, another king shah arise out
of Syria, born from an evil spirit, the overthrower and destroyer of
the human race, who shall destroy that which is left by the former
evil, together with himself. He shall fight against the prophet of God,
and shall overcome, and slay him, and shall suffer him to lie unburied;
but after the third day he shall come to life again; and while all look
on and wonder, he shall be caught up into heaven. But that king will
not only be most disgraceful in himself, but he will also be a prophet
of lies; and he will constitute and call himself God, and will
order himself to be worshipped as the Son of God; and power will be
given him to do signs and wonders, by the sight of which he may entice
men to adore him. He will command fire to come down from heaven, and
the sun to stand and leave his course, and an image to speak; and these
things shall be done at his word,--by which miracles[3] many even of
the wise shall be enticed by him. Then he will attempt to destroy the
temple of God, and persecute the righteous people; and there will be
distress and tribulation?[4] such as there never has been from the
beginning of the world.
As many as shall believe him and unite themselves to
him, shall be marked by him as sheep; but they who shall refuse his
mark will either flee to the mountains, or, being seized, will be slain
with studied[5] tortures. He will also enwrap righteous men with the
books of the prophets, and thus burn them; and power will be given him
to desolate[6] the whole earth for forty-two months. That will be the
time in which righteousness shall be cast out, and innocence be hated;
in which the wicked shall prey upon the good as enemies; neither law,
nor order, nor military discipline shall be preserved; no one shall
reverence hoary locks, nor recognise the duty of piety, nor pity sex or
infancy; all things shall be confounded and mixed together against
right, and against the laws of nature. Thus the earth shall be laid
waste, as though by one common robbery. When these things shall so
happen, then the righteous and the followers of truth shall separate
themselves from the wicked, and flee into solitudes. And when he hears
of this, the impious king, inflamed with anger, will come with a great
army, and bringing up all his forces, will surround all the mountain in
which the righteous shall be situated, that he may seize them. But
they, when they shall see themselves
215
to be shut in on all sides and besieged, will call upon God with a loud
voice, and implore the aid of heaven; and God shall hear them, and send
from heaven a great king to rescue and free them, and destroy all the
wicked with fire and sword.
CHAP. XVIII.--OF THE FORTUNES OF THE WORLD AT THE LAST TIME, AND OF THE
THINGS FORETOLD BY THE SOOTHSAYERS.
That these things will thus take place, all the
prophets have announced from the inspiration of God, and also the
soothsayers at the instigation of the demons. For Hystaspes, whom I
have named above, having described the iniquity of this last time, says
that the pious and faithful, being separated from the wicked, will
stretch forth their hands to heaven with weeping and mourning, and will
implore the protection of Jupiter: that Jupiter will look to the earth,
and hear the voices of men, and will destroy the wicked. All which
things are true except one, that he attributed to Jupiter those things
which God will do. But that also was withdrawn from the account, not
without fraud on the part of the demons, viz., that the Son of God
would then be sent, who, having destroyed all the wicked, would set at
liberty the pious. Which, however, Hermes did not conceal. For in that
book which is entitled the Complete Treatise, after an enumeration of
the evils concerning which we have spoken, he added these things: "But
when these things thus come to pass, then He who is Lord, and Father,
and God, and the Creator of the first and one God, looking upon what is
done, and opposing to the disorder His own will, that is, goodness, and
recalling the wandering and cleansing wickedness, partly inundating it
with much water, and partly burning it with most rapid fire, and
sometimes pressing it with wars and pestilences, He brought His world
to its ancient state and restored it." The Sibyls also show that it
would not be otherwise than that the Son of God should be sent by His
supreme Father, to set free the righteous from the hands of the wicked,
and to destroy the unrighteous, together with their cruel tyrants. One
of whom thus wrote:--
"He shall come also, wishing to destroy the city of the blest; and a
kingsent against him from the gods shall slay all the great kings
andchief men: then judgment shall thus come from the Immortal to
men."
Also another Sibyl:--
"And then God shall send a king from the sun, who shall cause all the
earth to cease from disastrous war."
And again another:--
"He will take away the intolerable yoke of slavery which is placed on
ourneck, and he will do away with impious laws and violent chains."
CHAP. XIX.--OF THE ADVENT OF CHRIST TO JUDGMENT, AND OF THE OVERCOMING
OF THE FALSE PROPHET.
The world therefore being oppressed, since the
resources of men shall be insufficient for the overthrow of a tyranny
of immense strength, inasmuch as it will press upon the captive world
with great armies of robbers; that calamity so great will stand in need
of divine assistance. Therefore God, being aroused both by the doubtful
danger and by the wretched lamentation of the righteous, will
immediately send a deliverer. Then the middle of the heaven shall be
laid open in the dead and darkness of the night, that the light of the
descending God may be manifest in all the world as lightning: of which
the Sibyl spoke in these words:--
"When He shall come, there will be fire and darkness in the midst of
theblack night."
This is the night which is celebrated by us in watchfulness on account
of the coming of our King and God:[1] of which night there is a twofold
meaning; because in it He then received life when He suffered, and
hereafter He is about to receive the kingdom of the world. For He is
the Deliverer, and Judge, and Avenger, and King, and God, whom we call
Christ, who before He descends will give this sign: There shall
suddenly fall from heaven a sword, that the righteous may know that the
leader of the sacred warfare is about to descend; and He shall descend
with a company of angels to the middle of the earth, and there shall go
before Him an unquenchable fire, and the power of the angels shall
deliver into the hands of the just that multitude which has surrounded
the mountain, and they shall be slain from the third hour until the
evening, and blood shall flow like a torrent; and all his forces being
destroyed, the wicked one shall alone escape, and his power shall
perish from him.
Now this is he who is called Antichrist; but he
shall falsely call himself Christ, and shall fight against the truth,
and being overcome shall flee; and shall often renew the war, and often
be conquered, until in the fourth battle, all the wicked being slain,
subdued, and captured, he shall at length pay the penalty of his
crimes. But other princes also and tyrants who have harassed the world,
together with him, shall be led in chains to the king; and he shall
rebuke them, and reprove them, and upbraid them with their crimes, and
condemn them, and consign them to deserved tortures. Thus, wickedness
being extinguished and impiety suppressed, the world will be at rest,
which having been subject
216
to error and wickedness for so many ages, endured dreadful slavery. No
longer shall gods made by the hands be worshipped; but the images
being thrust out from their temples and couches, shall be given
to the fire, and shall be burnt, together with their wonderful gifts:
which also the Sibyl, in accordance with the prophets, announced as
about to take place:--
"But mortals shall break in pieces the images and all the wealth."
The Erythraean Sibyl also made the same promise:--
"And the works made by the hand of the gods shall be burnt up."
CHAP. XX.--OF THE JUDGMENT OF CHRIST, OF CHRISTIANS, AND OF THE SOUL
After these things the lower regions shall be
opened, and the dead shall rise again, on whom the same King and God
shall pass judgment, to
whom the supreme Father shall give the great power both of judging and
of reigning. And respecting this judgment and reign, it is thus found
in the Erythraean Sibyl:--
"When this shall receive its fated accomplishment, and the judgment of
the immortal God shall now come to mortals, the
great judgment shallcome upon men, and the beginning."
Then in another:--
"And then the gaping earth shall show a Tartarean chaos; and all
kingsshall come to the judgment-seat of God."
And in another place in the same:--
"Rolling along the heavens, I will open the caverns of the earth; and
then I will raise the dead, loosing fate and the
sting of death; andafterwards I will call them into judgment, judging
the life of piousand impious men."
Not all men, however, shall then be judged by God, but those only who
have been exercised in the religion of God. For they who have not known
God, since sentence cannot be passed upon them for their acquittal, are
already judged and condemned, since the Holy Scriptures testify that
the wicked shall not arise to judgment.[1] Therefore they who have
known God shall be judged, and their deeds, that is, their evil works,
shall be compared and weighed against their good ones: so that if those
which are good and just are more[2] and weighty, they may be given to a
life of blessedness; but if the evil exceed, they may be condemned to
punishment. Here, perhaps, some one will say, If the soul is immortal,
how is it represented as capable of suffering, and sensible of
punishment? For if it shall be punished on account of its deserts, it
is plain that it will be sensible of pain, and even of death. If it is
not liable to death, not even to pain, it follows that it is not
capable of suffering.
This question or argument is thus met by the Stoics:
that the souls of men continue to exist, and are not annihilated[3] by
the intervention of death: that the souls, moreover, of those who
have been just, being pure, and incapable of suffering, and happy,
return to the heavenly abodes from which they had their origin, or are
borne to some happy plains, where they may enjoy wonderful pleasures;
but that the wicked, since they have defiled themselves with evil I
passions, have a kind of middle nature, between that of an immortal and
a mortal, and have something of weakness, from the contagion of the
flesh; and being enslaved to its desires and lusts, they contract an
indelible stain and earthly blot; and when this has become entirely
inherent through length of time, souls are given over to its nature, so
that, though they cannot altogether be extinguished, inasmuch as they
are from God, nevertheless they become liable to torment through the
taint of the body, which being burnt in by means of sins, produces a
feeling of pain. Which sentiment is thus expressed by the poet:[4]--
Nay, when at last the life has
fled,
And left the body cold and dead,
E'en then there passes not away
The painful heritage of clay:
Full many a long contracted stain
Perforce must linger deep in
grain.
So penal sufferings they endure
For ancient crime, to make them
pure."
These things are near to the truth.[5] For the semi, when separated
from the body, is, as the same poet says,[6] such as
"No vision of the drowsy night,
No airy current half so light,"
because it is a spirit, and by its very slighthess incapable of being
perceived, but only by us who are corporeal i but capable of being
perceived by God, since it belongs to Him to be able to do all things.
CHAP. XXI.--OF THE TORMENTS AND PUNISHMENTS
OF SOULS.
First of all, therefore, we say that the power of
God is so great, that He perceives even incorporeal things, and manages
them as He will.
217
For even angels fear God, because they can be chastised by Him in some
unspeakable manner; and devils dread Him, because they are tormented
and punished by Him. What wonder is it, therefore, if souls, though
they are immortal, are nevertheless capable of suffering at the hand of
God? For since they have nothing solid and tangible in
themselves, they can suffer no violence from solid and corporeal
beings; but because they live in their spirits only, they are capable
of being handled by God alone, whose energy and substance is spiritual.
But, however, the sacred writings inform us in what manner the wicked
are to undergo punishment. For because they have committed sins in
their bodies, they will again be clothed with flesh, that they may make
atonement in their bodies; and yet it will not be that flesh with which
God clothed man, like this our earthly body, but indestructible, and
abiding for ever, that it may be able to hold out against tortures and
everlasting fire, the nature of which is different from this fire of
ours, which we use for the necessary purposes of life, and which is
extinguished unless it be sustained by the fuel of some material. But
that divine fire always lives by itself, and flourishes without any
nourishment; nor has it any smoke mixed with it, but it is pure and
liquid, and fluid, after the manner of water. For it is not urged
upwards by any force, as our fire, which the taint of the earthly body,
by which it is held, and smoke intermingled, compels to leap forth, and
to fly upwards to the nature of heaven, with a tremulous movement.[1]
The same divine fire, therefore, with one and the
same force and power, will both burn the wicked and will form them
again, and will replace as much as it shall consume of their bodies,
and will supply itself with eternal nourishment: which the poets
transferred to the vulture of Tityus. Thus, without any wasting of
bodies, which regain their substance, it will only burn and affect them
with a sense of pain. But when He shall have judged the righteous, He
will also try them with fire. Then they whose sins shall exceed either
in weight or in number, shall be scorched by the fire and burnt:[2] but
they whom full justice and maturity of virtue has imbued will not
perceive that fire; for they have something of God in themselves which
repels and rejects the violence of the flame. So great is the force of
innocence, that the flame shrinks from it without doing harm; which has
received from God this power, that it burns the wicked, and is under
the command of the righteous. Nor, however, let any one imagine that
souls are immediately judged. after death. For all are detained in one
and a common place of confinement, until the arrival of the time in
which the great Judge shall make an investigation of their deserts.[3]
Then they whose piety shall have been approved of will receive the
reward of immortality; but they whose sins and crimes shall have been
brought to light will not rise again, but will be hidden in the same
darkness with the wicked, being destined to certain punishment.
CHAP. XXII.--OF THE ERROR OF THE POETS, AND THE RETURN OF THE SOUL FROM
THE LOWER REGIONS.
Some imagine that these things are figments of the
poets, not knowing whence the poets received them, and they say that
these things are impossible; and it is no wonder that it so appears to
them. For the matter is related by the poets in a manner which is
different from the truth; for although they are much more ancient than
the historians and orators, and other kinds of writers, yet because
they were ignorant of the secret of the divine mystery, and mention of
a future resurrection had reached them by an obscure rumour, yet they
handed it down, when carelessly and lightly heard, after the manner of
a feigned story. And yet they also testified that they did not
follow a sure authority, but mere opinion, as Maro, who says,[4]
"What ear has beard let tongue make known."
Although, therefore, they have partly corrupted the secrets of the
truth, yet the matter itself is found to be more true, because it
partly agrees with the prophets: which is sufficient for us as a proof
of the matter. Yet some reason is contained in their error. For when
the prophets proclaimed with continual announcements that the Son of
God was about to judge the dead, and this announcement did not escape
their notice; inasmuch as they supposed that there was no other ruler
of heaven but Jupiter, they reported that the son of Jupiter was king
in the lower regions, but not Apollo, or Liber, or Mercurius, who are
supposed to be gods of heaven, but one who was both mortal and just,
either Minos, or AEacus, or Rhadamanthus. Therefore with poetic licence
they corrupted that which they had received; or, the opinion being
scattered through different mouths and various discourses, changed the
truth. For inasmuch as they foretold that, when a thousand years had
been passed in the lower regions, they should again be restored to
life, as Maro said:[5]_
"All these, when centuries ten
times told
The wheel of destiny have rolled,
218
The voice divine from far and wide
Calls up to Lethe's river side,
That earthward they may pass once
more,
Remembering not the things before,
And with a blind propension yearn
To fleshly bodies to return:"
this matter escaped their notice, that the dead will rise again, not
after a thousand years from their death, but that, when again restored
to life, they may reign with God a thousand years. For God will come,
that, having cleansed the world from all defilement, He may restore the
souls of the righteous to their renewed bodies, and raise them to
everlasting blessedness.Therefore the other things are true, except the
water of oblivion, which they feigned on this account, that no one
might make this objection: why, therefore, did they not remember that
they were at one time alive, or who they were, or what things they
accomplished? But nevertheless it is not thought probable, and the
whole matter is rejected, as though licentiously and fabulously
invented. But when we affirm the doctrine of the resurrection, and
teach that souls will return to another life, not forgetful of
themselves, but possessed of the same perception and figure, we are met
with this objection: So many ages have now passed; what individual ever
arose from the dead, that through. his example we may believe it to be
possible? But the resurrection cannot take place while unrighteousness
still prevails. For in this world men are slain by violence, by the
sword, by ambush, by poisons, and are visited with injuries, with want,
with imprisonment, with tortures, and with proscriptions. Add to this
that righteousness is hated, that all who wish to follow God are not
only held in hatred, but are harassed with all reproaches, and are
tormented by manifold kinds of punishments, and are driven to the
impious worship of gods made with hands, not by reason or truth, but by
dreadful laceration of their bodies.
Ought men therefore to rise again to these same
things, or to return to a life in which it is impossible for them to be
safe? Since the right-eous, then, are so lightly esteemed, and so
easily taken away, what can we suppose would have happened if any one
returning from the dead had recovered life by a recovery[1] of his
former condition? He would assuredly be taken away from the eyes of
men, lest, if he were seen or heard, all men with one accord should
leave the gods and betake themselves to the worship and religion of the
one God. Therefore it is necessary that the resurrection should take
place once only when evil shall have been taken away, since it is
befitting that those who have risen again should neither die any more,
nor be injured in any way, that they may be able to pass a happy life
whose death has been annulled.[2] But the poets, knowing that this life
abounds with all evils, introduced the river of oblivion, lest the
souls, remembering their labours and evils, should refuse to
return to the upper regions; whence Virgil says:[3]--
"O Father l and can thought
conceive
That happy souls this realm would
leave,
And seek the
upper sky,
With sluggish clay to reunite?
This dreadful longing for the
light,
Whence comes
it, say, and why?"
For they did not know how or when it must take place; and therefore
they supposed that souls were born again, and that they returned afresh
to the womb, and went back to infancy. Whence also Plato, while
discussing the nature of the soul, says that it may be known from this
that souls are immortal and divine, because in boys minds are pliant,
and easy of perception, and because they so quickly comprehend the
subjects which they learn, that they appear not then to be learning for
the first time, but to be recalling them to mind and recollecting them:
in which matter the wise man most foolishly believed the poets.
CHAP. XXIII.--OF THE RESURRECTION OF THE SOUL, AND THE PROOFS OF THIS
FACT.
Therefore they will not be born again, which is
impossible, but they will rise again, and be clothed by God with
bodies, and will remember their former life, and all its actions; and
being placed in the possession of heavenly goods, and enjoying the
pleasure of innumerable resources, they will give thanks to God in His
immediate presence, because He has destroyed all evil, and because He
has raised them to His kingdom and to perpetual life. Respecting which
resurrection the philosophers also attempted to speak as corruptly as
the poets. For Pythagoras asserted that souls passed into new bodies;
but foolishly, that they passed from men into cattle, and from cattle
into men; and that he himself was restored from Euphorbus. Chrysippus
says better, whom Cicero speaks of as supporting the portico of the
Stoics, who, in the books which he wrote concerning providence, when he
was speaking of the renewing of the world, introduced these words: "But
since this is so, it is evident that nothing is impossible, and that
we, after our death, when certain periods of time have again come
round, are restored to this state in which we now are." But let us
return from human to divine things. The Sibyl thus speaks:--
"For the whole race of mortals is hard to be believed; but when
thejudgment of the world and of mortals shall now come, which
GodHimself shall
219
institute, judging the impious and the holy at the same time, then at
length He shall send the wicked to darkness in fire. But as many as are
holy shall live again on the earth, God giving them at the same time a
spirit, and honour, and life."
But if not only prophets, but even bards, and poets, and philosophers,
agree that there will be a resurrection of the dead, let no one ask of
us how this is possible: for no reason can be assigned for divine
works; but if from the beginning God formed man in some unspeakable
manner, we may believe that the old man can be restored by Him who made
the new man.
CHAP. XXIV.--OF THE RENEWED WORLD.
Now I will subjoin the rest. Therefore the Son of
the most high and mighty God shall come to judge the quick and the
dead, as the Sibyl testifies and says:--
"For then there shall be confusion of mortals throughout the whole
earth, when the Almighty Himself shall come on His judgment-seat to
judge the souls of the quick and dead, and all the world."
But He, when He shall have destroyed unrighteousness, and executed His
great judgment, and shall have recalled to life the righteous, who have
lived from the beginning, will be engaged among men a thousand years,
and will rule them with most just command. Which the Sibyl proclaims in
another place, as she utters her inspired predictions:--
"Hear me, ye mortals; an everlasting King reigns."
Then they who shall be alive in their bodies shall not die, but during
those thousand years shall produce an infinite multitude, and their
offspring shall be holy, and beloved by God; but they who shall be
raised from the dead shall preside over the living as judges.[1] But
the nations shall not be entirely extinguished, but some shall be left
as a victory for God, that they may be the occasion of triumph to the
righteous, and may be subjected to perpetual slavery. About the same
time also the prince of the devils, who is the contriver of all evils,
shall be bound with chains, and shall be imprisoned during the thousand
years of the heavenly rule in which righteousness shall reign in the
world, so that he may contrive no evil against the people of God. After
His coming the righteous shall be collected from all the earth, and the
judgment being completed, the sacred city shall be planted in the
middle of the earth, in which God Himself the builder may dwell
together with the righteous, bearing rule in it. And the Sibyl marks
out this city when she says:--
"And the city which God made this He made more brilliant than the
stars, and sun, and moon."
Then that darkness will be taken away from the
world with which the heaven will be overspread and darkened, and the
moon will receive the brightness of the sun, nor will it be further
diminished: but the sun will become seven times brighter than it now
is; and the earth will open its fruitfulness, and bring forth most
abundant fruits of its own accord; the rocky mountains shall drop with
honey; streams of wine shall run down, and rivers flow with milk: in
short, the world itself shall rejoice, and all nature exult, being
rescued and set free from the dominion of evil and impiety, and guilt
and error. Throughout this time beasts shall not be nourished by blood,
nor birds by prey; but all things shall be peaceful and tranquil. Lions
and calves shall stand together at the manger, the wolf shall not carry
off the sheep, the hound shall not hunt for prey; hawks and eagles
shall not injure; the infant shall play with serpents. In short, those
things shall then come to pass which the poets spoke of as being done
in the reign of Saturnus. Whose error arose from this source,--that the
prophets bring forward and speak of many future events as already
accomplished. For visions were brought before their eyes by the divine
Spirit, and they saw these things, as it were, done and completed in
their own sight. And when fame had gradually spread abroad their
predictions, since those who were uninstructed in the mysteries[2] of
religion did not know why they were spoken, they thought that all those
things were already fulfilled in the ancient ages, which evidently
could not be accomplished and fulfilled under the reign of a man.[3]
But when, after the destruction of impious religions and the
suppression of guilt, the earth shall be subject to God,--
"The sailor[4] himself also shall renounce the sea, nor
shall the naval pine Barter merchandise; all lands
shall produce all things.
The ground shall not endure the harrow, nor the vineyard the
pruning hook;
The sturdy ploughman also shall loose the bulls from the yoke.
The plain shall by degrees grow yellow with soft ears of corn,
The blushing grape shall hang on the uncultivated brambles,
And hard oaks shall distil the dewy honey.
Nor shall the wool learn to counterfeit various colours;
But the ram himself in the meadows shall change his fleece,
Now for a sweetly blushing purple, now for saffron dye;
Scarlet of its own accord shall cover the lambs as they feed.
The goats of themselves shall bring back home their udders distended
with milk; Nor shall the herds dread huge lions."[5]
220
Which things the poet foretold according to the verses of the Cumaean
Sibyl. But the Erythraean thus speaks:--
"But wolves shall not contend with lambs on the mountains, and lynxes
shall eat grass with kids; boars shall feed with calves, and with all
flocks; and the carnivorous lion shall eat chaff at the manger, and
serpents shall sleep with infants deprived of their mothers."
And in another place, speaking of the fruitfulness of all things:--
"And then shall God give great joy to men; for the earth, and the
trees, and the numberless flocks of the earth shall give to men the
true fruit of the vine, and sweet honey, and white milk, and corn,
which is the best of all things to mortals."
And another in the same manner:--
"The sacred land of the pious only will produce all these things, the
stream of honey from the rock and from the fountain, and the milk of
ambrosia will flow for all the just."
Therefore men will live a most tranquil life,
abounding with resources, and will reign together with God; and the
kings of the nations shall come from the ends of the earth with gifts
and offerings, to adore and honour the great King, whose name shall be
renowned and venerated by all the nations which shall be trader heaven,
and by the kings who shall rule on earth.
CHAP. XXV.--OF THE LAST TIMES, AND
OF THE CITY OF ROME,
These are the things which are spoken of by the
prophets as about to happen hereafter: but I have not considered it
necessary to bring forward their testimonies and words, since it would
be an endless task; nor would the limits of my book receive so great a
multitude of subjects, since so many with one breath speak similar
things; and at the same time, lest weariness should be occasioned to
the readers if I should heap together things collected and transferred
froth all; moreover, that I might confirm those very things which I
said, not by my own writings, but in an especial manner by the writings
of others, and might show that not only among us, but even with those
very persons who revile us, the truth is preserved,[1] which they
refuse to acknowledge.[2] But he who wishes to know these things more
accurately may draw from the fountain itself, and he will know more
things worthy of admiration than we have comprised in these books.
Perhaps some one may now ask when these things of which we have spoken
are about to come to pass? I have already shown above, that when six
thousand years shall be completed this change must take place,
and that the last day of the extreme conclusion is now drawing
near. It is permitted us to know respecting the signs, which are spoken
by the prophets, for they foretold signs by which the consummation of
the times is to be expected by us from day to day, and to be feared.
When, however, this amount will be completed, those teach, who have
written respecting the times, collecting them from the sacred writings
and from various histories, how great is the number of years from the
beginning of the world. And although they vary, and the amount of the
number as reckoned by them differs considerably, yet all expectation
does not exceed the limit of two hundred years. The subject itself
declares that the fall and ruin of the world will shortly take place;
except that while the city of Rome remains it appears that
nothing of this kind is to be feared.[3] But when that capital of the
world shall have fallen, and shall have begun to be a street,[4] which
the Sibyls say shall come to pass, who can doubt that the end has now
arrived to the affairs of men and the whole world? It is that city,
that only, which still sustains all things; and the God of heaven is to
be entreated by us and implored--if, indeed, His arrangements and
decrees can be delayed--lest, sooner than we think for, that detestable
tyrant should come who will trader-take so great a deed, and dig out
that eye, by the destruction of which the world itself is about to
fall. Now let us return, to set forth the other things which are then
about to follow.
CHAP. XXVI.--OF THE LOOSING OF THE DEVIL, AND OF THE SECOND AND
GREATEST JUDGEMENT,
We have said, a little before, that it will come to
pass at the commencement of the sacred reign, that the prince of the
devils will be bound by God. But he also, when the thousand years of
the kingdom, that is, seven thousand of the world, shall begin to be
ended, will be loosed afresh, and being sent forth from prison, will go
forth and assemble all the nations, which shall then be trader the
dominion of the righteous, that they may make war against the holy
city; and there shall be collected together from all the world an
innumerable company of the nations, and shall besiege and surround the
city. Then the last anger of God shall come upon the nations, and shall
utterly[5] destroy them; and first He shall shake the earth most
violently, and by its motion the mountains of Syria shall be rent, and
the hills shall sink down precipitously, and the walls of all cities
shall fall, and God shall cause the sun to stand, so that he set not
for three days, and shall set it on fire; and excessive heat and great
burning shall descend upon the hostile and impious people, and showers
of brim-
221
stone, and hailstones, and drops of fire; and their spirits shall melt
through the heat, and their bodies shall be bruised by the hail, and
they shall smite one another with the sword. The mountains shall be
filled with carcases, and the plains shall be covered with bones; but
the people of God during those three days shall be concealed under
caves of the earth, until the anger of God against the nations and the
last judgment shall be ended.
Then the righteous shall go forth from their
hiding-places, and shall find all things covered with carcases and
bones. But the whole race of the wicked shall utterly perish; and there
shall no longer be any nation in this world, but the nation of God
alone. Then for seven continuous years the woods shall be untouched,
nor shall timber be cut from the mountains, but the arms of the nations
shall be burnt; and now there shall be no war, but peace and
everlasting rest. But when the thousand years shall be completed, the
world shall be renewed by God, and the heavens shall be folded
together, and the earth shall be changed, and God shall transform men
into the similitude of angels, and they shall be white as snow; and
they shall always be employed in the sight of the Almighty, and shall
make offerings to their Lord, and serve Him for ever. At the same time
shall take place that second and public resurrection[1] of all, in
which the unrighteous shall be raised to everlasting punishments. These
are they who have worshipped the works of their own hands, who have
either been ignorant of, or have denied the Lord and Parent of the
world. But their lord with his servants shall be seized and condemned
to punishment, together with whom all the band of the wicked, in
accordance with their deeds, shall be burnt for ever with perpetual
fire in the sight of angels and the righteous.
This is the doctrine of the holy prophets which we
Christians follow; this is our wisdom, which they who worship frail
objects, or maintain an empty philosophy, deride as folly and vanity,
because we are not accustomed to defend and assert it in public, since
God orders us in quietness and silence to hide His secret, and to keep
it within our own conscience; and not to strive with obstinate
contention against those who are ignorant of the truth, and who
rigorously assail God and His religion not for the sake of learning,
but of censuring and jeering. For a mystery ought to be most faithfully
concealed and covered, especially by us, who bear the name of faith.[2]
But they accuse this silence of ours, as though it were the result of
an evil conscience; whence also they invent some detestable things
respecting those who are holy and blameless, and willingly believe
their own inventions.
The address to Constantine is wanting in some mss. and editions, but is
inserted in the text by Migne, as found in some important mss., and as
in accordance with the style and spirit of Lactantius.
But all fictions have now been hushed, most holy
Emperor, since the time when the great God raised thee up for the
restoration of the house of justice, and for the protection of the
human race; for while thou rulest the Roman state, we worshippers of
God are no more regarded as accursed and impious. Since the truth now
comes forth[3] from obscurity, and is brought into light, we are not
censured as unrighteous who endeavour to perform the works of
righteousness. No one any longer reproaches us with the name of God.
None of us, who are alone of all men religious, is any more called
irreligious; since despising the images of the dead, we worship the
living and true God. The providence of the supreme Deity has raised
thee to the imperial dignity, that thou mightest be able with true
piety to rescind the injurious decrees of others, to correct
faults, to provide with a fathers's clemency for the safety of men,--in
short, to remove the wicked from the state, whom being cast down by
pre-eminent piety, God has delivered into your hands, that it might be
evident to all in what true majesty consists.
For they who wished to take away the worship of the
heavenly and matchless[4] God, that they might defend impious
superstitions, lie in ruin.[5] But thou, who defendest and lovest His
name, excelling in virtue and prosperity, enjoyest thy immortal glories
with the greatest happiness. They suffer and have suffered the
punishment of their guilt. The powerful right hand of God protects thee
from all dangers; He bestows on thee a quiet and tranquil reign, with
the highest congratulations of all men. And not undeservedly has the
Lord and Ruler of the world chosen thee in preference to all others, by
whom He might renew His holy religion, since thou alone didst exist of
all, who mightest afford a surpassing example of virtue and holiness:
in which thou mightest not only equal, but also, which is a very great
matter, excel the glory of ancient princes, whom nevertheless fame
reckons among the good. They indeed perhaps by nature only resembled
the righteous. For he who is ignorant of God, the Ruler of the
universe, may attain to a resemblance of righteousness, but he cannot
attain to righteousness itself. But thou, both by the innate sanctity
of thy character, and by thy acknowledgment of the truth and of God in
every action, dost fully perform[6] the works of right-
222
eousness.[1] It was therefore befitting that, in arranging the
condition of the human race, the Deity should make use of thy authority
and service. Whom we supplicate with daily prayers, that He may
especially guard thee whom He has wished to be the guardian of the
world: then that He may inspire thee with a disposition by which thou
mayest always continue in the love of the divine name. For this is
serviceable to all, both to thee for happiness, and to others for
repose.
CHAP. XXVII.--AN ENCOURAGEMENT AND CONFIRMATION OF THE
PIOUS.
Since we have completed the seven courses[2] of the
work which we undertook, and have advanced to the goal, it remains that
we exhort all to undertake wisdom together with true religion, the
strength and office of which depends on this, that, despising earthly
things, and laying aside the errors by which we were formerly held
while we served frail things, and desired frail things, we may be
directed to the eternal rewards of the heavenly treasure. And that we
may obtain these, the alluring pleasures of the present life must as
soon as possible be laid aside, which soothe the souls of men with
pernicious sweetness. How great a happiness must it be thought, to be
withdrawn from these stains of the earth, and to go to that most just
Judge and indulgent Father, who in the place of labours gives rest, in
the place of death life, in the place of darkness brightness, and in
the place of short and earthly goods, gives those which are eternal and
heavenly: with which reward the hardships and miseries which we endure
in this world, in accomplishing the works of righteousness, can in no
way be compared and equalled. Therefore, if we wish to be wise and
happy, not only must those sayings of Terence be reflected upon and
proposed to us,
"That we must ever grind at the mill, we must be beaten, and put in
fetters;"[3]
but things much more dreadful than these must be endured, namely, the
prison, chains, and tortures: pains must be undergone, in short, death
itself must be undertaken and borne, when it is clear to our conscience
that that frail pleasure will not be without punishment, nor virtue
without a divine reward. All, therefore, ought to endeavour either to
direct themselves to the right way as soon as possible, or, having
undertaken and exercised virtues, and having patiently performed the
labours of this life, to deserve to have God as their comforter. For
our Father and Lord, who built and strengthened the heaven, who placed
in it the sun, with the other heavenly bodies, who by His power weighed
the earth and fenced it with mountains, surrounded it with the sea, and
divided it with rivers, and who made and completed out of nothing
whatever there is in this workmanship of the world; having observed the
errors of men, sent a Guide, who might open to us the way of
righteousness: let us all follow Him, let us hear Him, let us obey Him
with the greatest devotedness, since He alone, as Lucretius says,[4]
"Cleansed men's breasts with truth-telling precepts, and fixed a limit
to lust and fear, and explained what was the chief good which we all
strive to reach, and pointed out the road by which, along a narrow
track, we might arrive at it in a straightforward course."
And not only pointed it out, but also went before us
in it, that no one might dread the path of virtue on account of its
difficulty. Let the way of destruction and deceit, if it is possible,
be deserted, in which death is concealed, being covered by the
attractions of pleasure.
And the more nearly each one, as his years incline
to old age, sees to be the approach of that day in which he must depart
from this life, let him reflect how he may leave it in purity, how he
may come to the Judge in innocency; not as they do, to whose dark minds
the light is denied[5] who, when the strength of their body now fails,
are admonished in this of the last pressing necessity, that they should
with greater eagerness and ardour apply themselves to the satisfying of
their lusts. From which abyss let everyone free himself while it is
permitted him, while the opportunity is present, and let him turn
himself to God with his whole mind, that he may without anxiety await
that day, in which God, the Ruler and Lord of the world, shall judge
the deeds and thoughts of each. Whatever things are here desired, let
him not only neglect, but also avoid them, and let him judge that his
soul is of greater value than those deceitful goods, the possession of
which is uncertain and transitory; for they take their departure every
clay, and they go forth much more quickly than they had entered, and if
it is permitted us to enjoy them even to the last, they must still,
without doubt, be left to others. We can take nothing with us, except a
well and innocently spent life. That man will appear before God with
abundant resources, that man will appear in opulence, to whom there
shall belong self-restraint, mercy, patience, love, and faith. This is
our inheritance, which can neither be taken away from any one, nor
transferred to another.
223
And who is there who would wish to provide and acquire for himself
these goods?
Let those who are hungry come, that being fed with
heavenly food, they may lay aside their lasting hunger; let those who
are athirst come, that they may with full mouth draw forth the water of
salvation from an ever-flowing fountain.[1] By this divine food and
drink the blind shall both see, and the deaf hear, and the dumb speak,
and the lame walk, and the foolish shall be wise, and the sick shall be
strong, and the dead shall come to life again. For whoever by his
virtue has trampled upon the corruptions of the earth, the supreme and
truthful arbiter will raise him to life and to perpetual light. Let
no one trust m riches, no one in badges of authority,
no one even in royal power: these things do not make a man immortal.
For whosoever shall cast away the conduct becoming a man,[2] and,
following present things, shall prostrate himself upon the ground, will
be punished as a deserter from his Lord, his commander, and his Father.
Let us therefore apply ourselves to righteousness, which will alone, as
an inseparable companion, lead us to God; and "while a spirit rules
these limbs,"[3] let us serve God with unwearied service, let us keep
our posts and watches, let us boldly engage with the enemy whom we
know, that victorious and triumphant over our conquered adversary, we
may obtain from the Lord that reward of valour which He Himself has
promised.
224
GENERAL NOTE.
FOR remarks on the dubious passages which bear upon
that of p. 221, supra, see the General Note suffixed to the tractate on
the Workmanship of God, p. 300, infra.
THE EPITOME OF THE DIVINE INSTITUTES
ADDRESSED TO HIS BROTHER PENTADIUS.
THE PREFACE.--THE PLAN AND PURPORT OF THE WHOLE EPITOME,[1] AND OF THE
INSTITUTIONS.
ALTHOUGH the books of the Divine Institutions which
we wrote a long time since to illustrate the truth and religion, may so
prepare and mould the minds of the readers, that their length may not
produce disgust, nor their copiousness be burthensome; nevertheless you
desire, O brother Pentadius, that an epitome of them should be made for
you, I suppose for this reason, that I may write something to you, and
that your name may be rendered famous by my work, such as it is. I will
comply with your desire, although it seems a difficult matter to
comprise within the compass of one book those things which have been
treated of in seven large volumes.[2] For the whole matter becomes less
full when so great a multitude of subjects is to be compressed within a
narrow space; and it becomes less clear by its very brevity, especially
since many arguments and examples, on which the elucidation of the
proofs depends, must of necessity be omitted, since their copiousness
is so great, that even by themselves they are enough to make up a book.
And when these are removed, what can appear useful, what plain? But I
will strive as much as the subject permits, both to contract that which
is diffuse and to shorten that which is long; in such a manner,
however, that in this work, in which truth is to be brought to light,
matter may not seem to be wanting for copiousness, nor clearness for
understanding it.[3]
CHAP. I.--OF THE DIVINE PROVIDENCE.
First a question arises: Whether there is any
providence which made or governs the world? That there is, no one
doubts, since of almost all the philosophers, except the school of
Epicurus, there is but one voice and one opinion, that the world could
not have been made without a contriver, and that it cannot exist
without a ruler. Therefore Epicurus is refuted not only by the most
learned men, but also by the testimonies and perceptions of all
mortals. For who can doubt respecting a providence, when he sees that
the heavens and the earth have been so arranged and that all things
have been so regulated, that they might be most befittingly adapted,
not only to wonderful beauty and adornment, but also to the use of men,
and the convenience of the other living creatures? That, therefore,
which exists in accordance with a plan, cannot have had its beginning
without a plan: thus[4] it
is certain that there is a providence.
CHAP. II.--THAT THERE IS BUT ONE GOD, AND THAT THERE CANNOT BE MORE.
Another question follows: Whether there be one God
or more? And this indeed contains much ambiguity. For not only do
individuals differ among themselves, but also peoples and nations. But
he who shall follow the guidance of reason will understand that there
cannot be a Lord except one, nor a Father except one. For if God, who
made all things, is also Lord and Father, He must be one only, so that
the same may be the head and source of all things. Nor is it possible
for the world[5] to exist unless all things be referred to one person,
unless one hold the rudder, unless one guide the reins, and, as it
were, one mind direct all the members of the body. If there are many
kings in a swarm of bees, they will perish or be scattered abroad, while
"Discord attacks the
kings with great commotion."[6]
If there are several leaders in a herd, they will contend until one
gains the mastery.[7] If there
225
are many commanders in an army, the soldiers cannot obey, since
different commands are given; nor can unity be maintained by
themselves, since each consults his own interests according to his
humours. [1] Thus, in this commonwealth of the world, unless there were
one ruler, who was also its founder, either this mass would be
dissolved, or it could not have been put together at all.
Moreover, the whole authority, could not exist in
many deities, since they separately maintain their own duties and their
own prerogatives. No one, therefore, of them can be called omnipotent,
which is the true title of God, since he will be able to accomplish
that only which depends upon himself, and will not venture to attempt
that which depends upon others. Vulcan will not claim for himself
water, nor Neptune fire; nor will Ceres claim acquaintance with the
arts, nor Minerva with fruits; nor will Mercury lay claim to arms, nor
Mars to the lyre; Jupiter will not claim medicine, nor AEsculapius the
thunderbolt: he will more easily endure it when thrown by another, than
he will brandish it himself. If, therefore, individuals cannot do all
things, they have less strength and less power; but he is to be
regarded as God who can accomplish the whole, and not he who can only
accomplish the smallest part of the whole.
CHAP. III.--THE TESTIMONIES OF THE POETS CONCERNING THE ONE GOD.
There is, then, one God, perfect, eternal,
incorruptible, incapable of suffering, subject to no circumstance or
power, Himself possessing all things, ruling all things, whom the human
mind can neither estimate in thought nor mortal tongue describe in
speech. For He is too elevated and great to be conceived by the
thought, or expressed by the language of man. In short, not to speak of
the prophets, the preachers of the one God, poets also, and
philosophers, and inspired women, [2] utter their testimony to the
unity of God. Orpheus speaks of the surpassing God who made the heaven
and the sun, with the other heavenly bodies; who made the earth and the
seas. Also our own Maro calls the Supreme God at one time a spirit, at
another time a mind, and says that it, as though infused into limbs,
puts in motion the body of the whole world; also, that God permeates
the heights of heaven, the tracts of the sea and lands, and that all
living creatures derive their life from Him. Even Ovid was not ignorant
that the world was prepared by God, whom he sometimes calls the framer
of all things, sometimes the fabricator of the world. [3]
CHAP. IV. --THE TESTIMONIES OF THE PHILOSOPHERS TO THE UNITY OF GOD.
But let us come to the philosophers, whose authority
is regarded as more certain than that
of the poets. Plato asserts His monarchy, saying that there is
but one God, by whom the world was prepared and completed with
wonderful order. Aristotle, his disciple, admits that there is one mind
which presides over the world. Antisthenes says that there is one who
is God by nature, [4] the governor of the whole system. It would be a
long task to recount the statements which have been made respecting the
Supreme God, either by Thales, or by Pythagoras and Anaximenes before
him, or afterwards by the Stoics Cleanthes and Chrysippus and Zeno, or
of our countrymen, by Seneca following the Stoics, and by Tullius
himself, since all these attempted to define the being of God, [5] and
affirmed that the world is ruled by Him alone, and that He is not
subject to any nature, since all nature derives its origin from Him.
Hermes, who, on account of his virtue and his
knowledge of many arts, deserved the name of Trismegistus, who preceded
the philosophers in the antiquity of his doctrine, and who is
reverenced by the Egyptians as a god, in asserting the majesty of the
one God with infinite praises, calls Him Lord and Father. and says that
He is without a name because He does not stand in need of a proper
name, inasmuch as He is alone, and that He has no parents, since He
exists of Himself and by Himself. In writing to his son he thus begins:
To understand God is difficult, to describe Him in speech is
impossible, even for one to whom it is possible to understand Him; for
the perfect cannot be comprehended by the imperfect, nor the invisible
by the visible.
CHAP. V.--THAT THE PROPHETIC WOMEN--THAT IS, THE SIBYLS--DECLARE
THAT THERE IS BUT ONE GOD.
It remains to speak of the prophetic women. Varro relates that
there were ten Sibyls, --the first of the Persians, the second the
Libyan, the third the Delphian, the fourth the Cimmerian, the fifth the
Erythraean, the sixth the Samian, the seventh the Cumaean, the eighth
the Hellespontian, the ninth the Phrygian, the tenth the Tiburtine, who
has the name of Albunea. Of all these, he says that there are three
books of the Cumaean alone which contain the fates of the Romans, and
are accounted sacred, but that there exist. and are commonly regarded
as separate, books of almost all the others, but that they are
entitled, as though by one name, Sibylline books,
226
excepting that the Erythraean, who is said to have lived in the times
of the Trojan war, placed her name in her book: the writings of
the others are mixed together. [1]
All these Sibyls of whom I have spoken, except the
Cumaean, whom none but the Quindecemviri [2] are allowed to read, bear
witness that there is but one God, the ruler, the maker, the parent,
not begotten of any, but sprung from Himself, who was from all ages,
and will be to all ages; and therefore is alone worthy of being
worshipped, alone of being feared, alone of being reverenced, by all
living beings; -- whose testimonies I have omitted because I was unable
to abridge them; but if you wish to see them, you must have recourse to
the books themselves. Now let us follow up the remaining subjects.
CHAP. Vl.--SINCE GOD IS ETERNAL AND IMMORTAL, HE DOES NOT STAND IN NEED
OF SEX AND SUCCESSION.
These testimonies, therefore, so many and so great,
clearly teach that there is but one government in the world, and one
power, the origin of which cannot be imagined, or its force described.
They are foolish, therefore, who imagine that the gods were born of
marriage, since the sexes themselves, and the intercourse between them,
were given to mortals by God for this reason, that every race might be
preserved by a succession of offspring. But what need have the
immortals either of sex or succession since neither pleasure nor death
affects them? Those, therefore, who are reckoned as gods, since it is
evident that they were born as men, and that they begat others, were
plainly mortals: but they were believed to be gods, because, when they
were great and powerful kings, on account of the benefits which they
had conferred upon men, they deserved to obtain divine hon-ours after
death; and temples and statues being erected to them, their memory was
retained and celebrated as that of immortals.
CHAP. VII. --OF the WICKED LIFE AND DEATH
OF HERCULES.
But though almost all nations are persuaded that
they are gods, yet their actions, as related both by poets and
historians, declare that they were men. Who is ignorant of the times in
which Hercules lived, since he both sailed with the Argonauts on their
expedition, and having stormed Troy, slew Laomedon, the father of
Priam, on account of his perjury? From that time rather more than
fifteen hundred years are
reckoned. He is said not even to have been born honourably, but to have
been sprung from Alcmena by adultery, and to have been himself addicted
to the vices of his father. He never abstained from women, or males,
and traversed the whole world, not so much for the sake of glory as of
lust, nor so much for the slaughter of beasts as for the begetting of
children. And though he was unvanquished, yet he was triumphed over by
Omphale alone, to whom he gave up his club and lion's skin; and being
clothed in a woman's garment, and crouching at a woman's feet, he
received his task [3] to execute. He afterwards, in a transport of
frenzy, killed his little children and his wife Megara. At last, having
put on a garment sent by his wife Deianyra, when he was perishing
through ulcers, being unable to endure the pain, he constructed for
himself a funeral pile on Mount (Eta, and burnt himself alive. Thus it
is effected, that although on account of his excellence [4] he might
have been believed to be a god, nevertheless on account of these things
be is believed to have been a man.
CHAP. VlIl.--OF AESCULAPIUS, APOLLO, MARS, CASTOR AND POLLUX, AND OF
MERCURIUS AND BACCHUS.
Tarquitius relates that AEsculapius was born of
doubtful parents, and that on this account he was exposed; and being
taken up by hunters, and fed by the teats of a hound, was given to
Chiron for instruction. He lived at Epidaurus, and was buried at
Cynosurae, as Cicero says, [5] when he had been killed by lightning.
But Apollo, his father, did not disdain to take charge of another's
flock that he might receive a wife; [6] and when he had unintentionally
killed a boy whom he loved, he inscribed his own lamentations on a
flower. Mars, a man of the greatest bravery, was not free from the
charge of adultery, since he was made a spectacle, being bound with a
chain together with the adulteress.
Castor and Pollux carried off the brides of others,
but not with impunity, to whose death and burial Homer bears witness,
not with poetical, but simple faith. Mercurius, who was the father of
Androgynus by his intrigue with Venus, deserved to be a god, because he
invented the lyre and the paloestra. Father Bacchus, after subduing
India as a conqueror, having by chance come to Crete, saw Ariadne on
the shore, whom Theseus had forced and deserted. Then, being inflamed
by love, he united her in marriage to
227
himself, and placed her crown, as the poets say, conspicuously among
the stars. The mother of the gods [1] herself, while she lived in
Phrygia after the banishment and death of her husband, though a widow,
and aged, was enamoured of a beautiful youth; and because he was not
faithful, she mutilated, and rendered him effeminate: on which
account even now she delights in the Galli [2] as her priests.
CHAP. IX.- OF THE DISGRACEFUL DEEDS OF THE
GODS.
Whence did Ceres bring forth Proserpine, except from
debauchery? Whence did Latona bring forth her twins, except from crime?
Venus having been subject to the lusts of gods and men, when she
reigned in Cyprus, invented the practice of courtesanship, and
commanded women to make traffic of themselves, that she might not alone
be infamous. Were the virgins themselves, Minerva and Diana, chaste?
Whence, then, did Erichthonius arise? Did Vulcan shed his seed upon the
ground, and was man born from that as a fungus? Or why did Diana banish
Hippolytus either to a retired place, or give him up to a woman, where
he might pass his life in solitude among unknown groves, and having now
changed his name, might be called Virbius? What do these things signify
but impurity, which the poets do not venture to confess?
CHAP. X.--OF JUPITER, AND HIS LICENTIOUS LIFE.
But respecting the king and father of all these,
Jupiter, whom they believe to possess the chief power in heaven,--what
power [3] had he, who banished his father Saturnus from his kingdom,
and pursued him with arms when he fled? What self-restraint had he, who
indulged every kind of lust? For he made Alemena and Leda, the wives of
great men, infamous through his adultery: he also, captivated with the
beauty of a boy, carried him off with violence as he was hunting and
meditating manly things, that he might treat him as a woman. Why should
I mention his debaucheries of virgins? and how great a multitude of
these there was, is shown by the number of his sons. In the case of
Thetis alone he was more temperate. For it bad been predicted that the
son whom she should bring forth would be more powerful than his father.
Therefore he struggled with his love, that one might not be born
greater than himself. He knew, therefore, that he was not of perfect
virtue, greatness, and power, since he
feared that which he himself had done to his father. Why, therefore, is
he called best and greatest, since he both contaminated himself with
faults, which is the part of one who is unjust and bad, and feared a
greater than himself, which is the part of one who is weak and inferior?
CHAP. XI. -- THE VARIOUS EMBLEMS UNDER WHICH THE POETS VEILED THE
TURPITUDE OF JUPITER.
But some one will say that these things are feigned
by the poets. This is not the usage of the poets, to feign in such a
manner that you fabricate the whole, but so that you cover the actions
themselves with a figure, and, as it were, with a variegated veil.
Poetic licence has this limit, not that it may invent the whole, which
is the part of one who is false and senseless, but that it may change
something consistently with reason. They said that Jupiter changed
himself into a shower of gold, that he might deceive Danae. What is a
shower of gold? Plainly golden coins, by offering a great quantity of
which, and pouring them into her bosom, he corrupted the frailty of her
virgin soul by this bribe. Thus also they speak of a shower of iron,
when they wish to signify a multitude of javelins. He carried off
his catamite upon an eagle. What is the eagle? Truly a legion,
since the figure of this animal is the standard of the legion. He
carried Europa across the sea on a bull. What is the bull? Clearly a
ship, which had its tutelary image [4] fashioned in the shape of
a bull. So assuredly the daughter of Inachus was not turned into a cow,
nor as such did she swim across, but she escaped the anger of Juno in a
ship which had the form of a cow. Lastly, when she had been conveyed to
Egypt, she became Isis, whose voyage is celebrated on a fixed day, in
memory of her flight.
CHAP. XlI.--THE POETS DO NOT INVENT ALL THOSE THINGS WHICH RELATE TO
THE GODS.
You see, then, that the poets did not invent all
things, and that they prefigured some things, that, when they spoke the
truth, they might add something like this of divinity to those whom
they called gods; as they did also respecting their kingdoms. For when
they say that Jupiter had by lot the kingdom of Coelus, they either
menu Mount Olympus, on which ancient stories relate that Saturnus, and
afterwards Jupiter, dwelt, or a part of the East, which is, as it were,
higher, because the light arises thence; but the region of the West is
lower, and therefore they say that Pluto obtained the lower regions;
but that the sea was given to Neptune, because he
228
had the maritime coast, with all the islands. Many things are thus
coloured by the poets; and they who are ignorant of this, censure them
as false, but only in word: for in fact they believe them, since they
so fashion the images of the gods, that when they make them male and
female, and confess that some are married, some parents, and some
children, they plainly assent to the poets; for these relations cannot
exist without intercourse and the generation of children.
CHAP. XIII.--THE ACTIONS OF JUPITER ARE RELATED FROM THE HISTORIAN
EUHEMERUS.
But let us leave the poets; let us come to history,
which is supported both by the credibility of the facts and by the
antiquity of the times. Euhemerus was a Messenian, a very ancient
writer, who gave an account of the origin of Jupiter, and his exploits,
and all his posterity, gathered from the sacred inscriptions of ancient
temples; he also traced out the parents of the other gods, their
countries, actions, commands, and deaths, and even their sepulchres.
And this history Ennius translated into Latin, whose words are these:--
"As these things are written, so is the origin and kindred of Jupiter
and his brothers; after this manner it is handed clown to us in the
sacred writing."
The same Euhemerus therefore relates that Jupiter, when he had five
times gone round the world, and had distributed governments to his
friends and relatives, and had given laws to men, and had wrought many
other benefits, being endued with immortal glory and everlasting
remembrance, ended his life in Crete, and departed to the gods, and
that his sepulchre is in Crete, in the town of Gnossus, and that upon
it is engraved in ancient Greek letters Zankronou, which is Jupiter the
son of Saturnus. It is plain, therefore, from the things which I have
related, that he was a than, and reigned on the
earth.
CHAP. XIV.--THE ACTIONS OF SATURNUS AND
URANUS TAKEN FROM THE HISTORIANS.
Let us pass on to former things, that we may discover the origin of the
whole error. Saturnus is said to have been born of Coelus and Terra.
This is plainly incredible; but there is a certain reason why it is
thus related, and he who is ignorant of this rejects it as a fable.
That Uranus was the father of Saturnus, both Hermes affirms, and sacred
history teaches. When Trismegistus said that there were very few men of
perfect learning, he enumerated among them Iris relatives, Uranus,
Saturnus. and Mercurius. Euhemerus relates that the same Uranus was the
first who reigned on earth, using these words: "In the beginning Coelus
first had the chief
power on earth: he instituted and prepared that kingdom for himself
together with his brothers." [1]
CHAP. XX.--OF THE GODS PECULIAR TO THE
ROMANS.
I have spoken of the religious rites which are
common to all nations. I will now speak of the gods which the Romans
have peculiar to themselves. Who does not know that the wife of
Faustulus, the nurse of Romulus and Remus, in honour of whom the
Larentinalia were instituted, was a harlot? And for this reason she was
called Lupa, and represented in the form of a wild beast. Faula also
and Flora were harlots, of whom the one was the mistress of Hercules,
as Verrius relates; the other, having acquired great wealth by her
person, made the people her heir, and on this account the games called
Floralia are celebrated in her honour.
Tatius consecrated the statue of a woman which had
been found in the principal sewer, and called it by the name of the
goddess Cloacina. The Romans, being besieged by the Gauls, made engines
for throwing weapons of the hair of women; and on this account they
erected an altar and temple to Venus Calva: [2] also to Jupiter Pistor,
[3] because he had advised them in a dream to make all their corn into
bread, and to throw it upon the enemy; and when this had been done, the
Gauls, despairing of being able to reduce the Romans by famine, had
abandoned the siege. Tullus Hostilius made Fear and Pallor gods. Mind
is also worshipped; but if they had possessed it, they would never, I
believe, have thought that it ought to be worshipped. Marcellus
originated Honour and Virtue.
CHAP. XXI.--OF THE SACRED RITES OF THE
ROMAN GODS.
But the senate also instituted other false gods of
this kind,--Hope, Faith, Concord, Peace, Chastity, Piety; all of which,
since they ought truly to be in the minds of men, they have falsely
placed within walls. But although these have no substantial existence
outside of man, nevertheless I should prefer that they should be
worshipped, rather than Blight or Fever, which ought not to be
consecrated, but rather to be execrated; than Fornax, together with her
sacred ovens; than Stercutus, who first showed men to enrich the ground
with manure; than the goddess Muta, who brought forth the Lares; than
Cumina, who presides over the cradles of infants; than Caca, who gave
information to Hercules respecting the stealing of his cattle, that he
might slay her brother. How many other monstrous and
229
ludicrous fictions there are, respecting which it is grievous to speak!
I do not, however, wish to omit notice of Terminus, since it is related
that he did not give way even to Jupiter, though he was an unwrought
stone. They suppose that he has the custody of the boundaries, and
public prayers are offered to him, that he may keep the stone of the
Capitol immoveable, and preserve and extend the boundaries of the Roman
empire.
CHAP. XXII.--OF THE SACRED RITES INTRODUCED
BY FAUNUS AND NUMA.
Faunas was the first in Latium who introduced these
follies, who both instituted bloody sacrifices to his grandfather
Saturnus, and wished that his father Picus should be worshipped as a
god, and placed Fatua Fauna his wife and sister among the gods, and
named her the good goddess. Then at Rome, Numa, who burthened those
rude and rustic then with new superstitions, instituted priesthoods,
and distributed the gods into families and nations, that he might call
off the fierce spirits of the people from the pursuits of arms.
Therefore Lucilius, in deriding the folly of those who are slaves to
vain superstitions, introduced these verses:--
"Those bugbears [1] the Lamiae, which Faunus and Numa Pompilius and
others instituted, at these he trembles; he places everything in this.
As infant boys believe that every statue of bronze is a living man, so
these imagine that all things reigned are true: they believe that
statues of bronze contain a heart. It is a painter's [2] gallery;
nothing is real, everything fictitious."
Tullius also, writing of the nature of the gods, complains that false
and fictitious gods have been introduced, and that from thus source
have arisen false opinions, and turbulent errors, and almost old
womanly superstitions, which opinion ought in comparison [3] with
others to be esteemed more weighty, because these things were spoken by
one who was both a philosopher and a priest.
CHAP. XXIII.--OF THE GODS AND SACRED RITES OF
THE BARBARIANS.
We have spoken respecting the gods: now we will
speak of the rites and practices of their sacred institutions. A human
victim used to be immolated to the Cyprian Jupiter, as Teucer had
appointed. Thus also the Tauri used to offer strangers to Diana; the
Latian Jupiter also was propitiated with human blood. Also before
Saturnus, men of sixty years of age, according to the oracle [4] of
Apollo, were thrown from a bridge into the Tiber. And the Carthaginians
not only
offered infants to the same Saturnus; but being conquered by the
Sicilians, to make an expiation, they immolated two hundred sons of
nobles. And not more mild than these are those offerings which are even
now made to the Great Mother and to Bellona, in which the priests make
an offering, not with the blood of others, but with their own blood;
when, mutilating themselves, they cease to be men, and yet do not pass
over to the women; or, cutting their shoulders, they sprinkle the
loathsome altars with their own blood. But these things are cruel.
Let us come to those which are mild. The sacred
rites of Isis show nothing else than the manner in which she lost and
found her little son, who is called Osiris. For first her priests and
attendants, having shaved all their limbs, and beating their breasts,
howl, lament, and search, imitating the manner ill which his mother was
affected; afterwards the boy is found by Cynocephalus. Thus the
mournfuI rites are ended with gladness. The mystery of Ceres also
resembles these, in which torches are lighted, and Proserpine is sought
for through the night; and when she has been found, the whole
rite is finished with congratulations and the throwing about of
torches. The people of Lampsacus, offer an ass to Priapus as an
appropriate victim. [5] Lindus is a town of Rhodes, where sacred rites
in honour of Hercules are celebrated with revilings. For when Hercules
had taken away his oxen from a ploughman, and had slain them, he
avenged his injury by taunts; and afterwards having been himself
appointed priest, it was ordained that he himself, and other priests
after him, should celebrate sacrifices with the same revilings. But the
mystery of the Cretan Jupiter represents the manner in which he was
withdrawn from his father, or brought up. The goat is beside him, by
the teats of which Amalthea nourished the boy. The sacred rites of the
mother of the gods also show the same thing. For because the Corybantes
then drowned the cry of the boy by the tinkling of their helmets and
the striking of their shields, a representation of this circumstance is
now repeated in the sacred rites; but cumbals are beaten instead of
helmets, and drums instead of shields, that Saturnus may not hear the
cries of the boy.
CHAP. XXIV.--OF THE ORIGIN OF SACRED RITES
AND SUPERSTITIONS.
These are the mysteries of the gods. Now let us
inquire also into the origin of superstitions, that we may search out
by whom and at what times they were instituted. Didymus, in those books
which are inscribed Of the Explanation
230
of Pindar, relates that Melisseus was king of the Cretans, whose
daughters were Amalthea and Melissa, who nourished Jupiter with goats'
milk and honey; that he introduced new rites and ceremonies of sacred
things, and was the first who sacrificed to gods, that is, to Vesta,
who is called Tellus,--whence the poet says:--
"And the first of the gods,
Tellus,"--
and afterwards to the mother of the gods. But Euhemerus, in his sacred
history, says that Jupiter himself, after that he received the
government, erected temples in honour of himself in many places. For in
going about the world, as he came to each place he united the chiefs of
the people to himself in friendship and the right of hospitality; and
that the remembrance of this might be preserved, he ordered that
temples should be built to him, and annual festivals be celebrated by
those connected with him in a league of hospitality. Thus he spread the
worship of himself through all lands. But at what time they lived can
easily be inferred. For Thallus writes in his history, that Belus, the
king of the Assyrians, whom the Babylonians worship, and who was the
contemporary and friend of Saturnus, was three hundred and twenty-two
years before the Trojan war, and it is fourteen hundred and seventy
years since the taking of Troy. From which it is evident, that it is
not more than eighteen hundred years from the time when mankind fell
into error by the institution of new forms of divine worship.
CHAP. XXV.--OF THE GOLDEN AGE, OF IMAGES,
AND PROMETHEUS, WHO FIRST FASHIONED MAN.
The poets, therefore, with good reason say that the golden
age, which existed in the reign of Saturnus, was changed. For at that
time no gods were worshipped, but they knew of one God only.
After that they subjected themselves to frail and earthly things,
worshipping idols of wood, and brass, and stone, a change took place
from the golden age to that of iron. For having lost the knowledge of
God, and broken off that one bond of human society, they began to
harass one another, to plunder and subdue. But if they would raise
their eyes aloft and behold God, who raised them up to the sight of
heaven and Himself, they never would bend and prostrate themselves by
worshipping earthly things, whose folly Lucretius severely rebukes,
saying: [1]
"And they abase their souls with fear of the gods, and weigh and press
them down to the earth."
Wherefore they tremble, and do not understand how foolish it is to fear
those things
which you have made, or to hope for any protection from those things
which are dumb and insensible, and neither see nor hear the suppliant.
What majesty, therefore, or deity can they have, which were in the
power of a man, that they should not be made, or that they should be
made into some other thing, and are so even now? For they are liable to
injury and might be carried off by theft, were it not that they are
protected by the law and the guardianship of man. Does he therefore
appear to be m possession of his senses, who sacrifices to such deities
the choicest victims, consecrates gifts, offers costly garments, as if
they who are without motion could use them? With reason, then, did
Dionysius the tyrant of Sicily plunder and deride the gods of Greece
when he had taken possession of it as conqueror; and after the
sacrilegious acts which he had committed, he returned to Sicily with a
prosperous voyage, and held the kingdom even to his old age: nor were
the injured gods able to punish him.
How much better is it to despise vanities, and to
turn to God, to maintain the condition which you have received from
God, to maintain your name! For on this account he is called anthropos,
[3] because he looks upward. But he looks upward who looks up to the
true and living God, who is in heaven; who seeks after the Maker and
Parent of his soul, not only with his perception and mind, but also
with his countenance and eyes raised aloft. But he who enslaves himself
to earthly and humble things, plainly prefers to himself that which is
below him. For since he himself is the workmanship of God, whereas an
image is the workmanship of man, the human workmanship cannot be
preferred to the divine; and as God is the parent of man, so is the man
of the statue. Therefore he is foolish and senseless who adores that
which he himself has made, of which detestable and foolish handicraft
Prometheus was the author, who was born from Iapetus the uncle of
Jupiter. For when first of all Jupiter, having obtained supreme
dominion, wished to establish himself as a god, and to found temples,
and was seeking for some one who was able to imitate the human figure,
at that time Prometheus lived, who fashioned the image of a man from
thick clay with such close resemblance, that the novelty and cleverness
of the art was a wonder. At length the men of his own time, and
afterwards the poets, handed him down as the maker of a true and living
man; and we, as often as we praise wrought statues, say that they live
and breathe. And he indeed was the inventor of earthenware images. But
posterity, following him, both carved them out of marble, and moulded
them
231
out of bronze; then in process of time ornament was added of gold and
ivory, so that not only the likenesses, but also the gleam itself,
might dazzle the eyes. Thus ensnared by beauty, and forgetful of true
majesty, sensible beings considered that insensible objects, rational
beings that irrational objects, living beings that lifeless objects,
were to be worshipped and reverenced by them.
CHAP. XXVI. --OF THE WORSHIP OF THE ELEMENTS
AND STARS.
Now let us refute those also who regard the elements
of the world as gods, that is, the heaven, the sun, and the moon; for
being ignorant of the Maker of these things, they admire and adore the
works themselves. And this error belongs not to the ignorant only, but
also to philosophers; since the Stoics are of opinion that all the
heavenly bodies are to be considered as among the number of the gods,
since they all have fixed and regular motions, by which they most
constantly preserve the vicissitudes of the times which succeed them.
They do not then possess voluntary motion, since they obey prescribed
laws, and plainly not by their own sense, but by the workmanship of the
supreme Creator, who so ordered them that they should complete unerring
[1] courses and fixed circuits, by which they might vary the
alternations of days and nights, of summer and winter. But if men
admire the effects of these, if they admire their courses, their
brightness, their regularity, their beauty, they ought to have
understood how much more beautiful, more illustrious, and more
powerful than these is the maker and con- trivet Himself, even
God. But they estimated the Divinity by objects which fall under
the sight of men; [2] not knowing that objects which come within the
sight cannot be eternal, and that those which are eternal cannot be
discerned by mortal eyes.
CHAP. XXVII.--OF THE CREATION, SIN, AND PUNISHMENT OF MAN; AND OF
ANGELS, BOTH GOOD AND BAD.
One subject remains, and that the last: that, since
it usually happens, as we read in histories, that the gods appear to
have displayed their majesty by auguries, by dreams, by oracles, and
also by the punishments of those who had committed sacrilege, I may
show what cause produced this effect, so that no one even now may fall
into the same snares into which those of old fell. When God, according
to His excellent majesty, had framed the world out of nothing,
and had decked the heaven with lights, and had filled the earth and the
sea with living creatures, then He formed man out of clay, and
fashioned him after the resemblance of His own likeness, and breathed
into him that he might live, [3] and placed him in a garden [4] which
He had planted with every kind of fruit-bearing tree, and commanded him
not to eat of one tree in which He had placed the knowledge of good and
evil, warning him that it would come to pass, that if he did so he
would lose his life, but that if he observed the command of God he
would remain immortal. Then the serpent, who was one of the servants of
God, envying man because he was made immortal, enticed him by stratagem
to transgress the command and law of God. And in this manner he did
indeed receive the knowledge of good and evil, but he lost the life
which God had given him to be for ever.
Therefore He drove out the sinner from the sacred
place, and banished him into this world, that he might seek sustenance
by labour, that he might according to his deserts undergo difficulties
and troubles; and He surrounded the garden itself with a fence of fire,
that none of men even till the day of judgment might attempt secretly
[5] to enter into that place of perpetual blessedness. Then death came
upon man according to the sentence of God; and yet his life, though it
had begun to be temporary, had as its boundary a thousand years, and
that was the extent of human life even to the deluge. For after the
flood the life of men was gradually shortened, and was reduced to a
hundred and twenty years. But that serpent, who from his deeds received
the name of devil, that is, accuser or informer, did not cease to
persecute the seed of man, whom he had deceived from the beginning. At
length he urged him who was first born in this world, under the impulse
of envy, to the murder of his brother, that of the two men who were
first born he might destroy the one, and make the other a parricide.
[6] Nor did he cease upon this from infusing the venom of malice into
the breasts of men through each generation, from corrupting and
depraving them; in short, from overwhelm-inn them with such crimes,
that an instance of justice was now rare, but men lived after the
manner of the beasts.
But when God saw this, He sent His angels to
instruct the race of men, and to protect them from all evil. He gave
these a command to abstain from earthly things, lest, being polluted by
any taint, they should be deprived of the honour of angels. But that
wily accuser, while they tarried among men, allured these also to
232
pleasures, so that they might defile themselves with women. Then, being
condemned by the sentence of God, and cast forth on account of their
sins, they lost both the name and substance of angels. Thus, having
become ministers of the devil, that they might have a solace of their
ruin, they betook themselves to the ruining of men, for whose
protection they had come. [1]
CHAP. XXVIII.--OF THE DEMONS, AND THEIR EVIL
PRACTICES.
These are the demons, of whom the poets often speak
in their poems, whom Hesiod calls the guardians of men. For they so
persuaded men by their enticements and deceits, that they believed that
the same were gods. In fine, Socrates used to give out that he had a
demon as the guardian and director of his life from his first childhood
and that he could do nothing without his assent and command. They
attach themselves, therefore, to individuals, and occupy houses under
the name of Genii or Penates. To these temples are built, to these
libations are daily offered as to the Lares, to these honour is paid as
to the averters of evils. These from the beginning, that they might
turn away men from the knowledge of the true God, introduced new
superstitions and worship of gods. These taught that the memory of dead
kings should be consecrated, temples be built, and images made, not
that they might lessen the honour of God, or increase their own, which
they lost by sinning, but that they might take away life from men,
deprive them of the hope of true light, lest men should arrive at that
heavenly reward of immortality from which they fell. They also brought
to light astrology, and augury, and divination; and though these things
are in themselves false, yet they themselves, the authors of evils, so
govern and regulate them that they are believed to be true. They also
invented the tricks of the magic art, to deceive the eyes. By their aid
it comes to pass, that that which is appears not to be, and that which
is not appears to be. They themselves invented necromancies, responses,
and oracles, to delude the minds of men with lying divination by means
of ambiguous issues. They are present in the temples and at all
sacrifices; and by the exhibition of some deceitful prodigies, to the
surprise of those who are present, they so deceive men, that they
believe that a divine power is present in images and statues. They even
enter secretly into bodies. as being slight spirits; and they excite
diseases in the vitiated limbs, which when appeased with sacrifices and
vows they may again remove. They send dreams either full of terror, [2]
that
they themselves may be invoked, or the issues of which may correspond
with the truth, that they may increase the veneration paid to
themselves. Sometimes also they put forth something of vengeance
against the sacrilegious, that whoever sees it may become more timid
and superstitious. Thus by their frauds they have drawn darkness over
the human race, that truth might be oppressed, and the name of the
supreme and matchless God might be forgotten.
CHAP. XXIX.--OF THE PATIENCE AND PROVIDENCE
OF GOD.
But some one says: Why, then, does the true God
permit these things to be done? Why does He not rather remove or
destroy the wicked? Why, in truth, did He from the beginning give power
[3] to the demon, so that there should be one who might corrupt and
destroy all things? I will briefly say why He willed that this should
be so. I ask whether virtue is a good or an evil. It cannot be denied
that it is a good. If virtue is a good, vice, on the contrary, is an
evil. If vice is an evil on this account, because it opposes virtue,
and virtue is on this account a good, because it overthrows vice, it
follows that virtue cannot exist without vice; and if you take away
vice, the merits of virtue will be taken away. For there can be
no victory without an enemy. Thus it comes to pass, that good cannot
exist without an evil.
Chrysippus, a man of active mind, saw this when
discussing the subject of providence, and charges those with folly who
think that good is caused by God, but say that evil is not thus caused.
Aulus Gellius [4] has interpreted his sentiment in his books of Attic
Nights; thus saying: "They to whom it does not appear that the world
was made for the sake of God and men, and that human affairs are
governed by providence, think that they use a weighty argument when
they thus speak: If there were a providence, there would be no evils.
For they say that nothing is less in agreement with providence, than
that in this world, on account of which it is said that God made men,
[5] the power of troubles and evils should be so great. In reply to
these things, Chrysippus, when he was arguing, in his fourth book
respecting providence, said: Nothing can be more foolish than those who
think that good things could have existed, if there were not evils in
the same place. For since good things are contrary to evil, they must
of necessity be opposed to, each other, and must stand resting, as it
were, on mutual and opposite support. [6] Thus there is no contrary
without another contrary.
233
For how could there be any perception of justice, unless there
were injuries? or what else is justice, but the removal of injustice?
In like manner, the nature of fortitude cannot be understood. except by
placing [1] beside it cowardice, or the nature of self-control except
by intemperance. Likewise, in what manner would there be prudence,
unless there were the contrary, imprudence? On the same principle, he
says, why do the foolish men not require this also, that there
should be truth and not falsehood? For there exist together good and
evil things, prosperity and trouble, pleasure and pain. For the one
being bound to the other at opposite poles, as Plato says, if you take
away one, you take away both." You see, therefore, that which I have
often said, that good and evil are so connected with one another, that
the one cannot exist without the other. Therefore God acted with the
greatest foresight in placing the subject-matter of virtue in evils
which He made for this purpose, that He might establish for us a
contest, in which He would crown the victorious with the reward of
immortality.
[2]
CHAP.XXX. -- OF FALSE WISDOM.
I have taught, as I imagine, that the honours paid
to gods are not only, impious, but also vain, either because they were
men whose memory was consecrated after death; or because the images
themselves are insensible and deaf, inasmuch as they are formed of
earth, and that it is not right for man, who ought to look up to
heavenly things, to subject himself to earthly things; or because the
spirits who claim to themselves those acts of religious service are
unholy and impure, and on this account, being condemned by the sentence
of God, fell to the earth, and that it is not lawful to submit to the
power of those to whom you are superior, if you wish to be a follower
of the true God. It remains that, as we have spoken of false religion,
we should also discuss the subject of false wisdom, which the
philosophers profess,--men endued with the greatest learning and
eloquence, but far removed from the truth, because they neither know
God nor the wisdom of God. And although they are clever and learned,
yet, because their wisdom is human, I shall not fear to contend with
them, that it may be evident that falsehood can be easily overcome by
truth, and earthly things by heavenly.
They thus define the nature of philosophy.
Philosophy is the love or pursuit of wisdom. Therefore it is not wisdom
itself; for that which loves must be different from that which is loved.
If it is the pursuit of wisdom, not even thus is philosophy identical
with wisdom. For wisdom is the object itself which is sought, but the
pursuit is that which seeks it. Therefore the very definition or
meaning of the word plainly shows that philosophy is not wisdom itself.
I will say that it [3] is not even the pursuit of wisdom, in which
wisdom is not comprised. For who can be said to devote himself to the
pursuit of that to which he can by no means attain? He who gives
himself to the pursuit of medicine, or grammar, or oratory, may be said
to be studious of that art which he is learning; but when he has
learned, he is now said to be a physician, a grammarian, or an orator.
Thus also those who are studious of wisdom, after they had learned it,
ought to have been called wise. But since they are called students of
wisdom as long as they live, it is manifest that that is not the
pursuit, because it is impossible to arrive at the object itself which
is sought for in the pursuit, unless by chance they who pursue wisdom
even to the end of life are about to be wise in another world. Now
every pursuit is connected with some end. That, therefore, is not a
right pursuit which has no end.
CHAP. XXXI. -- OF KNOWLEDGE AND SUPPOSITION.
Moreover, there are two things which appear to fall under the subject
of philosophy -- knowledge and supposition; and if these are taken
away, philosophy altogether falls to the ground. But the chief of the
philosophers themselves have taken away both from philosophy. Socrates
took away knowledge, Zeno supposition. Let us see whether they were
right in doing so. Wisdom is, as Cicero defined it, [4] the knowledge
of divine and human things. Now if this definition is true, wisdom does
not come within the power of man. For who of mortals can assume this to
himself, to profess that he knows divine and human things? I say
nothing of human affairs; for although they are connected with divine,
yet, since they belong to man. let us grant that it is possible
for man to know them. Certainly he cannot
know divine things by himself, since he is a man; whereas he who
knows them must be divine, and therefore God. But man is neither divine
nor God. Man, therefore, cannot thoroughly know divine things by
himself. No one, therefore, is wise but God, or certainly that
man whom God has taught. But they, because they are neither gods. nor
taught by God. cannot be wise, that is, acquainted with divine
and human things. Knowledge, therefore, is rightly taken away by
Socrates and the Academics. Supposition also does not agree with the
wise man. For every
234
one supposes that of which he is ignorant. Now, to suppose that you
know that of which you are ignorant, is rashness and folly.
Supposition, therefore, was rightly taken away by Zeno. If, therefore.
there is no knowledge in man, and there ought to be no supposition,
philosophy is cut up by the roots.
CHAP. XXXII.--OF THE SECTS OF PHILOSOPHERS,
AND THEIR DISAGREEMENT.
To this is added, that it [1] is not uniform; but
being divided into sects, and scattered into many and discordant
opinions, it has no fixed state. For since they all separately attack
and harass one another, and there is none of them which is not
condemned of folly in the judgment of the rest, while the members are
plainly at variance with one another, the whole body of philosophy is
brought to destruction. Hence the Academy afterwards originated. For
when the leading men of that sect saw that philosophy was altogether
overthrown by philosophers mutually opposing each other, they undertook
war against all, that they might destroy all the arguments of all;
while they themselves assert nothing except one thing -- that nothing
can be known. Thus, having taken away knowledge, they overthrew the
ancient philosophy. But they did not even themselves retain the name of
philosophers, since they admitted their ignorance, because to be
ignorant of all things is not only not the part of a philosopher, but
not even of a man. Thus the philosophers, because they have no defence,
must destroy one another with mutual wounds, and philosophy itself must
altogether consume and put an end to itself by its own arms. But they
say it is only natural philosophy which thus gives way. How is it with
moral? Does that rest on any firm foundation? Let us see whether
philosophers are agreed in this part at any rate, which relates to the
condition of life.
CHAP. XXXIII.--WHAT IS THE CHIEF GOOD TO BE
SOUGHT IN LIFE.
What is the chief good must be an object of inquiry,
that our whole life and actions may be directed to it. When inquiry is
made respecting the chief good of man, it ought to be settled to be of
such a kind, first, that it have reference to man alone; in the next
place, that it belong peculiarly to the mind; lastly, that it be sought
by virtue. Let us see, therefore, whether the chief good which the
philosophers mark out be such that it has reference neither to a dumb
animal nor to the body, and cannot be attained without
virtue.
Aristippus, the founder of the Cyrenaic sect,
who thought that bodily pleasure was the chief
good, ought to be removed from the number of philosophers, and from the
society of men, because he compared himself to a beast. The chief good
of Hieronymus is to be without pain, that of Diodorus to cease to be in
pain. But the other animals avoid pain; and when they are without pain,
or cease to be in pain, are glad. What distinction, then, will be given
to man, if his chief good is judged to be common with the beasts? Zeno
thought that the chief good was to live agreeably to nature. But this
definition is a general one. For all animals live agreeably to nature,
and each has its own nature.
Epicurus maintained that it was pleasure of the
soul. What is pleasure of the soul but joy, in which the soul for the
most part luxuriates, and unbends itself either to sport or to
laughter? But this good befalls even dumb animals, which, when they are
satisfied with pasture, relax themselves to joy and wantonness.
Dinomachus and Callipho approved of honourable pleasure; but they
either said the same that Epicurus did, that bodily pleasure is
dishonourable; or if they considered bodily pleasures to be partly base
and partly honourable, then that is not the chief good which is
ascribed to the body. The Peripatetics make up the chief good of goods
of the soul, and body, and fortune. The goods of the soul may be
approved of; but if they require assistance for the completion of
happiness, they are plainly weak. But the goods of the body and of
fortune are not in the power of man; nor is that now the chief good
which is assigned to the body, or to things placed without us, because
this double good extends even to the cattle, which have need of being
well, and of a due supply of food. The Stoics are believed to have
entertained much better views, who said that virtue was the chief good.
But virtue cannot be the chief good, since, if it is the endurance of
evils and of labours, it is not happy of itself; but it ought to effect
and produce the chief good, because it cannot be attained without the
greatest difficulty and labour. But, in truth, Aristotle wandered far
from reason, who connected honour with virtue, as though it were
possible for virtue at any time to be separated from honour, or to be
united with baseness.
Herillus the Pyrrhonist made knowledge the chief
good. This indeed belongs to man, and to the soul only, but it may
happen to him without virtue. For he is not to be considered happy who
has either learnt anything by hearing, or has gained the knowledge of
it by a little reading; nor is it a definition of the chief good,
because there may be a knowledge either of bad things, or at any rate
of things that are useless. And if it is the knowledge of good and
useful things which you have acquired by labour, nevertheless it is not
the chief good, because knowledge is
235
not sought on its own account, but on account of something else. For
the arts are learnt on this account, that they may be to us the means
of gaining support, or a source of glory, or even of pleasure; and it
is plain that these things cannot be the chief goods. Therefore the
philosophers do not observe the rule even in moral philosophy, inasmuch
as they are at variance with one another on the main point [1] itself,
that is, in that discussion by which the life is moulded. For the
precepts cannot be equal, or resembling one another, when some train
men to pleasure, others to honour, others indeed to nature, others to
knowledge; some to the pursuit, others to the avoiding of riches; some
to entire insensibility to pain, others to the endurance of evils: in
all which, as I have shown before, they turn aside from reason, because
they are ignorant of God.
CHAP. XXXIV. -- THAT MEN ARE BORN TO JUSTICE.
Let us now see what is proposed to the wise man as
the chief good. [2] That men are born to justice is not only taught by
the sacred writings, but is sometimes acknowledged even by these same
philosophers. Thus Cicero says: "But of all things which fall under the
discussion of learned men, nothing assuredly is more excellent than
that it should be clearly understood that we are born to justice." This
is most true. [3] For we are not born to wickedness, since we are a
social and sociable animal. The wild beasts are produced to exercise
their fierceness; for they are unable to live in any other way than by
prey and bloodshed. These, however, although pressed by extreme hunger,
nevertheless refrain from animals of their own kind. Birds also do the
same, which must feed upon the carcases of others. How much more is it
befitting, that man, who is united with man both in the interchange of
language and in communion of feeling, should spare man, and love him!
For this is justice.
But since wisdom has been given to man alone, that
he may understand God, and this alone makes the difference between man
and the dumb animals, justice itself is bound up in two duties. He owes
the one to God as to a father, the other to man as to a brother; for we
are produced by the same God. Therefore it has been deservedly and
rightly said, that wisdom is the knowledge of divine and human
affairs. For it is right that we should know what we owe to God,
and what to man; namely, to God religion, to man affection. But the
former belongs to wisdom, the latter to virtue; and justice comprises
both. If, therefore, it is evident that man
is born to justice, it is necessary that the just man should be subject
to evils, that he may exercise the virtue with which he is endued. For
virtue is the enduring of evils. He will avoid pleasures as an evil: he
will despise riches, because they are frail; and if he has them, he
will liberally bestow them, to preserve the wretched: he will not be
desirous of honours, because they are short and transitory; he will do
injury to no one; if he shall suffer, he will not retaliate; and
he will not take vengeance upon one who plunders his property. For he
will deem it unlawful to injure a man; and if there shall be any one
who would compel him to depart from God, he will not refuse tortures
nor death. Thus it will come to pass, that he must necessarily live in
poverty and lowliness, and in insults, or even tortures.
CHAP. XXXV. --THAT IMMORTALITY IS THE CHIEF
GOOD.
What, then, will be the advantage of justice and
virtue, if they shall have nothing but evil in life? But if virtue,
which despises all earthly goods, most wisely endures all evils, and
endures death itself in the discharge of duty, cannot be without a
reward, what remains but that immortality alone is its reward? For if a
happy life falls to the lot of man, as the philosophers will have it,
and in this point alone they do not disagree, therefore also
immortality falls to him. For that only is happy which is
incorruptible; that only is incorruptible which is eternal. Therefore
immortality is the chief good, because it belongs both to man, and to
the soul, and to virtue. We are only directed to this; we are born to
the attainment of this. Therefore God proposes to us virtue and
justice, that we may obtain that eternal reward for our labours. But
concerning that immortality [4] itself we will speak in the proper
place. There remains the philosophy of Logic, [5] which contributes
nothing to a happy life. For wisdom does not consist in the arrangement
of speech, but in the heart and the feeling. But if natural philosophy
is superfluous, and this of logic, and the philosophers have erred in
moral philosophy, which alone is necessary, because they have been
unable in any way to find out the chief good; therefore all philosophy
is found to be empty and useless, which was unable to comprehend the
nature of man, or to fulfil its duty and office.
CHAP. XXXVI. -- OF THE PHILOSOPHERS,-NAMELY, EPICURUS AND PYTHAGORAS.
Since I have spoken briefly of philosophy, now also
I will speak a few things about the
236
philosophers. This is especially the doctrine of Epicurus, that there
is no providence. And at the same time he does not deny the existence
of gods. In both respects he acts contrary to reason. For if there are
gods, it follows that there is a providence. For otherwise we can form
no intelligible idea of God, for it is His peculiar province to
foresee. [1] But Epicurus says He takes no care about anything.
Therefore He disregards not only the affairs of men, but also heavenly
things. How, therefore, or from what, do you affirm that He exists? For
when you have taken away the divine providence and care, it would
naturally follow that you should altogether deny the existence of God
whereas now you have left Him in name, but in reality you have taken
Him away. Whence, then, did the world derive its origin, if God takes
no care of anything? There are, he says, minute atoms, which can
neither be seen nor touched, and from the fortuitous meeting of these
all things arose, and are continually arising. If they are neither seen
nor perceived by any part of the body, how could you know of their
existence? In the next place, if they exist, with what mind do they
meet together to effect anything? If they are smooth, they cannot
cohere: if they are hooked and angular, then they are divisible; for
hooks and angles project, and can be cut off. But these things are
senseless and unprofitable. Why should I mention that he also makes
souls capable of extinction? who is refuted not only by all
philosophers and general persuasion, but also by the answers of bards,
by the predictions of the Sibyls, and lastly, by the divine voices of
the prophets themselves; so that it is wonderful that Epicurus alone
existed, who should place the condition of man on a level with the
flocks and beasts.
What of Pythagoras, who was first called a
philosopher, who judged that souls were indeed immortal, but that they
passed into other bodies, either of cattle, or of birds, or of beasts?
Would it not have been better that they should be destroyed, together
with their bodies, than thus to be condemned to pass into the bodies of
other animals? Would it not be better not to exist at all, than, after
having had the form of a man, to live as a swine or a dog? And
the foolish man, to gain credit for his saying, said that he
himself had been Euphorbus in the Trojan war, and that, when he had
been slain, he passed into other figures of animals, and at last became
Pythagoras. O happy man! to whom alone so great a memory was given; or
rather unhappy, who, when changed into a sheep, was not permitted to be
ignorant of what he was!
And would to Heaven that he alone had been thus senseless! He found
also some to believe him, and some indeed among the learned, [2] to
whom the inheritance of folly passed.
CHAP. XXXII. --OF SOCRATES AND HIS CONTRA-
DICTION.
After him Socrates held the first place in
philosophy, who was pronounced most wise even by the oracle, because he
confessed that he knew one thing only, -- namely, that he knew nothing.
And on the authority of this oracle it was right that the natural
philosophers should restrain themselves, lest they should either
inquire into those things which they could not know, or should think
that they knew things which they did not know. Let us, however, see
whether Socrates was most wise, as the Pythian god proclaimed. He often
made use of this proverb, that that which is above us has also no
reference to us. He has now passed beyond the limits of his opinion.
For he who said that he knew one thing only, found another thing to
speak of, as though he knew it; but that in vain. For God, who is
plainly above us, is to be sought for; and religion is to be
undertaken, which alone separates us from the brutes, which indeed
Socrates not only rejected, but even derided, in swearing by a goose
and a dog, as if in truth he could not have sworn by AEsculapius, to
whom he had vowed a cock. Behold the sacrifice of a wise man! And
because he was unable to offer this in his own person, since he was at
the point of death, he entreated his friends to perform the vow after
his death, lest forsooth he should be detained as a debtor in the lower
regions. He assuredly both pronounced that he knew nothing, and made
good his statement. [3]
CHAP. XXXVIII.--OF PLATO, WHOSE DOCTRINE APPROACHES MORE NEARLY TO THE
TRUTH.
His disciple Plato, whom Tully speaks of as the god
of philosophers, alone of all so studied philosophy that he approached
nearer to the truth; and yet, because he was ignorant of God, he so
failed in many things, that no one fell into worse errors, especially
because in his books respecting the state he wished all things to be
common to all. This is endurable concerning property, though it is
unjust. For it ought not to be an injury to any one, if he possesses
more than another through his own industry; or to be a profit to any
one, if through his own fault he possesses less. But, as I have said,
this is capable of being endured in some way. Shall there be a com-
237
munity of wives also, and of children? Shall there be no distinction of
blood, or certainty of race? Shall there be neither families, nor
relationships, nor affinities, but all things confused and
indiscriminate, as in herds of cattle? Shall there be no self-restraint
in men, no chastity in women? What conjugal affection can there be in
these, between whom on either side there is no sure or peculiar (1)
love? Who will he dutiful towards a father, when he knows not from whom
he was born? Who will love a son, whom he will reckon as not his own?
(2) Moreover, he opened (3) the senate house to women, and en-trusted
to them warfare, magistracies, and commands. (4) But how great will be
the calamity of that city, in which women shall discharge the duties of
men! But of this more fully at another opportunity.
Zeno, the master of the Stoics, who praises virtue,
judged that pity, which is a very great virtue, should be cut away, as
though it were a disease of the mind, whereas it is at the same time
dear to God and necessary for men. For who is there who, when placed in
any evil, would be unwilling to be pitied, and would not desire the
assistance of those who might succour them, which is not called forth
so as to render aid, except by the feeling of pity? Although he calls
this humanity and piety, he does not change the matter itself, only the
name. This is the affection which has been given to man alone, that by
mutual assistance we might alleviate our weakness; and he who removes
this affection reduces us to the life of the beasts. For his assertion
that all faults are equal, proceeds from that inhumanity with which
also be assails pity as a disease. For he who makes no difference in
faults, either thinks that light offences ought to be visited with
severe punishments, which is the part of a cruel judge, or that great
offences should be visited with slight punishments, which is the part
of a worthless judge. In either case there is injury to the state. For
if the greatest crimes are lightly punished, the boldness of the wicked
will increase, and go on to deeds of greater daring; and if a
punishment of too great severity is inflicted for slight offences,
inasmuch as no one can be exempt from fault, many citizens will incur
peril, who by correction might become better.
CHAP. XXXIX. -- OF VARIOUS PHILOSOPHERS, AND
OF THE ANTIPODES.
These things, truly, are of small importance, but
they arise from the same falsehood. Xenoph-
anes said that the orb of the moon is eighteen times larger than this
earth of ours; and that within its compass is contained another earth,
which is inhabited by men and animals of every kind. About the
antipodes also one can neither hear nor speak without laughter. It is
asserted as something serious, that we should believe that there are
men who have their feet opposite to ours. The ravings of Anaxagoras are
more tolerable, who said that snow was black. And not only the sayings,
but the deeds, of some are ridiculous. Democritus neglected his land
which was left to him by his father, and suffered it to become a public
pasture. Diogenes with his company of dogs, (5) who professes that
great and perfect virtue in the contempt of all things, preferred to
beg for his support, rather than to seek it by honest labour, or to
have any property. Undoubtedly the life of a wise man ought to be to
others an example of living. If all should imitate the wisdom of these,
how will states exist? But perhaps the same Cynics were able to afford
an example of modesty, who lived with their wives in public. I know not
how they could defend virtue, who took away modesty.
Nor was Aristippus better than these, who, I
believe, that he might please his mistress Lais, instituted the
Cyrenaic system, by which he placed the end of the chief good in bodily
pleasure, that authority might not be wanting to his faults, or
learning to his vices. Are those men of greater fortitude to be more
approved, who, that they might be said to have despised death, died by
their own hands? Zeno, Empedocles. Chrysippus, Cleanthes, Democritus,
and Cato, imitating these, did not know that he who put himself to
death is guilty of murder, according to the divine right and law. For
it was God who placed us in this abode of flesh: it was He who gave us
the temporary habitation of the body, that we should inhabit it as long
as He pleased. Therefore it is to be considered impious, to wish to
depart from it without the command of God. Therefore violence must not
be applied to nature. He knows how to destroy (6) His own work. And if
any one shall apply impious bands to that work, and shall tear asunder
the bonds of the divine workmanship, he endeavours to flee from God,
whose sentence no one will be able to escape, whether alive or dead.
Therefore they are accursed and impious, whom I have mentioned above,
who even taught what are the befitting reasons for voluntary death; so
that it was not enough of guilt that they were self-murderers, unless
they instructed others also to this wickedness. (7)
238
CHAP. XL.--OF THE FOOLISHNESS OF THE PHI-
LOSOPHERS.
There are innumerable sayings and doings of the
philosophers, by which their foolishness may be shown. Therefore, since
we are unable to enumerate them all, a few will be sufficient. It is
enough that it is understood that the philosophers were neither
teachers of justice, of which they were ignorant, nor of virtue, of
which they falsely boast. For what can they teach, who often confess
their own ignorance? I omit to mention Socrates, whose opinion is well
known. Anaxagoras proclaims that all things are over-spread with
darkness. Empedocles says that the paths for finding out the truth of
the senses are narrow. Democritus asserts that truth lies sunk in a
deep well; and because they nowhere find it, they therefore affirm that
no wise man has as yet existed. Since, therefore, human wisdom has no
existence (Socrates says in the writings of Plato), let us follow that
which is divine, and let us give thanks to God, who has revealed and
delivered it to us; and let us congratulate ourselves, that through the
divine bounty we possess the truth and wisdom, which, though sought by
so many intellects through so many ages, philosophy (1) was not able to
discover.
CHAP. XLI.--OF TRUE RELIGION AND WISDOM.
Now, since we have refuted false religion, which is
in the worship of the gods, and false wisdom, which is in the
philosophers, let us come to true religion and wisdom. And, indeed, we
must speak of them both conjointly, because they are closely connected.
For to worship the true God, that and nothing else is wisdom. For that
God who is supreme and the Maker of all things, who made man as the
image of Himself, on this account conferred on him alone of all
animals the gift of reason, that he might pay back honour to Him as his
Father and his Lord, and by the exercise of this piety and
obedience might gain the reward of immortality. This is a true and
divine mystery. But among those, (2) because they are not true, there
is no agreement. Neither are sacred rites performed in
philosophy, nor is philosophy treated of in sacred things; and on
this account their religion is false, because it does not possess
wisdom; and on this account their wisdom is false, because it does not
possess religion. But where both are joined together, there the truth
must necessarily be; so that if it is asked what the truth itself is,
it may be rightly said to be either wise religion or religious wisdom.
CHAP. XLII.--OF RELIGIOUS WISDOM: THE NAME OF CHRIST KNOWN TO NONE,
EXCEPT HIMSELF AND HIS FATHER.
I will now say what wise religion, or religious
wisdom, is. God, in the beginning, before He made the world, from the
fountain of His own eternity, and from the divine and everlasting
Spirit, (3) begat for Himself a Son incorruptible, faithful,
corresponding to His Father's excellence and majesty. He is virtue, He
is reason, He is the word of God, He is wisdom. With this artificer, as
Hermes says, and counsellor, as the Sibyl says, He contrived the
excellent and wondrous fabric of this world. In fine, of all the
angels, whom the same God formed from His own breath, (4) He alone was
admitted into a participation of His supreme power, He alone was called
God. For all things were through Him, and nothing was without Him. In
fine, Plato, not altogether as a philosopher, but as a seer, spoke
concerning the first and second God, perhaps following Trismegistus in
this, whose words I have translated from the Greek, and subjoined: "The
Lord and Maker of all things, whom we have thought to be called God,
created (5) a second God, who is visible and sensible. But by sensible
I mean, not that He Himself receives sensation, but that He causes
sensation and sight. When, therefore, He had made this, the first, and
one, and only one, He appeared to Him most excellent, and full of all
good qualities." The Sibyl also says that God the guide of all was made
by God, and another, that
"God the Son of God must be known,"
as those examples which I have brought forward in my books declare. Him
the prophets, filled with the inspiration of the Divine Spirit,
proclaimed; of whom especially Solomon in the book of Wisdom, and also
his father, the writer of divine hymns--both most renowned kings, who
preceded the times of the Trojan war by a hundred and eighty years
(6)--testify that He was born of God. His name is known to none, except
to Himself and the Father, as John teaches in the Revelation. (7)
Hermes says that His name cannot be uttered by mortal mouth. Yet by men
He is called by two names--Jesus, which is Saviour, and Christ, which
is King. He is called Saviour on this account, because He is the health
and safety of all who believe in God through Him. He is called Christ
on this account, because He Himself will come from
239
heaven at the end of this dispensation (1) to judge the world, and,
having raised the dead, to establish for Himself an everlasting kingdom.
CHAP. XLIII.--OF THE NAME OF JESUS CHRIST,
AND HIS TWOFOLD NATIVITY.
But lest by any chance there should be any doubt in
your mind why we call Him Jesus Christ, who was born of God before the
world, and who was born of man three hundred years ago, I will briefly
explain to you the reason. The same person is the son of God and of
man. For He was twice born: first of God, in the spirit, before the
origin of the world; afterwards in the flesh of man, in the reign of
Augustus; and in connection with this fact is an illustrious and great
mystery, in which is contained both the salvation of men and the
religion of the Supreme God, and all truth. For when first the accursed
and impious worship of gods crept in through the treachery of the
demons, then the religion of God remained with the Hebrews alone, who,
not by any law, but after the manner of their fathers, observed the
worship handed down to them by successive generations, (2) even until
the time when they went forth out of Egypt trader the leadership of
Moses, the first of all the prophets, through whom the law was given to
them from God; and they were afterwards called Jews. Therefore they
served God, being bound by the chains of the taw. But they also, by
degrees going astray to profane rites, undertook the worship of strange
gods, and, leaving the worship of their father, sacrificed to senseless
images. Therefore God sent to them prophets filled with the Divine
Spirit, to upbraid them with their sins and proclaim repentance, to
threaten them with the vengeance which would follow, and announce that
it would come to pass, if they persisted in the same faults, that
He would send another as the bearer of a new law; and having
removed the ungrateful people from their inheritance, He would
assemble to Himself a more faithful people from foreign nations. But
they not only persisted in their course, but even slew the messengers
themselves. Therefore He condemned them on account of these deeds: nor
did He any longer send messengers to a stubborn people; but He sent His
own Son, to call all nations to the favour of God. Nor, however, did He
shut them out, impious and ungrateful as they were, from the hope of
salvation: but He sent Him to them before all others, (3) that if they
should by chance obey, they might not lose that which they had
received; but if they should refuse to receive their God, then, the
heirs being
removed, (4) the Gentiles would come into possession. Therefore the
supreme Father ordered Him to descend to the earth, and to put on a
human body, that, being subject to the sufferings of the flesh, He
might teach virtue and patience not only by words, but also by deeds.
Therefore He was born a second time as man, of a virgin, without a
father, that, as in His first spiritual birth, being born of God alone,
He was made a sacred spirit, so in His second and fleshly birth, being
born of a mother only, He might become holy flesh, that through Him the
flesh, which had become subject to sin, might be freed from destruction.
CHAP. XLIV. --THE TWOFOLD NATIVITY OF CHRIST IS PROVED FROM THE
PROPHETS.
That these things should thus take place as I have
set them forth, the prophets had before predicted. In the writings of
Solomon it is thus written: (5) "The womb of a virgin was strengthened,
and conceived: and a virgin was impregned, and became a mother in great
pity." In Isaiah (6) it is thus written: "Behold, a virgin shall
conceive, and bear a son, and ye shall call His name Immanuel;" which,
being interpreted, is God with us. (7) For He was with us on the earth,
when He assumed flesh; and He was no less God in man, and man in God.
That He was both God and man was declared before by the prophets. That
He was God, Isaiah (8) thus declares: "They shall fall down unto Thee,
they shall make supplication unto Thee; since God is in Thee, and we
knew it not, even the God of Israel. They shall be ashamed and
confounded, all of them who oppose themselves to Thee, and shall go to
confusion." Also Jeremiah: (9) "This is our God, and there shall none
other be compared unto Him; He hath found out all the way of knowledge,
and hath given it unto Jacob His servant, and to Israel His beloved.
Afterward He was seen upon earth, and dwelt among men." Likewise that
He was man, the same Jeremiah (10) says: "And He is man, and who knew
Him?" Isaiah also thus speaks: (11) "And the Lord shall send them a man
who shall save them, and with judgment shall He heal them." Also Moses
himself in the book of Numbers: (12) "There shall come a star out of
Jacob, and a man shall arise out of Israel." For this cause, therefore,
being God, He took upon Him flesh, that, becoming a mediator (13)
between God and man, having over-
240
come death, He might by His guidance lead man to God.
CHAP. XLV. --THE POWER AND WORKS OF CHRIST
ARE PROVED FROM THE SCRIPTURES.
We have spoken of His nativity; now let us speak of
His power and works, which, when He wrought them among men, the Jews,
seeing them to be great and wonderful, supposed that they were done by
the influence of magic, not knowing that all those things which were
done by Him had been foretold by the prophets. He gave strength to the
sick, and to those languishing under various diseases, not by any
healing remedy, but instantaneously, by the force and power of His
word; He restored the weak, He made the lame to walk, He gave sight to
the blind, He made the dumb to speak, the deaf to hear; He cleansed the
polluted and unclean, He restored their right mind to those who were
maddened with the attack of demons, He recalled to life and light those
who were dead or now buried. He also fed and satisfied (1) five
thousand men with five loaves and two fishes. He also walked upon the
sea. He also in a tempest commanded the wind to be still, and
immediately there was a calm; all which things we find predicted both
in the books of the prophets and in the verses of the Sibyls.
When a great multitude resorted to Him on account of
these miracles, and, as He truly was, believed Him to be the Son of
God, and sent from God, the priests and rulers of the Jews, filled with
envy, and at the same time excited with anger, because He reproved
their sins and injustice, conspired to put Him to death; and that this
would happen, Solomon had foretold a little more than a thousand years
before, in the book of Wisdom, using these words: (2) "Let us defraud
the righteous, for he is unpleasant to us, and upbraideth us with our
offences against the law. He maketh his boast that he has the knowledge
of God, and he calleth himself the Son of God. He is made to reprove
our thoughts: it grieveth us even to look upon him; for his life is not
like the life of others, his ways are of another fashion. We are
counted by him as triflers; he withdraweth himself from our ways, as
from filthiness; he commendeth greatly the latter end of the just, and
boasteth that he has God for his father. Let us see, therefore, if his
words be true; let us prove what end he shall have; let us examine him
with rebukes and torments, that we may know his meekness and prove his
patience; let us condemn him to a shameful death. Such things have they
imagined, and have gone astray; for their own folly hath blinded
them, and they do not understand the mysteries of God."
Therefore, being unmindful of these writings which
they read, they incited the people as though against an impious man, so
that they seized and led Him to trial, and with impious words demanded
His death. But they alleged against Him as a crime this very thing,
that He said that He was the Son of God, and that by healing on the
Sabbath He broke the law, which He said that He did not break, but
fulfilled. And when Pontius Pilate, who then as legate had authority in
Syria, perceived that the cause did not belong to the office of the
Roman judge, he sent Him to Herod the Tetrarch, and permitted the Jews
themselves to be the judges of their own law: who, having received the
power of punishing His guilt, sentenced (3) Him to the cross, but first
scourged and struck him with their hands, put on Him a crown of thorns,
spat upon His face, gave Him gall and vinegar to eat and drink; and
amidst these things no word was heard to fall from His lips. Then the
executioners, having cast lots over His tunic and mantle, suspended Him
on the cross, and affixed Him to it, though on the next day they were
about to celebrate the Passover, that is, their festival. Which crime
was followed by prodigies, that they might understand the impiety which
they had committed; for at the same moment in which He expired, there
was a great earthquake, and a withdrawing (4) of the sun, so that the
day was turned into night.
CHAP. XLVI.--IT IS PROVED FROM THE PROPHETS THAT THE PASSION AND DEATH
OF CHRIST HAD BEEN FORETOLD.
And the prophets had predicted that all these things
would thus come to pass. Isaiah thus speaks: (5) "I am not rebellious,
nor do I oppose: I gave my back to the scourge, and my cheeks to the
hand: I turned not away my face from the foulness of spitting." The
same prophet says respecting His silence: (6) "I was brought as a
sheep to the slaughter, and as a lamb before its shearers is dumb, so
He opened not His mouth." David also, in the xxxivth Psalm: (7) "The
abjects were gathered together against me, and they knew me not: they
were scattered, yet felt no remorse: they tempted me, and gnashed upon
me with their teeth." The same also says respecting food and drink in
the lxviiith Psalm: (8) "They gave me also gall for my meat, and in my
thirst they gave me vinegar to drink." Also
241
respecting the cross of Christ: (1) "And they pierced my hands and my
feet, they numbered all my bones: they themselves have looked and
stared upon me; they parted my garments among them, and cast lots upon
my vesture." Moses also says in Deuteronomy: (2) " And thy life shall
hang in doubt before thine eyes, and thou shall fear day and night, and
shall have none assurance of thy life." Also in Numbers: (3) "God
is not in doubt as a man, nor does He suffer threats as the son of
man." Also Zechariah says: (4) "And they shall look on me whom they
pierced." Amos (5) thus speaks of the obscuring of the sun: "In that
day, saith the Lord, the sun shall go down at noon, and the clear day
shall be dark; and I will turn your feasts into mourning, and
your songs into lamentation." Jeremiah (6) also speaks of the city of
Jerusalem, in which He suffered: "Her sun is gone down while it was yet
day; she hath been confounded and reviled, and the residue of them will
I deliver to the sword." Nor were these things spoken in vain. For
after a short time the Emperor Vespasian subdued the Jews, and laid
waste their lands with the sword and fire, besieged and reduced them by
famine, overthrew Jerusalem, led the captives in triumph, and
prohibited the others who were left from ever returning to their native
land. And these things were done by God on account of that crucifixion
of Christ, as He before declared this to Solomon in their Scriptures,
saying, (7) "And Israel shall be for perdition and a reproach (8) to
the people, and this house shall be desolate; and every one that shall
pass by shall be astonished, and shall say, Why hath God done these
evils to this land, and to this house? And they shall say, Because they
forsook the Lord their God, and persecuted their.
King, who was dearly beloved by God, and crucified Him with great
degradation, therefore hath God brought upon them these evils." For
what would they not deserve who put to death their Lord, who had come
for their salvation?
CHAP. XLVII.--OF THE RESURRECTION OF JESUS CHRIST, THE SENDING OF THE
APOSTLES, AND THE ASCENSION OF THE SAVIOUR INTO HEAVEN.
After these things they took His body down from the
cross, and buried it in a tomb. But on the third day, before daybreak,
there was an earthquake, and the stone with which they had closed the
sepulchre was removed, and He arose. But nothing was found in the
sepulchre except
the clothes in which the body had been wrapped. (9) But that He would
rise again on the third day, the prophets had long ago foretold. David,
in the xvth Psalm: (10) "Thou wilt not leave my soul in hell, neither
wilt Thou suffer Thine Holy One to see corruption." Likewise Hosea:
(11) This my Son is wise, therefore He shall not stay long in the
anguish of His sons: and I will ransom Him from the hand of the grave.
Where is thy judgment, O death, where is thy sting?" The same again
says: (12) "After two days He will revive us on the third day."
Therefore, after His resurrection He went into
Galilee, and again assembled His disciples, who had fled through fear;
and having given them commands which He wished to be observed, and
having arranged for the preaching of the Gospel throughout the whole
world, He breathed into them the Holy Spirit, (13) and gave them the
power of working miracles, that they might act for the welfare of men
as well by deeds as words; and then at length, on the fortieth day, He
returned to His Father, being carried up into a cloud. The prophet
Daniel (14) had long before shown this, saying, "I saw in the night
vision, and, behold, one like the Son of man came with the clouds of
heaven, and came to the Ancient of days; and they who stood beside Him
brought Him near before Him. And there was given Him a kingdom, and
glory, and dominion, and all people, tribes, and languages shall serve
Him; and His power is an everlasting one, which shall not pass away,
and His kingdom that which shall not be destroyed." Also David in the
cixth Psalm: (15) "The Lord said unto my Lord, Sit Thou at my right
hand, until I make Thine enemies Thy footstool."
CHAP. XLVIII. -- OF THE DISINHERITING OF THE JEWS, AND THE ADOPTION OF
THE GENTILES.
Since, therefore, He sits at the right hand of God,
about to tread down His enemies, who tortured Him, when He shall come
to judge the world, it is evident that no hope remains to the Jews,
unless, turning themselves to repentance, and being cleansed from the
blood with which they polluted themselves, they shall begin to hope in
Him whom they denied. (16) Therefore Esdras thus speaks: (17) "This
passover is our Saviour and our refuge. Consider and let it come into
your heart, that we have to abase
242
Him in a figure: and after these things we have hoped (1) in Him."
Now that the Jews were disinherited, because they
rejected Christ, and that we, who are of the Gentiles, were adopted
into their place, is proved by the Scriptures. Jeremiah (2) thus
speaks: "I have forsaken mine house, I have given mine heritage into
the hands of her enemies. Mine heritage is become unto me as a lion in
the forest; it hath given forth its voice against me: therefore have I
hated it." Also Malachi: (3) "I have no pleasure in you, saith the
Lord, neither will I accept an offering at your hand. For from the
rising of the sun even unto the going down thereof, my name shall be
great among the Gentiles." Isaiah also thus speaks: (4) "I come to
gather all nations and tongues: and they shall come and see my glory."
The same says in another place, (5) speaking in the person of the
Father to the Son: "I the Lord have called Thee in righteousness, and
will hold Thine hand, and will keep Thee, and give Thee for a covenant
of my people, for a light of the Gentiles; to open the eyes of the
blind, to bring out the prisoners from the prison, and them that sit in
darkness out of the prison-house."
CHAP. XLIX. --THAT GOD IS ONE ONLY.
If therefore the Jews have been rejected by God, as
the faith due to the sacred writings shows, and the Gentiles, as we
see, brought in, and freed from the darkness of this present life and
from the chains of demons, it follows that no other hope is proposed to
man, unless he shall follow true religion and true wisdom, which is in
Christ, and he who is ignorant of Him is always estranged from the
truth and from God. Nor let the Jews, or philosophers, flatter
themselves respecting the Supreme God. He who has not acknowledged the
Son has been unable to acknowledge the Father. (6) This is wisdom, and
this is the mystery of the Supreme God. God willed that He should
be acknowledged and worshipped through Him. (7) On this
account He sent the prophets beforehand to announce His coming,
that when the things which had been foretold were fulfilled in
Him, then He might be believed by men to be both the Son of
God and
God.
Nor, however, must the opinion be entertained
that there are two Coots, for the Father and the Son are one. For
since the Father loves the Son, and gives all things to Him, and the Son
faithfully obeys the Father, and wills nothing except that which the
Father does, it is plain that so close a relationship cannot be
separated, so that they should be said to be two in whom there is but
one substance, and will, and faith. Therefore the Son is through the
Father, and the Father through the Son. One honour is to be given to
both, as to one God, and is to be so divided through the worship of the
two, that the division itself may be bound by an inseparable bond of
union. He will leave nothing to himself, who separates either the
Father from the Son, or the Son from the Father. (8)
CHAP.L. --WHY GOD ASSUMED A MORTAL BODY,
AND
SUFFERED DEATH.
It remains to answer those also, who deem that it was unbecoming
and unreasonable that God should be clothed with a mortal body; that He
should be in subjection to men; that He should endure insults; that He
should even suffer tortures and death. I will speak my sentiments, and
I will sum up, as I shall be able, an immense subject in few words. He
who teaches anything, ought, as I think, himself to practise what he
teaches, that he may compel men to obey. For if he shall not practise
them, he will detract from the faith due to his precepts. Therefore
there is need of examples, that the precepts which are given may have
firmness, and if any one shall prove contumacious, and shall say that
they cannot be carried out in practice, the instructor may refute him
by actual fact. (9) Therefore a system of teaching cannot be perfect,
when it is delivered by words only; but it then becomes perfect, when
it is completed by deeds.
Since therefore Christ was sent to men as a teacher
of virtue, for the perfection of His teaching it was plainly befitting
that He should act as well as teach. But if He had not assumed a human
body, He would not have been able to practise what He taught,-- that
is, not to be angry, not to desire riches, not to be inflamed with
lust, not to fear pain, to despise death. These things are plainly
virtues, but they cannot be done without flesh. Therefore He assumed a
body on this account, that, since He taught that the desires of the
flesh must be overcome, He might in person first practise it, that no
one might allege the frailty of the flesh as an excuse.
CHAP. LI. --OF THE DEATH OF CHRIST ON THE
CROSS.
I will now speak of the mystery of the cross, lest
any one should happen to say, If death must be endured by Him, it
should have been not one
243
that was manifestly infamous and dishonourable, but one which had some
honour. I know, indeed, that many, while they dislike the name of the
cross, shrink from the truth, though there is in it great
reasonableness and power, For since He was sent for this purpose, that
He might open to the lowest men the way to salvation, He made Himself
humble that He might free them. Therefore He underwent that kind of
death which is usually inflicted on the humble, that an opportunity of
imitation might be given to all. Moreover, since He was about to rise
again, it was not allowable that His body should be in any way
mutilated, or a bone broken, which happens to those who are beheaded.
Therefore the cross was preferred, which reserved the body with the
bones uninjured for the resurrection.
To these grounds it was also added, that having
undertaken to suffer and to die, it was befitting that He should be
lifted up. Thus the cross exalted Him both in fact and in emblem, (1)
so that His majesty and power became known to all, together with His
passion. For in that He extended His hands on the cross, He plainly
stretched out His wings towards the east and the west, under which all
nations from either side of the world might assemble and repose. But of
what great weight this sign is, and what power it has, is evident,
since all the host of demons is expelled and put to flight by this
sign. And as He Himself before His passion put to confusion demons by
His word and command, so now, by the name and sign of the same passion,
unclean spirits, having insinuated themselves into the bodies of men,
are driven out, when racked and tormented, and confessing themselves to
be demons, they yield themselves to God, who harasses them. What
therefore can the Greeks expect from their superstitions and with their
wisdom, when they see that their gods, whom they do not deny to be
demons also, are subdued by men through the cross?
CHAP. LII.--THE HOPE OF THE SALVATION OF MEN CONSISTS IN THE KNOWLEDGE
OF THE TRUE GOD, AND OF THE HATRED OF THE HEATHENS AGAINST THE
CHRISTIANS.
There is therefore but one hope of life for men, one
harbour of safety, one refuge of liberty, if, laying aside the errors
by which they were held, they open the eyes of their mind and recognise
God, in whom alone is the abode of truth; despise earthly things, and
those made from the ground esteem as nothing philosophy, which is
foolishness with God; and having undertaken e true wisdom, that is,
religion, become heirs of immortality. But indeed they are not so
much opposed to the truth as to their own safety; and
when they hear these things, they abominate them as some inexpiable
wickedness. But they do not even endure, to hear: they think that their
ears are polluted with impiety (3) if they hear; nor do they now
refrain from reproaches, but assail them with the most insulting words;
and also, if they have obtained the power, persecute them as public
enemies, yea, even as worse than enemies; for enemies, when they have
been vanquished, are punished with death or slavery; nor is there any
torturing after the laying down of arms, although those deserved to
suffer all things who wished so to act, that piety might have place
among swords.
Cruelty, combined with innocence, is unheard of, nor
is it worthy of the condition of victorious enemies. What is the so
powerful cause of this fury? Doubtless, because they cannot contend on
the ground of reason, they urge forward their cause by means of
violence; and, with the subject not understood, they condemn those as
most pernicious persons who have declined to make a stand respecting
the fact of their innocence. Nor do they deem it sufficient that those
whom they unreasonably hate should die by a speedy and simple death;
but they lacerate them with refined tortures, that they may satisfy
their hatred, which is not produced by any fault, but by the truth,
which is hateful to those who live wickedly, because they take it ill
that there are some whom their deeds cannot please. They desire in
every way to destroy these, that they may be able to sin without
restraint in the absence of any witness.
CHAP. LIII. --THE REASONS OF THE HATRED
AGAINST THE CHRISTIANS ARE EXAMINED AND
REFUTED.
But they say that they do these things for the
defence of their gods. In the first place, if they are gods, and have
any power and influence, they have no need of the defence and
protection of men, but they manifestly defend themselves. Or how is man
able to hope for aid from them, if they are unable to average even
their own injuries? Therefore it is a vain and foolish thing to wish to
be avengers of the gods, except that their distrust is more apparent
from this. For he who undertakes the protection of the god whom he
worships, admits the worthlessness of that god; but if he worships him
on this account, because he thinks him powerful, he ought not to wish
to defend him, by whom he himself ought to be defended. We therefore
act rightly. For when those defenders of false gods, who are rebellious
against the true God, persecute His name in us, we resist not
244
either in deed or in word, but with meekness, and silence, and
patience, we endure whatever cruelty is able to contrive against us.
For we have confidence in God, from whom we expect that retribution
will hereafter follow. Nor is this confidence ungrounded, since we have
in some cases heard, and in other cases seen, the miserable ends of all
those who have dared to commit this crime. Nor has any one had it in
his power to insult God with impunity; but he who has been unwilling to
learn by word has learned by his own punishment who is the true God.
I should wish to know, when they compel men to
sacrifice against their will, what reasoning they have with themselves,
or to whom they make that offering. If it is made to the gods, that is
not worship, nor an acceptable sacrifice, which is made by those who
are displeasing to them, which is extorted by injury, which is enforced
by pain. But if it is done to those whom they compel, it is plainly not
a benefit, which any one would not receive, he even prefers rather to
die. If it is a good to which you call me, why do you invite me with
evil? why with blows, and not with words? why not by argument, but by
bodily tortures? Whence it is manifest that that is an evil, to which
you do not allure me willing, but drag me refusing. What folly is it to
wish to consult the good of any one against his will! If any one,
under the pressure of evils, attempts to have recourse to death, can
you, if you either wrest the sword from his hand, or cut the halter, or
drag him away from the precipice, or pour out the poison, boast
yourself as the preserver of the man, when be, whom you think
that you have preserved, does not thank you, and thinks that you
have acted ill towards him, in averting from him the death which be
desired, and in not permitting him to reach the end and rest from his
labours? For a benefit ought not to be weighed according to the quality
of the action, but according to the feelings of him who receives it.
Why should you reckon as a benefit that which is an injury to me? Do
you wish me to worship your gods, which I consider deadly to myself? If
it is a good, I do not envy it. Enjoy your good by yourself. There is
no reason why you should wish to succour my error, which I have
undertaken by my judgment and inclination. If it is evil, why do you
drag me to a participation in evil? Use your own fortune. I prefer to
die in the practice of that which is good, than to live in evil.
CHAP. LIV.--OF THE FREEDOM OF RELIGION IN
THE WORSHIP OF GOD.
These things may indeed be said with justice.
But who will hear, when men of furious and unbridled spirit think that
their authority is dimin-
ished if there is any freedom in the affairs of men? But it is religion
alone in which freedom has placed its dwelling. For it is a matter
which is voluntary above all others, nor can necessity be imposed upon
any, so as to worship that which he does not wish to worship. (1) Some
one may perhaps pretend, he cannot wish it. In short, some,
through fear of torments, or overcome by tortures, have assented to
detestable sacrifices: they never do that voluntarily which they did
from necessity; but when the opportunity is again given to them, and
liberty restored, they again betake themselves to God, and appease Him
with prayers and tears, repenting not of the will, which they had not,
but of the necessity which they endured; and pardon is not denied to
those who make satisfaction. What then does he accomplish who pollutes
the body, since he cannot change the will?
But, in fact, men of weak understanding, if they
have induced any man of spirit (2) to sacrifice to their gods, with
incredible alacrity insolently exult, and rejoice, as though they had
sent an enemy under the yoke. But if any one, neither frightened by
threats nor by tortures, shall have chosen to prefer his faith to his
life, cruelty puts forth all its ingenuity against him, plans dreadful
and intolerable things; and because they know that death for the cause
of God is glorious, and that this is a victory on our side, if, having
overcome the torturers, we lay down our life in be-haft of the faith
and religion, they also themselves strive to conquer us. They do not
put us to death. but they search out new and unheard-of tortures, that
the frailty of the flesh may yield to pains, and if it does not yield,
they put off further punishment, and apply diligent care to the wounds,
that while the scars are yet fresh, a repetition of the torture may
inflict more pain; and while they practise this torture (3) upon the
innocent, they evidently consider themselves pious, and just, and
religious (for they are delighted with such sacrifices to their gods),
but they term the others impious and desperate. What perversity is
this, that he who is punished, though innocent, should be called
desperate and impious, and that the torturer, on the other hand, should
be called just and pious!
CHAP. LV. --THE HEATHENS CHARGE JUSTICE WITH
IMPIETY IN FOLLOWING GOD.
But they say that those are rightly and deservedly
punished, who dislike the public rites of religion handed down to them
by their ancestors. What if those ancestors were foolish in undertaking
vain religious rites, as we have shown before,
245
shall we be prohibited from following true and better things? Why do we
deprive ourselves of liberty, and become enslaved to the errors of
others, as though bound, to them? Let it be permitted us to be wise,
let it be permitted us to inquire into the truth. But, however, if it
pleases them to defend the folly (2) of their ancestors, why are the
Egyptians suffered to escape, who worship cattle and beasts of every
kind as deities? Why are the gods themselves made the subjects of
comics representations? and why is he honoured who derides them most
wittily? Why are philosophers attended to, who either say that there
are no gods, or that, if there are any, they take no interest in, and
do not regard the affairs of men, or argue that there is no providence
at all, which rules the world?
But they alone of all are judged impious who follow
God and the truth. And since this is at once justice, and wisdom, they
lay to its charge either impiety or folly, and do not perceive what it
is which deceives them, when they call evil good, and good evil. Many
indeed of the philosophers, and especially Plato and Aristotle, spoke
many things about justice, asserting and extolling that virtue with the
greatest praise, because it gives to each its due, because it maintains
equity in all things; and whereas the other virtues are as it were
silent, and shut up within, that it is justice alone which is neither
concerned (4) for itself only, nor hidden, but altogether shows itself
(5) abroad, and is ready for conferring a benefit, so as to assist as
many as possible: as though in truth justice ought to be in judges
only, and those placed in any post of authority, and not in all men.
And yet there is no one of men, not even of the
lowest and of beggars, who is not capable of justice. But because they
did not know what it was, from what source it proceeded, and what was
its mode of operation, they assigned to a few only that highest virtue,
that is, the common good of all, and said that it aimed at (6) no
advantages peculiar to itself, but only the interests of others. And
not without reason was Carneades raised up, a man of the greatest
talent and penetration, to refute their speech, and overthrow the
justice, which had no firm foundation; not because he thought that
justice was to be blamed, but that
he might show that its defenders brought forward no firm or
certain argument respecting justice.
CHAP. LVI.--OF JUSTICE, WHICH IS THE WORSHIP
OF THE TRUE
GOD.
For if justice is the worship of the true God (for
what is so just with respect to equity, so
pious with respect to honour, so necessary with respect to safety, as
to acknowledge God as a parent, to reverence Him as Lord, and to obey
His law or precepts?), it follows that the philosophers were ignorant
of justice, for they neither acknowledged God Himself, nor observed His
worship and law; and on this account they might have been refuted by
Carneades, whose disputation was to this effect, that there is no
natural justice, and therefore that all animals defended their own
interests by the guidance of nature itself, and therefore that justice,
if it promotes the advantages of others and neglects its own, is to be
called foolishness. But if all people who are possessed of power, and
the Romans themselves, who are masters of the whole world, were willing
to follow justice, and to restore to every one his property which they
have seized by force and arms, they will return to cottages and a
condition of want. And if they did this, they might indeed be just, but
they must of necessity be considered foolish, who proceed to injure
themselves for the advantage of others. Then, if any one should find a
man who was through a mistake offering for sale gold as mountain-brass,
or silver as lead, and necessity should compel him to buy it, will he
conceal his knowledge and buy it for a small sum, or will he rather
inform the seller of its value? If he shall inform him, he will
manifestly be called just; but he will also be foolish, for conferring
an advantage upon another, and injuring himself. But it is easy to
judge in a case of injury. What if he shall incur danger of his life,
so that it shall be necessary for him either to kill another or to die,
what will he do? It may happen that, having suffered shipwreck, he may
find some feeble person clinging to a plank; or, his army having been
defeated, in his flight he may find a wounded man on horseback:
will he thrust the one from the plank, the other from his horse, that
he himself may be able to escape? If he shall wish to be just, he will
not do it; but he will also be judged foolish, who in sparing the life
of another shall lose his own. If he shall do it, he will indeed appear
wise, because he will provide for his own interests; but he will also
be wicked, because he will commit a wrong.
CHAP. LVII.--OF WISDOM AND FOOLISHNESS.
These things indeed are said with acuteness; but we
are able very readily to reply to them. For the imitation of names
causes it thus to
appear. For justice bears a resemblance to foolishness, and yet it is
not foolishness; and at the same time malice bears a resemblance to
wisdom, and yet it is not wisdom. But as that malice is intelligent and
shrewd in preserving its own interests, it is not wisdom, but cunning
and craftiness; so likewise justice ought not to be called foolishness,
but innocence, because
246
the just man must be wise, and the foolish man unjust. For neither
reason nor nature itself permits that he who is just should not be
wise, since it is plain that the just man does nothing except that
which is right and good, and always avoids that which is perverted (1)
and evil. But who will be able to distinguish between good and evil,
depravity and rectitude, but he who shall be wise? But the fool acts
badly, because he is ignorant of what is good and evil. Therefore he
does wrong, because he is unable to distinguish between things which
are perverted and those which are right. Therefore justice cannot be
befitting to the foolish man, nor wisdom to the unjust. He is not then
a foolish person who has not thrust off a shipwrecked man from a plank,
nor a wounded man from his horse, because he has abstained from injury,
which is a
sin; and it is the part of the wise man to avoid
But that he should appear foolish at first sight is caused by this,
that they suppose the soul to be extinguished together with the body;
and for this reason they refer all advantage to this life. For if there
is no existence after death, it is plain that he acts foolishly who
spares the life of another to his own loss, or who consults the gain of
another more than his own. If death destroys the soul, we must use our
endeavours to live for a longer time, and more to our own advantage;
but if there remains after death a life of immortality and blessedness,
the just and wise man will certainly despise this corporeal existence,
with all earthly goods, because he will know what kind of a reward he
is about to receive from God. Therefore let us maintain innocency, let
us maintain justice, let us undergo the appearance of foolishness, that
we may be able to maintain true wisdom. And if it appears to men
senseless and foolish to prefer torture and death rather than to
sacrifice to gods, and to escape without harm, let us however strive to
exhibit faithfulness towards God by all virtue and by all patience. Let
not death terrify us, nor pain subdue us, so as to prevent the vigour
of our mind and constancy from being preserved unshaken. Let them call
us foolish, whilst they themselves are most foolish, and blind and
dull, and like sheep; who do not understand that it is a deadly thing
to leave the living God, and prostrate themselves in the adoration of
earthly objects; who do not know that eternal punishment awaits those
who have worshipped senseless images; and that those who have neither
refused tortures nor death for the worship and honour of the true God
will obtain eternal life. This is the highest faith; this is true
wisdom; this is perfect justice. It mat-
ters nothing to us what fools may judge, what trifling men may think.
We ought to await the judgment of God, that we may hereafter judge
those who have passed judgment on us.
CHAP. LVIII.--OF THE TRUE WORSHIP OF GOD, AND
SACRIFICE.
I have spoken of justice, what was its nature. It
follows that I show what is true sacrifice to God, what is the most
just manner of worship-ping Him, lest any one should think that
victims, or odours, or precious gifts, are desired by God, who, if He
is not subject to hunger, and thirst, and cold, and desire of all
earthly things, does not therefore make use of all these things which
are presented in temples and to gods of earth; but as corporeal
offerings are necessary for corporeal beings, so manifestly an
incorporeal sacrifice is necessary for an incorporeal being. But God
has no need of those things which He has given to man for his use,
since all the earth is under His power: He needs not a temple, since
the world is His dwelling; He needs not an image, since He is
incomprehensible both to the eyes and to the mind; He needs not earthly
lights, for He was able to kindle the light of the sun, with the other
stars, for the use of man. What then does God require from man but
worship of the mind, which is pure and holy? For those things which are
made by the hands, or are outside of man, are senseless, frail, and
displeasing. This is true sacrifice, which is brought forth not from
the chest but from the heart; not that which is offered by the hand,
but by the mind. This is the acceptable victim, which the mind
sacrifices of itself. For what do victims bestow? What dotes incense?
What do garments? What does silver? What gold? What precious stones, --
if there is not a pure mind on the part of the worshipper? Therefore it
is justice only which God requires. In this is sacrifice; in this the
worship of God, respecting which I must now speak, and show in what
works justice must necessarily be contained.
CHAP. LIX. --OF THE WAYS OF LIFE,AND THE
FIRST TIMES OF THE WORLD.
That there are two ways (2) of human life was
unknown neither to philosophers nor to poets, but both introduced them
in a different manner. The philosophers wished the one to be the way of
industry, the other of idleness; but in this respect they were less
correct in their statements, that they referred them to the advantages
of this life only. The poets spoke better who said that one of them was
the way of the just, the other
247
of the unjust; but they err in this, that they say that they are
not in this life, but in the shades below. We manifestly speak more
correctly, who say that the one is the way of life, the other that of
death. And here, however, we say that there are two ways; but the one
on the right hand, in which the just walk, does not lead to Elysium,
but to heaven, for they become immortal; the other on the left leads to
Tartarus, (1) for the unjust are sentenced to eternal tortures.
Therefore the way of justice, which leads to life, is to be held by us.
Now the first duty of justice is to acknowledge God as a parent, and to
fear Him as a master, to love Him as a father. For the same Being who
begat us, who animated us with vital breath, who nourishes and
preserves us, has over us, not only as a father but also as a master,
authority to correct us, and the power of life and death; wherefore
twofold honour is due to Him from man, that is, love combined with
fear. The second duty of justice is to acknowledge man as a brother.
For if the same God made us, and produced all men on equal terms to
justice and eternal life, it is manifest that we are united by the
relationship of brotherhood; and he who does not acknowledge this is
unjust. But the origin of this evil, by which the mutual society of
men, by which the bond of relationship has been torn asunder, arises
from ignorance of the true God. For he who is ignorant of that fountain
of bounty can by no means be good. Hence it is that, from the time when
a multitude of gods began to be consecrated and worshipped by men,
justice, as the poets relate, being put to flight, every compact was
destroyed, the fellowship of human justice was destroyed. Then every
one, consulting his own interest, reckoned might to be right, injured
another, attacked by frauds, deceived (2) by treachery, increased his
own advantages by the inconvenience of others, did not spare relatives,
or children, or parents, prepared poisoned cups for the destruction of
men, beset the ways with the sword, infested the seas, gave the rein to
his lust, wherever passion led him,-- in short, esteemed
nothing sacred which his dreadful desire did not violate.
When these things were done, then men instituted laws for themselves to
promote the public advantage, that they might meanwhile protect
themselves from injuries. But the fear of laws did not suppress crimes,
but it checked licentiousness. For laws were able to punish offences,
they were unable to punish the conscience. Therefore the things which
before were done openly began to be done secretly. Justice also was
evaded by stealth, since they who themselves presided over the
administration of the laws, corrupted by, gifts and rewards, made a
traffic
of their sentences, either to the escape (3) of the evil or to
the destruction of the good. To these
things were added dissensions, and wars, and mutual depredations;
and the laws being crushed, the power of acting with violence was
assumed without restraint.
CHAP. LX.--OF THE DUTIES OF JUSTICE.
When the affairs of men were in this condition, God
pitied us, revealed and displayed Himself to us, that in Himself we
might learn religion, faith, purity, and mercy; that having laid aside
the error of our former life, together with God Himself we might know
ourselves, whom impiety had disunited from Him, and we might choose (4)
the divine law, which unites human affairs with heavenly, the Lord
Himself delivering it to us; by which law all the errors with which we
have been ensnared, together with vain and impious superstitions, might
be taken away. What we owe to man, therefore, is prescribed by that
same divine law which teaches that whatever you render to man is
rendered to God. But the root of justice, and the entire foundation of
equity, is that you should not do that which you would be unwilling to
suffer, but should measure the feelings of another by your own. If it
is an unpleasant thing to bear an injury, and he who has done it
appears unjust, transfer to the person of another that which you feel
respecting yourself, and to your own person that which you judge
respecting another, and you will understand that you act as unjustly if
you injure another as another would if he should injure you. If we
consider these things, we shall maintain innocence, in which the first
step of justice is, as it were, contained. For the first thing is, not
to injure; the next is, to be of service. And as in uncultivated lands,
before you begin to sow, the fields must be cleansed by tearing up the
thorns and cutting off all the roots of trunks, so vices must first be
thrust out from our souls, and then at length virtues must be
implanted, from which the fruits of immortality, being engendered by
the word of God, may spring up.
CHAP. LXI.--OF THE PASSIONS.
There are three passions, or, so to speak, three
furies, which excite such great perturbations in the souls of men, and
sometimes compel them to offend in such a manner, as to permit them to
have regard neither for their reputation nor for their personal safety:
these are anger, which desires vengeance; love of gain, which longs for
riches; lust, which seeks for pleasures. We must above all things
resist these vices: these
248
trunks must be rooted up, that virtues may be implanted. The Stoics are
of opinion that these passions must be cut off; the Peripatetics think
that they must be restrained. Neither of them judge rightly, because
they cannot entirely be taken away, since they are implanted by nature,
and have a sure and great influence; nor can they be diminished, since,
if they are evil, we ought to be without them, even though restrained
and used with moderation; if they are good, we ought to use them in
their completeness. (1) But we say that they ought not to be taken away
nor lessened. For they are not evil of themselves, since God has
reasonably implanted them in us; but inasmuch as they are plainly good
by nature,-- for they are given us for the protection of life,-- they
become evil by their evil use. And as bravery, if you fight in defence
of your country, is a good, if against your country, is an evil, so the
passions, if you employ them to good purposes, will be virtues, if to
evil uses, they will be called vices. Anger therefore has been given by
God for the restraining of offences, that is, for controlling the
discipline of subjects, that fear may suppress licentiousness and
restrain audacity. But they who are ignorant of its limits are angry
with their equals, or even with their superiors. Hence they rush to
deeds of cruelty, hence they rise to slaughters, hence to wars. The
love of gain also has been given that we may desire and seek for the
necessaries of life. But they who are unacquainted with its boundaries
strive insatiably to heap up riches. Hence poisoning, hence
defraudings, (2) hence false wills, hence all kinds of frauds have
burst forth. Moreover, the passion of lust is implanted and innate in
us for the procreation of children; but they who do not fix its limits
in the mind use it for pleasure only. Thence arise unlawful loves,
thence adulteries and debaucheries, thence all kinds of
corruption. These passions, therefore, must be kept within their
boundaries and directed into their right course, in which, even though
they should be vehement, they cannot incur blame.
CHAP. LXII.--OF RESTRAINING THE PLEASURES OF
THE SENSES.
Anger is to be restrained when we suffer an injury,
that the evil may be suppressed which is imminent from a contest, and
that we may retain two of the greatest virtues, harmlessness and
patience. Let the desire of gain be broken when we have that
which is enough. For what madness is it to labour in heaping up
those things which must pass to others, either by rob-
bery, or theft, or by proscription, or by death? Let lust not go beyond
the marriage-bed, but be subservient to the procreation of children.
For a too great eagerness for pleasure both produces danger and
generates disgrace, and that which is especially to be avoided, leads
to eternal death. Nothing is so hateful to God as an unchaste mind and
an impure soul. Nor let any one think that he must abstain from this
pleasure only, quae capitur ex foeminei corporis copulatione, but also
from the other pleasures which arise from the rest of the senses,
because they also are of themselves vicious, and it is the part of the
same virtue to despise them. The pleasure of the eyes is derived from
the beauty of objects, that of the ears from harmonious and pleasant
sounds, that of the nostrils from pleasant odour, that of taste from
sweet food,--all of which virtue ought strongly to resist, lest,
en-snared by these attractions, the soul should be depressed from
heavenly to earthly things, from things eternal to things temporal,
from life immortal to perpetual punishment. In pleasures of the taste
and smell there is this danger, that they are able to draw us to
luxury. For he who shall be given up to these things, either will have
no property, or, if he shall have any, he will expend it, and
afterwards live a life to be abominated. But he who is carried away by
hearing (to say nothing respecting songs, (3) which often so charm the
inmost senses that they even disturb with madness a settled state of
the mind by certain elaborately composed speeches and harmonious poems,
or skilful disputations) is easily led aside to impious worship. Hence
it is that they who are either themselves eloquent, or prefer to read
eloquent writings, do not readily believe the sacred writings, because
they appear unpolished; they do not seek things that are true, but
things that are pleasant; nay, to them those things appear to be most
true which soothe the cars. Thus they reject the truth, while they are
captivated by the sweetness of the discourse. But the pleasure which
has reference to the sight is manifold. For that which is derived from
the beauty of precious objects excites avarice, which ought to be far
removed from a wise and just man; but that which is received from the
appearance of woman hurries a man to another pleasure, of which we have
already spoken above.
CHAP. LXIII.--THAT SHOWS ARE MOST POWERFUL
TO CORRUPT THE MINDS.
It remains to speak of public shows, which, since
they have a more powerful influence on the corruption of the mind,
ought to be avoided by the wise, and to be altogether guarded against,
249
because it is said that they were instituted in celebration of
the honours of the gods. For the exhibitions of shows are festivals of
Saturnus. The stage belongs to Father Liber; but the Circensian
games are supposed to be dedicated to Neptunus: so that now he
who takes part in these shows appears to have left the worship of God,
and to have passed over to profane rites. But I prefer to speak of the
matter itself rather than of its origin. What is so dreadful, what so
foul, as the slaughter of man? Therefore our life is protected by the
most severe laws; therefore wars are detestable. Yet custom finds how a
man may commit homicide without war, and without laws; and this is a
pleasure to him, that he has avenged guilt. But if to be present at
homicide implies a consciousness of guilt, and the spectator is
involved in the same guilt as the perpetrator, then in these slaughters
of gladiators, he who is a spectator is no less sprinkled with blood
than he who sheds it; nor can he be free from the guilt of bloodshed
who wished it to be poured out, or appear not to have slain, who both
favoured the slayer and asked a reward for him. What of the stage? Is
it more holy, --on which comedy converses on the subject of
debaucheries and amours, tragedy of incest and parricide? The immodest
gestures also of players, with which they imitate disreputable women,
teach the lusts, which they express by dancing. For the pantomime is a
school of corruption, (1) in which things which are shameful are acted
by a figurative representation, (2) that the things which are true may
be done without shame. These spectacles are viewed by youths, whose
dangerous age, which ought to be curbed and governed, is trained by
these representations to vices and sins. The circus, in truth, is
considered more innocent, but there is greater madness in this, since
the minds of the spectators are transported with such great madness,
that they not only break out into revilings, but often rise to strifes,
and battles, and contentions. Therefore all shows are to be avoided,
that we may be able to maintain a tranquil state of mind. We must
renounce hurtful pleasures, lest, charmed by pestilential sweetness, we
fall into the snares of death.
CHAP. LXIV. -- THE PASSIONS ARE TO BE SUBDUED, AND WE MUST ABSTAIN FROM
FORBIDDEN THINGS.
Let virtue alone please us, whose reward is immortal when it has
conquered pleasure. But when the passions have been overcome and
pleasures subdued labour in suppressing other things is easy to him who
is a follower of God
and of truth: he will never revile, who shall hope for a blessing from
God; he will not commit perjury, lest he should mock God; but he will
not even swear, test at any time, either by necessity or through habit,
he should fall into perjury. He will speak nothing deceitfully, nothing
with dissimulation; he will not refuse that which he has promised, nor
will he promise that which he is unable to perform; he will envy no
one, since he is content with himself and with his own possessions; nor
will he take away from, or wish ill to another, upon whom, perhaps, the
benefits of God are more plenteously (5) bestowed. He will not steal,
nor will he covet anything at all belonging to another. He will not
give his money to usury, for that is to seek after gain from the evils
of others; nor, however, will he refuse to lend, if necessity shall
compel any one to borrow. He must not be harsh towards a son, nor
towards a slave: he must remember that he himself has a Father and a
Master. He will so act towards these as he will wish that others should
act towards him. He will not receive excessive gifts from those who
have less resources than himself; for it is not just that the estates
of the wealthy should be increased by the losses of the wretched.
It is an old precept not to kill, which ought not to
be taken in this light, as though we axe commanded to abstain only from
homicide, which is punished even by public laws. But by the
intervention of this command, it will not be permitted us to apply
peril of death by word, nor to put to death or expose an infant, nor to
condemn one's self by a voluntary death. We are likewise commanded not
to commit adultery; but by this precept we are not only prohibited from
polluting the marriage of another, which is condemned even by the
common law of nations, but even to abstain from those who prostitute
their persons. For the law of God is above all laws; it forbids even
those things which are esteemed lawful, that it may fulfil justice. It
is a part of the same law not to utter false witness, and this also
itself has a wider meaning. For if false witness by falsehood is
injurious to him against whom it is spoken, and deceives him in whose
presence it is spoken, we must therefore never speak falsely, because
falsehood always deceives or injures. Therefore he is not a just man
who, even without inflicting injury, speaks in idle discourse. Nor
indeed is it lawful for him to flatter, for flattery is pernicious and
deceitful; but he will everywhere guard the truth. And although this
may for the present be unpleasant, nevertheless, when its advantage and
usefulness shall appear, it will not produce hatred, as the poet says,
(4) but gratitude.
250
CHAP. LXV. -- PRECEPTS ABOUT THOSE THINGS WHICH ARE COMMANDED, AND OF
PITY.
I have spoken of those things which are forbidden; I
will now briefly say what things are commanded. Closely connected with
harmlessness is pity. For the former does not inflict injury, the
latter works good; the former begins justice, the latter completes it.
For since the nature of men is more feeble than that of the other
animals, which God has provided with means of inflicting violence, and
with defences for repelling it, He has given to us the affection of
pity, that we might place the whole protection of our life in mutual
aid. For if we are created by one God, and descended from one man, and
are thus connected by the law of consanguinity, we ought on this
account to love every man; and therefore we are bound not only to
abstain from the infliction of injury, but not even to avenge it when
inflicted on us, that there may be in us complete harmlessness. And on
this account God commands us to pray always even for our enemies.
Therefore we ought to be an animal fitted for companionship and
society, that we may mutually protect ourselves by giving and receiving
assistance. For our frailty is liable to many accidents and
inconveniences. Expect that that which you see has happened to another
may happen to you also. Thus you will at length be excited to render
aid, if you shall assume the mind of him who, being placed in evils,
implores your aid. If any one is in need of food, let us bestow it; if
any one meets us who is naked, let us clothe him; if any one suffers
injury from one who is more powerful than himself, let us rescue him.
Let our house be open to strangers, or to those who are in need of
shelter. Let cur de-fence not be wanting to wards, or our protection to
the defenceless. (1) To ransom captives is a great work of pity, and
also to visit and comfort the sick who are in poverty. If the helpless
or strangers die, we should not permit them to lie unburied. These are
the works, these the duties, of pity; and if any one undertakes these,
he will offer unto God a true and acceptable sacrifice. This victim is
more adapted for an offering to God, who is not appeased with the blood
of a sheep, but with the piety of man, whom God, because He is just,
follows up with His own law, and with His own condition. He shows
mercy to him whom He sees to be merciful; He is inexorable to him whom
He sees to be harsh to those who entreat him. Therefore,
that we may be able to do all these things, which are pleasing to God,
money is to be despised, and to be transferred to heavenly
treasures, where neither thief can break through, nor rust
corrupt, nor tyrant take away, but it may be preserved for
us under the guardianship of God to our eternal wealth.
CHAP. LXVI. -- OF FAITH IN RELIGION, AND OF
FORTITUDE.
Faith also is a great part of justice; and this
ought especially to be preserved by us, who bear the name of faith,
especially in religion, because God is before and to be preferred to
man. And if it is a glorious thing to undergo death in behalf of
friends, of parents, and of children, that is, in behalf of man, and if
he who has done this obtains lasting memory and praise, how much more
so in behalf of God, who is able to bestow eternal life in return for
temporal death? Therefore, when a necessity of this kind happens. that
we are compelled to turn aside from God, and to pass over to the rites
of the heathens, no fear, no terror should turn us aside from guarding
the faith delivered to us. Let God be before our eyes, in our heart, by
whose inward help we may overcome the pain of our flesh, and the
torments applied to our body. Then let its think of nothing else
but the rewards of an immortal life. And thus, even though our limbs
should be torn in pieces, or burnt, we shall easily endure all things
which the madness of tyrannical cruelty shall contrive against us.
Lastly, let us strive to undergo death itself, not unwillingly or
timidly, but willingly and undauntedly, as those who know what glory we
are about to bare in the presence of God, having triumphed over the
world and coming to the things promised us; with what good things and
how great blessedness we shall be compensated for these brief evils of
punishments, and the injuries of this life. But if the
opportunity of this glory shall be wanting, faith will have its reward
even in peace. Therefore let it be observed in all the duties of life,
let it be observed in marriage. For it is not sufficient if you abstain
from another's bed, or from the brothel. Let him who has a wife
seek nothing further, but, content with her alone, let him guard the
mysteries of the marriage-bed. chaste and undefiled. For he is equally
an adulterer in the sight of God and impure, who, having thrown off the
yoke, wantons in strange pleasure either with a free woman or a slave.
But as a woman is bound by the bonds of chastity not to desire any
other man, so let the husband be bound by the same law, since God has
joined together the husband and the wife in the union of one body. On
this account He has commanded that the wife shall not be put away
unless convicted of adultery, and that the bond of the conjugal compact
shall never be dissolved, unless unfaithfulness have broken it. (2)
This also is added for the completion of chastity, that
251
there should be an absence not only of the offence, but even of the
thought. For it is evident that the mind is polluted by the desire,
though unaccomplished; and so that a just man ought neither to do, nor
to wish to do, that which is unjust. Therefore the conscience must be
cleansed; for God, who cannot be deceived, inspects it. The breast must
be cleared from every stain, that it may be a temple of God, which is
enlightened not by the gleam of gold or ivory, but by the brightness of
faith and purity.
CHAP. LXVII.--OF REPENTANCE, THE IMMORTALITY OF THE SOUL, AND OF
PROVIDENCE.
But it is true all these things are difficult to
man, nor does the condition of his frailty permit that any one should
be without blemish. Therefore the last remedy is this, that we have
recourse to repentance, which has not the least place among the
virtues, because it is a correction of oneself; that when we have
happened to fail either in deed or in word, we may immediately come to
a better mind, and confess that we have offended, and entreat pardon
from God, which according to His mercy He will not deny, except to
those who persist in their error. Great is the aid, great the solace of
repentance. That is the healing of wounds and offences, that hope, that
the harbour of safety; and he who takes away this cuts off from himself
the way of salvation, because no one can be so just that repentance is
never necessary for him. But we, even though there is no offence of
ours, yet ought to confess to God, and to entreat pardon for our
faults, and to give thanks even in evils. Let us always offer this
obedience to our Lord. For humility is dear and lovely in the sight of
God; for since, He rather receives the sinner who confesses his fault,
than the just man who is haughty, how much more will He receive the
just man who confesses, and exalt him in His heavenly kingdom in
proportion to his humility! These are the things which the worshipper
of God ought to hold forth; these are the victims, this the sacrifice,
which is acceptable; this is true worship, when a man offers upon the
altar of God the pledges of his own mind. That supreme Majesty rejoices
in such a worshipper as this, as it takes him as a son and bestows upon
him the befitting reward of immortality, concerning which I must now
speak, and refute the persuasion of those who think that the soul is
destroyed together with the body. For inasmuch as they neither knew God
nor were able to perceive the mystery of the world, they did not even
comprehend the nature of man and of the soul. For how could they see
the consequences, who did not hold the main point? (1) There-
fore, in denying the existence of a providence, they plainly denied the
existence of God, who is the fountain and source of all things. It
followed that they should either affirm that those things which exist
have always existed, or were produced of their own accord, or arose
from a meeting together of minute seeds.
It cannot be said that that which exists, and is
visible, always existed; for it cannot exist of itself without some
beginning. But nothing can be produced of its own accord, because there
is no nature without one who generates it. But how could there be
original (2) seeds, since both the seeds arise from objects, (3) and,
in their turn, objects from seeds? Therefore there is no seed which has
not origin. Thus it came to pass, that when they supposed that the
world was produced by no providence, they did not suppose that even man
was produced by any plan. (4) But if no plan was made use of in the
creation of man, therefore the soul cannot be immortal. But others, on
the other hand, thought there was but one God, and that the world was
made by Him, and made for the sake of men, and that souls are immortal.
But though they entertained true sentiments, nevertheless they did not
perceive the causes, or reasons, or issues of this divine work and
design, so as to complete the whole mystery of the truth, and to
comprise it within some limit. But that which they were not able to do,
because they did not hold the truth in its integrity, (5) must be done
by us, who know it on the announcement of God.
CHAP. LXVIII. -- OF THE WORLD, MAN, AND THE
PROVIDENCE OF GOD.
Let us therefore consider what was the plan of
making this so great and so immense a work. God made the world, as
Plato thought, but he does not show why He made it. Because He is good,
he says, and envying no one, He made the things which arc good. But we
see that there are both good and evil things in the system of nature.
Some perverse person may stand forth, such as that atheist Theodorus
was, and answer Plato: Nay, because He is evil, He made the things
which are evil. How will he refute him? If God made the things which
are good, whence have such great evils burst forth, which, for the most
part, even prevail over those which are good? They were contained, he
says, in the matter. If there were evil, therefore there were also good
things; so that either God made nothing, or if He made only good
things, the evil things which were not made are more eternal than
252
the good things which had a beginning. Therefore the things which at
one time began will have an end, and those which always existed will be
permanent. Therefore evils are preferable. But if they cannot be
preferable, they cannot indeed be more eternal. Therefore they either
always existed, and God has been inactive, (1) or they both flowed from
one source. For it is more in accordance with reason that God made all
things, than that He made nothing.
Therefore, according to the sentiments of Plato, the
same God is both good, because He made good things, and evil, because
He made evil things. And if this cannot be so, it is evident that the
world was not made by God on this account, because He is good. For He
comprised all things, both good and evil; nor did He make anything for
its own sake, but on account of something else. A house is built not
for this purpose only, that there may be a house, but that it may
receive and shelter an inhabitant. Likewise a ship is built not for
this purpose, that it may appear only to be a ship, but that men may be
able to sail in it. Vessels also are made, not only that the vessels
may exist, but that they may receive things which are necessary for
use. Thus also God must have made the world for some use. The Stoics
say that it was made for the sake of then; and rightly so. For men
enjoy all these good things which the world contains in itself. But
they do not explain why men themselves were made, or what advantage
Providence, the Maker of all things, has in them.
Plato also affirms that souls are immortal, but why,
or in what manner, or at what time, or by whose instrumentality they
attain to immortality, or what is the nature of that great mystery, why
those who are about to become immortal are previously born mortal, and
then, having completed the course (2) of their temporal life, and
having laid aside the covering (3) of their frail bodies, are
transferred to that eternal blessedness,--of all this he has no
comprehension. Finally, he did not explain the judgment of God, nor the
distinction between the just and the unjust, but supposed that the
souls which have plunged themselves into crimes are condemned thus far,
that they may be reproduced in the lower animals, and thus atone for
their offences, until they again return to the forms of men, and that
this is always taking place, and that there is no end of this
transmigration. In my opinion, he introduces some sport
resembling a dream, in which there appears to be neither plan,
nor government of God, nor any design.
CHAP. LXIX.--THAT THE WORLD WAS MADE ON ACCOUNT OF MAN, AND MAN ON
ACCOUNT OF GOD.
I will now say what is that chief (4) point which
not even those who spoke the truth were able to connect together,
bringing into one view causes and reasons. The world was made by God,
that men might be born; again, men are born, that they may acknowledge
God as a Father, in whom is wisdom; they acknowledge Him, that they may
worship Him, in whom is justice; they worship Him, that they may
receive the reward of immortality; they receive immortality, that they
may serve God for ever. Do you see how closely connected the first are
with the middle, and the middle with the last? Let us look into them
separately, and see whether they are consistent s with each other. God
made the world on account of man. He who does not see this, does not
differ ranch from a beast. Who but man looks up to the heaven? who
views with admiration the sun, who the stars, who all the works of God?
Who inhabits the earth? who receives the fruit from it? Who has in his
power the fishes, who the winged creatures, who the quadrupeds, except
man? Therefore God made all things on account of man, because all
things have turned out for the use of man.
The philosophers saw this, but they did not see the
consequence, that He made man himself on His own account. For it was
befitting, and pious, and necessary, that since He contrived such great
works for the sake of man, when He gave him so much honour, and so much
power, that he should bear rule in the world, man should both
acknowledge God, the Author of such great benefits, who made the world
itself on his account, and should pay Him the worship and honour due to
Him. Here Plato erred; here he lost the truth which he had at first
laid hold of, when he was silent concerning the worship of that God
whom he confessed to be the framer and parent of all things, and did
not understand that man is bound to God by the ties of piety, whence
religion itself receives its name, and that this is the only thing on
account of which souls become immortal. He perceived, however, that
they are eternal, but he did not descend by the regular gradations to
that opinion. For the middle arguments being taken away, he rather fell
into the truth, as though by some abrupt precipice; nor did he advance
further, since he had found the truth by accident, and not by reason.
Therefore God is to be worshipped, that by means of religion, which is
also justice, man may receive from God immortality, nor is there any
other reward of a pious mind; and if this is
253
invisible, it cannot be presented by the invisible God with any reward
but that which is invisible.
CHAP. LXX.--THE IMMORTALITY OF THE SOUL IS
CONFIRMED.
It may in truth be collected from many arguments
that souls are eternal. Plato says that that which always moves by
itself, and has no beginning of motion, also has no end; but that the
soul of man always moves by itself, and be-
cause it is flexible for reflection, subtle for discovery, easy of
perception, adapted to learning, and because it retains the past,
comprehends the present, foresees the future, and embraces the
knowledge of many subjects and arts, that it is immortal, since it
contains nothing which is mixed with the contagion of earthly weight.
Moreover, the eternity of the soul is understood from virtue and
pleasure. Pleasure is common to all animals, virtue belongs only to
man; the former is vicious, the latter is honourable; the former is in
accordance with nature, the latter is opposed to nature, unless the
soul is immortal. For in defence of faith and justice, virtue neither
fears want, nor is alarmed at exile, nor dreads imprisonment, nor
shrinks from pain, nor refuses death; and because these things are
contrary to nature, either virtue is foolishness, if it stands in the
way of advantages, and is injurious to life; or if it is not
foolishness, then the soul is immortal, and despises present goods,
because other things are preferable which it attains after the
dissolution of the body. But that is the greatest proof of immortality,
that man alone has the knowledge of God. In the dumb animals there is
no notion (1) of religion, because they are earthly and bent down to
the earth. Man is upright, and beholds the heaven for this purpose,
that he may seek God. Therefore he cannot be other than immortal, who
longs for the immortal. He cannot be liable to dissolution, who is
connected (2) with God both in countenance and mind. Finally, man alone
makes use of the heavenly element, which is fire, For if light is
through fire, and life through light, it is evident that he who has the
use of fire is not mortal, since this is closely connected, this is
intimately related to Him without whom neither light nor life can exist.
But why do we infer from arguments that souls are
eternal, when we have divine testimonies? For the sacred writings and
the voices of the prophets teach this. And if this appears to any one
insufficient, let him read the poems of the Sibyls, let him also weigh
the answers of the Milesian Apollo, that he may understand that
Democritus, and Epicurus, and Dicaearchus
raved, who alone of all mortals denied that which is evident.
Having proved the immortality of the soul, it remains to teach by whom,
and to whom, and in what manner, and at what time, it is given. Since
fixed and divinely ap- pointed times have begun to be filled up, a
destruction and consummation of all things must of necessity take
place, that the world may be renewed by God. But that time is at hand,
as far as may be collected from the number of years, and from the
signs which are foretold by the prophets. But since the things which
have been spoken concerning the end of the world and the conclusion of
the times are innumerable, those very things which are spoken are to be
laid down without adornment, since it would be a boundless task to
bring forward the testimonies. If any one wishes for them, or does not
place full confidence in us, let him approach to the very shrine of the
heavenly letters, and being more fully instructed through their
trustworthiness, let him perceive that the philosophers have erred, who
thought either that this world was eternal, or that there would be
numberless thousands of years from the time when it was prepared. For
six thousand years have not yet been completed, and when this number
shall be made up, then at length all evil will be taken away, that
justice alone may reign. And how this will come to pass, I will explain
in few words.
CHAP. LXXI.--OF THE LAST TIMES.
These things are said by the prophets, but as seers,
to be about to happen. When the last end shall begin to approach to the
world, wickedness will increase; all kinds of vices and frauds will
become frequent; justice will perish; faith, peace, mercy, modesty,
truth, will have no existence; violence and daring will abound; no one
will have anything, unless it is acquired by the hand, and defended by
the hand. If there shall be any good men, they will be esteemed as a
prey and a laughing-stock. No one will exhibit filial affection to
parents, no one will pity an infant or an old man; avarice and lust
will corrupt all things. There will be slaughter and bloodshed. There
will be wars, and those not only between foreign and neighbouring
states, but also intestine wars. States will carry on wars among
themselves, every sex and age will handle arms. The dignity of
government will not be preserved, nor military discipline; but after
the manner of robbery, there will be depredation and devastation.
Kingly power will be multiplied, and ten men will occupy, portion out,
and devour the world. There will arise another by far more powerful and
wicked, who, having destroyed three, will obtain Asia, and having
reduced and subdued the others under his own
254
power, will harass all the earth. He will appoint new laws, abrogate
old ones; he will make the state his own, and will change the name and
seat of the government.
Then there will be a dreadful and detestable time,
in which no one would choose to live. In fine, such will be the
condition of things, that lamentation will follow the living, and
congratulation the dead. Cities and towns will be destroyed, at one
time by fire and the sword, at another by repeated earthquakes; now by
inundation of waters, now by pestilence and famine. The earth will
produce nothing, being barren either through excessive cold or heat.
All water will be partly changed into blood, partly vitiated by
bitterness, so that none of it can be useful for food, or wholesome for
drinking. To these evils will also be added prodigies from heaven, that
nothing may be wanting to men for causing fear. Comets will frequently
appear. The sun will be overshadowed with perpetual paleness. The moon
will be stained with blood, nor will it repair the losses of its light
taken away. All the stars will fall, nor will the seasons preserve
their regularity, winter and summer being confused. Then both the year,
and the month, and the day will be shortened. And Trismegistus has
declared that this is the old age and decline of the world. And when
this shall have come, it must be known that the time is at hand in
which God will return to change the world. But in the midst of these
evils there will arise an impious king, hostile not only to mankind,
but also to God. He will trample upon, torment, harass and put to death
those who have been spared by that former tyrant. Then there will be
ever-flowing tears, perpetual wailings and lamentations, and useless
prayers to God; there will be no rest from fear, no sleep for a
respite. The day will always increase disaster, the night alarm. Thus
the world will be reduced almost to solitude, certainly to fewness of
men. Then also the impious man will persecute the just and those who
are dedicated to God, and will give orders that he himself shall be
worshipped as God. For he will say that he is Christ, though he will be
His adversary. (1) That he may be believed, he will receive the power
of doing wonders, so that fire may descend from heaven, the sun retire
from his course, and the image which he shall have set up may speak.
And by these prodigies he shall entice many to worship him, and to
receive his sign in their hand or forehead. And he who shall not
worship him and receive his sign will die with refined tortures. Thus
he will destroy nearly two parts, the third will flee into desolate
solitudes. But he, frantic and raging with implacable anger, will lead
an
army and besiege the mountain to which the righteous shall have fled.
And when they shall see themselves besieged, they will implore the aid
of God with a loud voice, and God shall hear them, and shall send to
them a deliverer.
CHAP. LXXII. -- OF CHRIST DESCENDING FROM HEAVEN TO THE GENERAL
JUDGMENT, AND OF THE MILLENARIAN REIGN. (2)
Then the heaven shall be opened in a tempest, (3)
and Christ shall descend with great power, and there shall go before
Him a fiery brightness and a countless host of angels, and all that
multitude of the wicked shall be destroyed, and torrents of blood shall
flow, and the leader himself shall escape, and having often renewed his
army, shall for the fourth time engage in battle, in which, being
taken, with all the other tyrants, he shall be delivered up to be
burnt. But the prince also of the demons himself, the author and
contriver of evils, being bound with fiery chains, shall be imprisoned,
that the world may receive peace, and the earth, harassed through so
many years, may rest. Therefore peace being made, and every evil
suppressed, that righteous King and Conqueror will institute a great
judgment on the earth respecting the living and the dead, and will
deliver all the nations into subjection to the righteous who are alive,
and will raise the righteous dead to eternal life, and will Himself
reign with them on the earth, and will build the holy city, and this
kingdom of the righteous shall be for a thousand years. Throughout
that time the stars shall be more brilliant, and the brightness
of the sun shall be increased, and the moon shall not be subject to
decrease. Then the rain of blessing shall descend from God at morning
and evening, and the earth shall bring forth all her fruit without the
labour of men. Honey shall drop from rocks, fountains of milk and wine
shall abound. The beasts shall lay aside their ferocity and become
mild, the wolf shall roam among the flocks without doing harm, the calf
shall feed with the lion, the dove shall be united with the hawk, the
serpent shall have no poison; no animal shall live by bloodshed. For
God shall supply to all abundant and harmless (4) food. But when the
thousand years shall be fulfilled, and the prince of the demons loosed,
the nations will rebel against the righteous, and an innumerable
multitude will come to storm the city of the saints. Then the last
judgment of God will come to pass against the nations. For He will
shake the earth froth its foundations, and the cities shall be
overthrown, and He Shall rain upon the wicked fire with brimstone and
hail, and they shall be on fire, and
255
slay each other. But the righteous shall for a little space be
concealed under the earth, until the destruction of the nations is
accomplished, and after the third day they shall come forth, and see
the plains covered with carcases. Then there shall be an earthquake,
and the mountains shall be rent, and valleys shall sink down to a
profound depth, and into this the bodies of the dead shall be heaped
together, and its name shall be called Polyandrion.(1) After these
things God will renew the world, and transform the righteous into the
forms of angels, that, being presented with the garment of immortality,
they may serve God for ever; and this will be the kingdom of God, which
shall have no end. Then also the wicked shall rise again, not to life
but to punishment; for God shall raise these also, when the second
resurrection takes place, that, being condemned to eternal torments and
delivered to eternal fires, they may suffer the punishments which they
deserve for their crimes.
CHAP. LXXIII.--THE HOPE OF SAFETY IS IN THE RELIGION AND WORSHIP
OF GOD.
Wherefore, since all these things arc true and
certain, in harmony with the predicted announcement of the prophets,
since Trismegistus and Hystaspes and the Sibyls have foretold the same
things, it cannot be doubted that all hope of life and salvation is
placed in the religion of God alone. Therefore, unless a man shall have
received Christ, whom God has sent, and is about to send for our
redemption, unless he shall have known the Supreme God through Christ,
unless he shall have kept His commandments and law, he will fall into
those punishments of which we have spoken. Therefore frail things must
be despised, that we may gain those which are substantial; earthly
things must be scorned, that we may be honoured with heavenly things;
temporal things must be shunned, that we may reach those which are
eternal. Let every one train himself to justice, mould himself to
self-restraint, prepare himself for the contest, equip himself for
virtue, that if by any chance an adversary shall wage war, he may be
driven from that which is upright and good by no force, no terror, and
no tortures, may give, himself up to no senseless fictions, but in his
uprightness acknowledge the true and only God, may cast away pleasures,
by the attractions of which the lofty soul is depressed to the earth,
may hold fast innocency, may be of service to as many as possible, may
gain for himself incorruptible treasures by good works, that he may be
able, with God for his judge, to gain for the merits of his virtue
either the crown of faith, or the reward of immortality.
ELUCIDATIONS
I.
(Princes and kings, p. 13.)
How memorable the histories, moreover, of
Nebuchadnezzar(1) and his decrees; of Darius(2) and his also; but
especially of Cyrus and his great monumental edict!(3) The beautiful
narratives of the Queen of Sheba and of the Persian consort of Queen
Esther (probably Xerxes) are also manifestations of the ways of
Providence in giving light to the heathen world through that "nation of
priests" in Israel.
But Lactantius, who uses the Sibyls so freely,
should not have omitted to show what Sibylline oracles God drew forth
from "the princes of this world" also, by the illumination of the
pharos which he established in Sion, "to be a light to lighten the
Gentiles" until the great Epiphany should rise upon them in "the
dayspring from on high."
I extract from a paradoxical but most entertaining
author, whom I have often quoted, certain extracts from Philo, which I
translate from his note in the Soirees. Thus:--
"Agrippa," says Philo,(4) "having visited Jerusalem
in Herod's time, was enchanted by the religion of the Jews, and could
never cease to speak of it. . . . Augustus ordered that every day,
256
at his own expense, and under the legal forms, a bull and two lambs
should be offered in holocaust to the Most High God on the altar at
Jerusalem, though he knew that it contained no image, whether exposed
or within the veil; for this great prince, surpassed by none in the
philosophic spirit, felt the actual necessity in this world of an altar
dedicated to a God invisible." Philo also says:--
"Your great-grandmother Julia(1) also made superb
presents to the temple; and although women very reluctantly detach
themselves from images, and rarely conceive of anything apart from
sensation, this lady, nevertheless, greatly superior to her sex in
culture and in natural endowments, arrived at that point in which she
preferred to contemplate such things in the mind rather than in
sensible objects, regarding these as mere shadows of the realities."
In the same discourse, wasting words on Caligula,
Philo reminds him that Augustus "not only admired, nay, rather, he
adored (<greek>eqaumaxe</greek>
<greek>kai</greek> <greek>prosekunei</greek>
<greek>k</greek>.<greek>t</greek>.<greek>l</greek>.),
this custom of employing no sort of image ta represent, materially, a
nature invisible in itself." Poor De Maistre, who quotes this testimony
against images from Philo with intense appreciation, will yet
sophisticate himself and others into the very contrary in behalf of his
one predominant idea of (<greek>proskunhsis</greek>) canine
self-abasement to the decrees of the Vatican. On this account I am
forced to consider him a sophist as well as a fanatic; but I delight to
render justice to his genius, for, wherever he talks and reasons as a
Christian merely, he fascinates and instructs me. He never conceived of
"Catholicity," and lived under the delusion of the Decretals, a
disciple of the Jesuits.
II.
(Therefore they were neglected for many ages, p. 116.)
The explicit statements of Lactantius, and his
profuse quotations from the Sibyllina, persuade me that these curious
fragments deserve a degree of scientific attention which they have not
yet received. The Fathers all cite them, when it must have exposed them
to scorn and overwhelming refutation had their quotations not been
found in the Sibylline books of their adversaries. The influence of the
Jewish religion upon the Gentiles under the Babylonian and Medo-Persian
monarchies must have been considerable, but after Alexander's time it
was vastly increased. Many versions of select prophets were doubtless
produced in Greek before the authorized Septuagint. These were soon
embedded in the Sibyls' books; and I cannot think the interpolations of
early Christians were all frauds, by any means. Their numerous marginal
annotations crept into other copies; and very likely, in the time of
our author, they were inextricably confused with the text in the
greater part of the "editions," so to speak, then current with
booksellers.
But in vol. viii. we shall have occasion to recur again to
this interesting inquiry.
III.
(We made proclamation before him as children, p. 117.)
"Sicut pueri." This is not according to the
Septuagint, <greek>ws</greek>
<greek>paixion</greek>. It is not the Vulgate, of course;
but its radical difference with that raises interesting inquiries: Is
it a specimen of one of many African or old Italic versions? Does our
author endeavour to translate from the Septuagint? May he not have had
in hand a copy of Isaiah from among those which preceded the Septuagint?
The Septuagint reading finds its key in cap. lii. 7,
and in the tenth verse, where the "Arm of the Lord" ("His Holy Arm") is
introduced as the personal Loges Incarnate. The thirteenth and
fourteenth verses predict the amazing sequel, and its practical and
blessed results; and then
257
begins cap. liii., "Who hath believed" our message. To whom is "the Arm
of the Lord" revealed? "Going before Him (i.e., as heralds), we have
proclaimed Him as a child, and, as it were, a root in a thirsty land;
He has no form nor glory," etc. In other words, "We have prophesied of
Him who is elsewhere predicted ("unto us a child is born ") as one who
from His childhood is as a rush without water,--prematurely
withered,--a man of sorrows, and the Carpenter's Son."
It does not hint, therefore, the "obscurity" of the
Messiah's birth, but rather what Irenaeus insists upon, i.e., His
(premature) old age; the worn and stricken appearance of senility in
comparative youth.(1) This is just what the messengers (Isa. lii. 7)
had said in their proclamation (Isa. lii. 14) just before: "His visage
was so marred more than any man, and His form more than the sons of
men."
IV.
(There was darkness, etc., pp. 122, 240.)
In former instances, where thought has turned to
Phlegon the Trallian,(2) I have failed to refer to an author whose
excess of candour sometimes gives away more than is called for, in
questions on which adversaries have contrived to fasten undue
importance, in order to elicit indiscreet defences. But it is due to my
readers that I should refer them to a most learned work, to be found in
public libraries only, by my revered friend and instructor Dr. Jarvis.
The sixth chapter (part ii.) of his Chronological Introduction to
Church History(3) is devoted to this matter, and I can do no better
than give the summary of its contents as follows:--
"Who Phlegon was; his work lost; extracts from it by
Julius Africanus and Eusebius; their works, containing these extracts,
lost; all we know is from versions and later writers; collation of
extracts as given by the Armenian version of the Chronicon of Eusebius,
St. Jerome's Latin version, the Chronographia of Syncellus, and the
Chranicon Paschale; extract by Syncellus from Julius Africanus; remarks
upon it; testimony of Origen concerning Phlegon's account; of John
Philoponus (St. Maximus) Malala; summary of the whole; account of
Phlegon's testimony; not noticed by the learned and voluminous writers
of the fourth and fifth centuries when they speak of the darkness,
etc.; Dr. Lardner's judgment(4) adopted."
Lardner's view, it will be observed, is thus
sustained by an independent and most competent critic. This decision
puts honour on the early writers: he thinks they were unwilling to
claim a corroboration from evidence about which they were not well
assured.
V.
(Divine and ethnic oracles, p. 210, note(2); p. 112, note 9.)
The whole subject of ethnic oracles needs fresh
study and illustration. Nothing would be more fascinating in
theological inquiry, and Divine Inspiration might be richly illustrated
by it, as anatomical science is clarified by "comparative anatomy." I
commend this subject to men of faith, learning, and intellectual
vigour. Notably, let it be observed: (1) That Balaam's ass is instanced
by St. Peter as miraculously enabled to rebuke the madness of his
master; and the same Apostle shortly before gives us the law as to
divine inspiration in contrast.(5) (2) Balaam himself, as mechanically
as the beast he rode,(6) had his own mouth opened (see Num. xxiv. 16--
19). (3) The wicked Caiaphas in like manner (St. John xi. 51, 52) spoke
prophetically, "not of himself." (4) St. Paul (Acts xvii. 28) quotes a
heathen oracle very much as does our author.(7)
258
Now, in view of the boldness with which the early Christians follow the
example of the Apostle in quoting the Orphica and Sibyllina, I cannot
imagine that these citations were not honestly believed by them to be
oracles of a certain sort, by which God permitted the heathen to be
enlightened.(1) Observe our author's moderate but most pregnant remark
about such inspiration (on p. 170, supra, note 8), "almost with a
divine voice;" then (on p. 192) compare other almost inspired words of
poor Tully (at note 2), and of Seneca also.(2)
Finally, and to close the subject, the reader will
readily forgive me for introducing the following citations from the
"Warburton Lecture" of Dr. Edersheim, on Prophecy and History(3) in
Relation to the Messiah. Discussing the pseudepigraphic writings (in
Lecture Eleventh), he says as follows:(4)--
"The Sibylline oracles, in Greek hexameters,
consist, in their present form, of twelve books. They are full of
interpolations, the really ancient portions forming part of the first
two books and the largest part of book third (verses 97-807). These
sections are deeply imbued with the Messianic spirit,(5) They date from
about the year 140 before our era, while another small portion of the
same book is supposed to date from the year 32 B.C.
"As regards the promise of the Messiah, we turn in
the first place, and with special interest, to the Sibylline Oracles.
In the third book of these (such portions as I shall quote date from
about 140 B.C.) the Messiah is described as 'the King sent from heaven,
who would judge every man in blood and splendour of fire.' And the
Vision of Messianic times opens with a reference to 'the King whom God
will send from the Sun,' where we cannot fail to perceive a reference
to the Seventy-second Psalm,(6) especially as we remember that the
Greek of the Seventy, which must have been present to the Hellenist
Sibyl, fully adapted the Messianic application of the passage to a
premundane Messiah. We also think of the picture drawn in the
prophecies of Isaiah. According to the Sibylline books, King Messiah
was not only to come, but He was to be specifically sent of God. He is
supermundane, a King and a Judge(7) of superhuman glory and splendour.
And, indeed, that a superhuman kingdom, such as the Sibylline oracles
paint, should have a superhuman king, seems only a natural and
necessary inference . . . . If, as certain modern critics contend, the
book of Daniel is not authentic,(8) but dates from Maccabean times, ...
it may well be asked to what king the Sibylline oracles point, for they
certainly date from that period; and what is the relationship between
the (supposed Maccabean) prophecies of the book of Daniel and the
certainly Messianic anticipations of the undoubted literature of that
period?"
Dr. Edersheim gives us the reference in the margin,
to which I would call attention, as directing to the whole
pseudepigraphic literature.(9) But who can wonder, after what we thus
learn, that Constantine(10) was so profoundly impressed with Virgil's
Pollio? In spite of all that has been said,(11) I cannot but see Isaiah
in its entire spirit.
259
A TREATISE ON THE ANGER OF GOD
ADDRESSED TO DONATUS.(1)
CHAP. I.--OF DIVINE AND HUMAN WISDOM.
I HAVE often observed, Donatus, that many persons hold this
opinion, which some philosophers also have maintained, that God is not
subject to anger; since the divine nature is either altogether
beneficent, and that it is inconsistent with His surpassing and
excellent power to do injury to any one; or, at any rate, He takes no
notice of us at all, so that no advantage comes to us from His
goodness, and no evil from His ill-will. But the error of these men,
because it is very great, and tends to overthrow the condition of human
life, must be refuted by us, lest you yourself also should be deceived,
being incited by the authority of men who deem themselves wise. Nor,
however, are we so arrogant as to boast that the truth is comprehended
by our intellect; but we follow the teaching of God, who alone is able
to know and to reveal secret things. But the philosophers, being
destitute of this teaching, have imagined that the nature of things can
be ascertained by conjecture. But this is impossible; because the mind
of man, enclosed in the dark abode of the body, is far removed from the
perception of truth: and in this the divine nature differs from the
human, that ignorance is the property of the human, knowledge of the
divine nature. On which account we have need of some light to dispel
the darkness by which the reflection of man is overspread, since, while
we live in mortal flesh, we are unable to divine by our senses. But the
light of the human mind is God, and he who has known and admitted Him
into his breast will acknowledge the mystery of the
truth with an enlightened heart; but when God and heavenly instruction
are removed, all things are full of errors. And Socrates, though he was
the most learned of all the philosophers, yet, that he might prove the
ignorance of the others, who thought that they possessed something,
rightly said that he knew nothing, except one thing--that he knew
nothing. For he understood that that learning had nothing certain,
nothing true in itself; nor, as some imagine, did he pretend, to
learning that he might refute others, but he saw the truth in
some measure. And he testified even on his trial (as is related by
Plato) that there was no human wisdom. He so despised, derided, and
cast aside the learning in which the philosophers then boasted, that he
professed that very thing as the greatest learning, that he had learnt
that he knew nothing. If, therefore, there is no human wisdom, as
Socrates taught, as Plato handed down, it is evident that the knowledge
of the truth is divine, and belongs to no other than to God. Therefore
God must be known, in whom alone is the truth. He is the Parent of the
world, and the Framer of all things; who is not seen with the eyes, and
is scarcely distinguished by the mind; whose religion is accustomed to
be attacked in many ways by those who have neither been able to attain
true wisdom, nor to comprehend the system of the great and heavenly
secret.
CHAP. II.--OF THE TRUTH AND ITS STEPS, AND OF GOD.
For since there are many steps by which the ascent
is made to the abode of truth, it is not easy for any one to reach the
summit. For when the eyes are darkened by the brightness of the truth,
they who are unable to maintain a firm step fall back to the level
ground.(3) Now the first step is to understand false religions, and to
throw aside the impious worship of gods which are made by the hand of
man. But the second step is to perceive with the mind that there is but
one Supreme God, whose power and providence made the world from the
beginning, and afterwards continues to govern it. The third step is to
know His Servant and Messenger,(4)
260
whom He sent as His ambassador to the earth, by whose teaching being
freed from the error in which we were held entangled, and formed to the
worship of the true God, we might learn righteousness. From all of
these steps, as I have said, there is a rapid and easy gliding to a
downfall,(1) unless the feet are firmly planted with unshaken
stedfastness.
We see those shaken off from the first step, who,
though they understand things which are false, do not, however,
discover that which is true; and though they despised earthly and frail
images, do not betake themselves to the worship of God, of whom they
are ignorant. But viewing with admiration the elements of the universe,
they worship the heaven, the earth, the sea, the sun, the moon, and the
other heavenly bodies.
But we have already reproved their ignorance in the
second book of the Divine Institutes.(2) But we say that those fall
from the second step, who, though they understand that there is but one
Supreme God, nevertheless, ensnared by the philosophers, and captivated
by false arguments, entertain opinions concerning that excellent
majesty far removed from the truth; who either deny that God has any
figure, or think that He is moved by no affection, because every
affection is a sign of weakness, which has no existence in God. But
they are precipitated from the third step, who, though they know the
Ambassador of God, who is also the Builder of the divine and immortal
temple,(3) either do not receive Him, or receive Him otherwise than
faith demands; whom we have partly refuted in the fourth book of the
above-named work.(4) And we will hereafter refute more carefully, when
we shall begin to reply to all the sects, which, while they dispute,(5)
have destroyed the truth.
But now we will argue against those who, falling
from the second step, entertain wrong sentiments respecting the Supreme
God. For some say that He neither does a kindness to any one, nor
becomes angry, but in security and quietness enjoys the advantages of
His own immortality. Others, indeed, take away anger, but leave to God
kindness; for they think that a nature excelling in the greatest
virtue, while it ought not to be malevolent, ought also to be
benevolent. Thus all the philosophers are agreed on the subject of
anger, but are at variance respecting kindness. But, that my speech may
descend in order to the proposed subject, a division of this kind must
be made and followed by me, since anger and kindness are different, and
opposed to one another. Either anger must be attributed to God, and
kindness taken from Him; or both alike must be taken from Him; or anger
must be taken away, and kindness attributed to Him; or neither must be
taken away. The nature of the case admits of nothing else besides
these; so that the truth, which is sought for, must necessarily be
found in some one of these. Let us consider them separately, that
reason and arrangement may conduct us to the hiding-place of truth.
CHAP. III.--OF THE GOOD AND EVIL THINGS IN HUMAN AFFAIRS, AND OF
THEIR AUTHOR.
First, no one ever said this respecting God, that He
is only subject to anger, and is not influenced by kindness. For it is
unsuitable to God, that He should be endowed with a power of this kind,
by which He may injure and do harm, but be unable to profit and to do
good. What means, therefore, what hope of safety, is proposed to men,
if God is the author of evils only? For if this is so, that venerable
majesty will now be drawn out, not to the power of the judge, to whom
it is permitted to preserve and set at liberty, but to the office of
the torturer and executioner. But whereas we see that there are not
only evils in human affairs, but also goods, it is plain that if God is
the author of evils, there must be another who does things contrary to
God, and gives to us good things. If there is such a one, by what name
must he be called? Why is he who injures us more known to us than He
who benefits us? But if this can be nothing besides God, it is absurd
and vain to suppose that the divine power, than which nothing is
greater or better, is able to injure, but unable to benefit; and
accordingly no one has ever existed who ventured to assert this,
because it is neither reasonable nor in any way credible. And because
this is agreed upon, let us pass on and seek after the truth elsewhere.
CHAP. IV.--OF GOD AND HIS AFFECTIONS, AND THE CENSURE OF EPICURUS.
That which follows is concerning the school of
Epicurus; that as there is no anger in God, so indeed there is no
kindness. For when Epicurus thought that it was inconsistent with God
to injure and to inflict harm, which for the most part arises from the
affection of anger, he took away from Him beneficence also, since he
saw that it followed that if God has anger, He must also have kindness.
Therefore, lest he should concede to Him a vice, he deprived Him also
of virtue? From this, he says, He is happy and uncorrupted, because He
cares about nothing, and neither takes trouble Himself nor occasions it
to another. Therefore He is not God, if He
261
is neither moved, which is peculiar to a living being, nor does
anything impossible for man, which is peculiar to God, if He has no
will at all, no action, in short, no administration, which is worthy of
God. And what greater, what more worthy administration can be
attributed to God, than the government of the world, and especially of
the human race, to which all earthly things are subject?
What happiness, then, can there be in God, if He is
always inactive, being at rest and un-moveable? if He is deaf to those
who pray to Him, and blind to His worshippers? What is so worthy of
God, and so befitting to Him, as providence? But if He cares for
nothing, and foresees nothing, He has lost all His divinity. What else
does he say, who takes from God all power and all substance, except
that there is no God at all? In short, Marcus Tullius relates that it
was said by Posidonius, (1) that Epicurus understood that there were no
gods, but that he said those things which he spoke respecting the gods
for the sake of driving away odium; and so that he leaves the gods in
words, but takes them away in reality, since he gives them no motion,
no office. But if this is so, what can be more deceitful than him? And
this ought to be foreign to the character of a wise and weighty man.
But if he understood one thing and spoke another, what else is he to be
called than a deceiver, double-tongued, wicked, and moreover foolish?
But Epicurus was not so crafty as to say those things with the desire
of deceiving, when he consigned these things also by his writings to
everlasting remembrance; but he erred through ignorance of the truth.
For, being led from the beginning by the probability (2) of a single
opinion, he necessarily fell into those things which followed. For the
first opinion was, that anger was not consistent with the character of
God. And when this appeared to him to be true and unassailable, (3) he
was unable to refuse the consequences; because one affection being
removed, necessity itself compelled him to remove from God the other
affections also. Thus, he who is not subject to anger is plainly
uninfluenced by kindness, which is the opposite feeling to anger. Now,
if there is neither anger nor kindness in Him, it is manifest that
there is neither fear, nor joy, nor grief, nor pity. For all the
affections have one system, one motion, (4) which cannot he the case
with God. But if there is no affection in God, because whatever is
subject to affections is weak, it follows that
there is in Him neither the care of anything, nor providence.
The disputation of the wise man (5) extends thus
far: he was silent as to the other things which follow; namely, that
because there is in Him neither care nor providence, therefore there is
no reflection nor any perception in Him, by which it is effected that
He has no existence at all. Thus, when he had gradually descended, he
remained on the last step, because he now saw the precipice. But
what does it avail to have remained silent, and concealed the
danger? Necessity compelled him even against his will to
fall. For he said that which he did not mean, because he so arranged
his argument that he necessarily came to that point which he wished to
avoid. You see, therefore, to what point he comes, when anger is
removed and taken away from God. In short, either no one believes that,
or a very few, and they the guilty and the wicked, who hope for
impunity for their sins. But if this also is found to be false, that
there is neither anger nor kindness in God, let us come to that which
is put in the third place.
CHAP. V.--THE OPINION OF THE STOICS CONCERNING GOD; OF HIS ANGER AND
KINDNESS.
The Stoics and some others are supposed to have
entertained much better sentiments respecting the divine nature, who
say that there is kindness in God, but not anger. A very pleasing and
popular speech, that God is not subject to such littleness of mind as
to imagine that He is injured by any one, since it is impossible for
Him to be injured; so that that serene and holy majesty is excited,
disturbed, and maddened, which is the part of human frailty. For they
say that anger is a commotion and perturbation of the mind, which is
inconsistent with God. Since, when it fails upon the mind of any one,
as a violent tempest it excites such waves that it changes the
condition of the mind, the eyes gleam, the countenance trembles, the
tongue stammers, the teeth chatter, the countenance is alternately
stained now with redness spread over it, now with white paleness. But
if anger is unbecoming to a man, provided he be of wisdom and
authority, how much more is so foul a change unbecoming to God! And if
man, when he has authority and power, inflicts widespread injury
through anger, sheds blood, overthrows cities, destroys communities,
reduces provinces to desolation, bow much more is it to be believed
that God, since He has power over the whole human race, and over the
universe itself, would have been about to destroy all things if He were
angry.
Therefore they think that so great and so pernicious
an evil ought to be absent from Him. And if anger and excitement are
absent from
262
Him, because it is disfiguring and injurious, and He inflicts injury on
no one, they think that nothing else remains, except that He is mild
calm, propitious, beneficent, the preserver. For thus at length He may
be called the common Father of all, and the best and greatest, which
His divine and heavenly nature demands. For if among men it appears
praiseworthy to do good rather than to injure, to restore to life (1)
rather than to kill, to save rather than to destroy, and innocence is
not undeservedly numbered among the virtues,--and he who does these
things is loved, esteemed, honoured, and celebrated with all blessings
and vows,--in short, on account of his deserts and benefits is judged
to be most like to God; how much more right is it that God Himself, who
excels in divine and perfect virtues, and who is removed from all
earthly taint, should conciliate (2) the whole race of man by divine
and heavenly benefits! Those things are spoken speciously and in a
popular manner, and they allure many to believe them but they who
entertain these sentiments approach nearer indeed to the truth, but
they partly fail, not sufficiently considering the nature of the case.
For if God is not angry with the impious and the unrighteous, it is
clear that He does not love the pious and the righteous. Therefore the
error of those is more consistent who take away at once both anger and
kindness. For in opposite matters it is necessary to be moved to both
sides or to neither. Thus, he who loves the good also hates the wicked,
and he who does not hate the wicked does not love the good; because the
loving of the good arises from the hatred of the wicked, and the hating
of the wicked has its rise from the love of the good. There is no one
who loves life without a hatred of death, nor who is desirous of light,
but he who avoids darkness. These things are so connected by nature,
that the one cannot exist without the other.
If any master has in his household a good and a bad
servant, it is evident that he does not hate them both, or confer upon
both benefits and honours; for if he does this, he is both unjust and
foolish. But he addresses the one who is good with friendly words, and
honours him and sets him over his house and household, and all his
affairs; but punishes the bad one with reproaches, with stripes, with
nakedness, with hunger, with thirst, with fetters: so that the latter
may be an example to others to keep them from sinning, and the former
to conciliate them; so that fear may restrain some, and honour may
excite others. He, therefore, who loves also hates, and he who hates
also loves; for there are those who ought to be loved, and there are
those who ought to be hated. And as he who loves confers good things on
those whom he loves, so he who hates inflicts evils upon those whom he
hates; which argument, because it is true, can in no way be refuted.
Therefore the opinion of those is vain and false, who, when they
attribute the one to God, take away the other, not less than the
opinion of those who take away both. But the latter, (3) as we have
shown, in part do not err, but retain that which is the better of the
two; whereas the former, (4) led on by the accurate method of their
reasoning, fall into the greatest error, because they have assumed
premises which are altogether false. For they ought not to have
reasoned thus: Because God is not liable to anger, therefore He is not
moved by kindness; but in this manner: Because God is moved by
kindness, therefore He is also liable to anger. For if it had been
certain and undoubted that God is not liable to anger, then the other
point would necessarily be arrived at. But since the question as to
whether God is angry is more open to doubt, while it is almost
perfectly plain that He is kind, it is absurd to wish to subvert that
which is certain by means of an uncertainty, since it is easier to
confirm uncertain things by means of those which are certain.
CHAP. VI.-- THAT GOD IS ANGRY.
These are the opinions entertained by the
philosophers respecting God. But if we have discovered that these
things which have been spoken are false, there remains that one last
resource, in which alone the truth can be found, which has never been
embraced by philosophers, nor at any time defended: that it follows
that God is angry, since He is moved by kindness. This opinion is to be
maintained and asserted by us; for (5) this is the sum and
turning-point on which the whole of piety and religion depend: and no
honour can be due to God, if He affords nothing to His worshippers; and
no fear, if He is not angry with him who does not worship Him. (6)
CHAP. VII. --OF MAN, AND THE BRUTE ANIMALS,
AND RELIGION.
Though philosophers have often turned aside from
reason through their ignorance of the truth, and have fallen into
inextricable errors (for that is wont to happen to these which happens
to a traveller ignorant of the way, and not confessing that he is
ignorant, --namely, that he wanders about, while he is ashamed to
inquire from those
263
whom he meets), no philosopher, however, has ever made the assertion
that there is no difference between man and the brutes. Nor has any one
at all, provided that he wished to appear wise, reduced a rational
animal to the level of the mute and irrational; which some ignorant
persons do, resembling the brutes themselves, who, wishing to give
themselves up to the indulgence of their appetite and pleasure, say
that they are born on the same principle as all living animals, which
it is impious for man to say. For who is so unlearned as not to know,
who is so void of understanding as not to perceive, that there is
something divine in man? I do not as yet come to the excellences of the
soul and of the intellect, by which there is a manifest affinity
between man and God. Does not the position of the body itself, and the
fashion of the countenance, declare that we are not on a level with the
dumb creation? Their nature is prostrated to the ground and to their
pasture, and has nothing in common with the heaven, which they do not
look upon. But man, with his erect position, with his elevated
countenance raised to the contemplation of the universe, compares his
features with God, and reason recognises reason. (1)
And on this account there is no animal, as Cicero
says, (2) except man, which has any knowledge of God. For he alone is
furnished with wisdom, so that he alone understands religion; and this
is the chief or only difference between man and the dumb animals. For
the other things which appear to be peculiar to man, even if
there are not such in the dumb animals, nevertheless may appear to be
similar. Speech is peculiar to man; yet even in these there is a
certain resemblance to speech. For they both distinguish one another by
their voices; and when they are angry, they send forth a sound
resembling altercation; and when they see one another after an interval
of time, they show the office of congratulation by their voice. To us,
indeed, their voices appear uncouth, (3) as ours perhaps do to them;
but to themselves, who understand one another, they are words. In
short, in every affection they utter distinct expressions of voice (4)
by which they may show their state of mind. Laughter also is peculiar
to man; and yet we see certain indications of joy in other animals,
when they use passionate gestures (5) with a view to sports, hang down
(6) their ears, contract their mouth, smooth their forehead, relax
their eyes to sportiveness. What is so peculiar to man as reason and
the foreseeing of the future?
But there are animals which open several outlets in different
directions from their lairs, that if any danger comes upon them, an
escape may be open for them shut in; but they would not do this
unless they possessed intelligence and re flection. Others are
provident for the future, as
"Ants, when they plunder a great heap of corn, mindful of the winter,
and lay it up in their dwelling;" (7)
again, --
"As bees, which alone know a country and fixed abodes; and mindful of
the winter which is to come, they practise labour in the summer, and
lay up their gains as a common stock." (3)
It would be a long task if I should wish to trace
out the things most resembling the skill of man, which are accustomed
to be done by the separate tribes of animals. But if, in the case of
all these things which are wont to be ascribed to man, there is found
to be some resemblance even in the dumb animals, it is evident that
religion is the only thing of which no trace can be found in the dumb
animals, nor any indication. For justice is peculiar to religion, and
to this no other animal attains. For man alone bears rule; the other
animals are subjected (9) to him. But the worship of God is
ascribed to justice; and he who does not embrace this, being far
removed from the nature of man, will live the life of the brutes under
the form of man. But since we differ from the other animals almost in
this respect alone, that we alone of all perceive the divine might and
power, while in the others there is no understanding of God, it is
surely impossible that in this respect either the dumb animals should
have more wisdom, or human nature should be unwise, since all living
creatures, and the whole system of nature, are subject to man on
account of his wisdom. Wherefore if reason, if the force of man in this
respect, excels and surpasses the rest of living creatures, inasmuch as
he alone is capable of the knowledge of God, it is evident that
religion can in no way be overthrown.
CHAP. VIII.--OF RELIGION.
But religion is overthrown if we believe Epicurus
speaking thus:--
"For the nature of gods must ever in itself of necessity enjoy
immortality together with supreme repose, far removed and withdrawn
from our concerns; since, exempt from every pain, exempt from all
dangers, strong in its own resources, not wanting aught of us, it is
neither gained by favours nor moved by anger." (10)
Now, when he says these things, does he think that any worship is to be
paid to God, or does
264
he entirely overthrow religion ? For if God confers nothing good on any
one, if He repays the obedience of His worshipper with no favour, what
is so senseless, what so foolish, as to build temples, to offer
sacrifices, to present gifts, to diminish our property, that we may
obtain nothing? (1) But (it will be said) it is right that an excellent
nature should be honoured. What honour can be due to a being who pays
no regard to us, and is ungrateful? Can we be bound in any manner to
him who has nothing in common with us? "Farewell to God," says Cicero,
(2) "if He is such as to be influenced by no favour, and by no
affection of men. For why should I say 'may He be propitious? (1) for
He can be propitious to no one." What can be spoken more contemptible
with respect to God? Farewell to Him, he says, that is, let Him depart
anti retire, since He is able to profit no one. But if God takes no
trouble, nor occasions trouble to another, why then should we not
commit crimes as often as it shall be in our power to escape the notice
of men? and to cheat the public laws? Wherever we shall obtain a
favourable opportunity of escaping notice, let us take advantage of the
occasion: let us take away the property of others, either without
bloodshed or even with blood, if there is nothing else besides the laws
to be reverenced.
While Epicurus entertains these sentiments, he
altogether destroys religion; and when this is taken away, confusion
and perturbation of life will follow. But if religion cannot be taken
away without destroying our hold of wisdom, by which we are separated
from the brutes, and of justice, by which the public life may be more
secure, how can religion itself be maintained or guarded without fear?
For that which is not feared is despised, and that which is despised is
plainly not reverenced. Thus it comes to pass that religion, and
majesty, and honour exist together with fear; but there is no fear
where no one is angry. Whether, therefore, you take away from God
kindness, or anger, or both, religion must be taken away, without which
the life of men is full of folly, of wickedness, and enormity. For
conscience greatly curbs men, if we believe that we are living in the
sight of God; if we imagine not only that the actions which we perform
are seen from above, but also that our thoughts and our words are heard
by God. But it is profitable to believe this, as some imagine, not for
the sake of the truth, but of utility, since laws cannot punish
conscience unless some terror from above hangs over to restrain
offences. Therefore religion is altogether false, and there is no
divinity; but all things are made up by skilful
men, in order that they may live more uprightly and innocently. This is
a great question, and foreign to the subject which we have proposed;
but because it necessarily occurs, it ought to be handled, however
briefly.
CHAP. IX. --OF THE PROVIDENCE OF GOD, AND
OF OPINIONS OPPOSED TO IT.
When the philosophers of former times had agreed in
their opinions respecting providence, and there was no doubt but that
the world was set in order by God and reason, and was governed by
reason, Protagoras, in the times of Socrates, was the first of all who
said that it was not clear to him whether there was any divinity or
not. And this disputation of his was judged so impious, and so contrary
to the truth and to religion, that the Athenians both banished him from
their territories, and burnt in a public assembly those books of his in
which these statements were contained. But there is no need to speak
respecting his opinions, because he pronounced nothing certain. After
these things Socrates and his disciple Plato, and those who flowed
forth from the school of Plato like rivulets into different directions,
namely, the Stoics and Peripatetics, were of the same opinion as those
who went before them. (4)
Afterwards Epicurus said that there was indeed a God, because it
was necessary that there should be in the world some being of
surpassing excellence, distinction, and blessedness; yet that there was
no providence, and thus that the world itself was ordered by no plan,
nor art, nor workmanship, but that the universe was made up of certain
minute and indivisible seeds. But I do not see what can be said more
repugnant to the truth. For if there is a God, as God He is manifestly
provident; nor can divinity be attributed to Him in any other way than
if He retains the past, and knows the present, and foresees the future.
Therefore, in taking away providence, he also denied the existence of
God. But when he openly acknowledged the existence of God, at the
same time he also admitted His providence for the one cannot exist at
all, or be understood, without the other. But in those later
times in which philosophy had now lost its vigour, (5) there lived a
certain Diagoras of Melos, (6) who altogether denied the existence of
God, and on account of this sentiment was called atheist; (7) also
Theodorus (6) of Cyrene: both of whom, because they were unable to
discover anything new, all things having already been said and found
out, preferred even, in opposition to the truth, to deny that in which
all pre-
265
ceding philosophers had agreed without any ambiguity. These are they
who attacked providence, which had been asserted and defended through
so many ages by so many intellects. What then? Shall we refute those
trifling and inactive philosophers by reason, or by the authority of
distinguished men, or rather by both? But we must hasten onwards, lest
our speech should wander too far from our subject.
CHAP. X.--OF THE ORIGIN OF THE WORLD, AND THE NATURE OF AFFAIRS, AND
THE PROVIDENCE OF GOD.
They who do not admit that the world was made by
divine providence, either say that it is composed of first principles
coming together at random, or that it suddenly came into existence by
nature, but hold, as Straton (1) does, that nature has in itself the
power of production and of diminution, but that it has neither
sensibility nor figure, so that we may understand that all things were
produced spontaneously, without any artificer or author. Each opinion
is vain and impossible. But this happens to those who are ignorant of
the truth, that they devise anything, rather than perceive that which
the nature of the subject (2) requires. First of all, with respect to
those minute seeds, by the meeting together of which they say that the
whole world came into existence, (3) I ask where or whence they are.
Who has seen them at any time? Who has perceived them? Who has heard
them? Had none but Leucippus (4) eyes? Had he alone a mind, who
assuredly alone of all men was blind and senseless, since he spoke
those things which no sick man could have uttered in his ravings, (5)
or one asleep in his dreams?
The ancient philosophers argued that all things were
made up of four elements. (6) He would not admit this, lest he should
appear to tread in the footsteps of others; but he held that there were
other first principles of the elements themselves, which can neither be
seen, nor touched, nor be perceived by any part of the body. They are
so minute, he says, that there is no edge of a sword so flue that they
can be cut and divided by it. From which circumstance he gave them the
name of atoms. But it occurred to him, that if they all had one and the
same nature, they could not make up different objects of so great a
variety as we see to be present in the world. He said, therefore, that
there were smooth and rough ones, and round, and angular, and hooked.
How much better had it been to be silent, than to have a tongue for such
miserable and empty uses! And, indeed, I fear lest he who thinks these
things worthy of refutation, should appear no less to rave. Let us,
however, reply as to one who says something. (7) If they are soft s and
round, it is plain that they cannot lay hold of one another, so as to
make some body; as, though any one should wish to bind together millet
into one combination, (9) the very softness of the grains would not
permit them to come together into a mass. If they are rough, and
angular, and hooked, so that they may be able to cohere, then they are
divisible, and capable of being cut; for hooks and angles must project,
(10) so that they may possibly be cut off.
Therefore that which is able to be cut off and torn
away, will be able both to be seen and held. "These," he says, "flutter
about with restless motions through empty space, and are carried hither
and thither, just as we see little particles of dust in the sun when it
has introduced its rays and light through a window. From these there
arise trees and herbs, and all fruits of the earth; from these,
animals, and water, and fire, and all things are produced, and are
again resolved into the same elements." This can be borne as long as
the inquiry is respecting small matters. Even the world itself was made
up of these. He has reached to the full extent of perfect madness: it
seems impossible that anything further should be said, and yet he found
something to add. "Since everything," he says, "is infinite, and
nothing can be empty, it follows of necessity that there are
innumerable worlds." What force of atoms had been so great, that masses
so incalculable should be collected from such minute elements? And
first of all I ask, What is the nature or origin of those seeds? For if
all things are from them, whence shall we say that they themselves are?
What nature supplied such an abundance of matter for the making of
innumerable worlds? But let us grant that he raved with impunity
concerning worlds; let us speak respecting this in which we are, and
which we see. He says that all things are made from minute bodies which
are incapable of division.
If this were so, no object would ever need the seed
of its own kind. Birds would be born without eggs, or eggs without
bringing forth; likewise the rest of the living creatures without
coition: trees and the productions of the earth would not have their
own seeds, which we daily handle and sow. Why does a corn-field arise
from grain, and again grain from a corn-field? In short, if the meeting
together and collecting
266
of atoms would effect all things, all things would grow together in the
air, since atoms flutter about through empty space. Why cannot the
herb, why cannot the tree or grain, arise or be increased without
earth, without roots, without moisture, without seed? From which it is
evident that nothing is made up from atoms, since everything has its
own peculiar and fixed nature, its own seed, its own law given from the
beginning. Finally, Lucretius, as though forgetful of atoms, (1) which
he was maintaining, in order that he might refute those who say that
all things are produced from nothing, employed these arguments, which
might have weighed against himself. For he thus spoke: --
"If things came from nothing, any kind might be born of anything;
nothing would require seed." (2)
Likewise afterwards: --
"We must admit, therefore, that nothing can come from nothing, since
things require seed before they can severally be born, and be brought
out into the buxom fields of air." (3)
Who would imagine that he had brain when he said these things, and did
not see that they were contrary to one another? For that nothing is
made by means of atoms, is apparent from this, that everything has a
definite (4) seed, unless by chance we shall believe that the nature
both of fire and water is derived from atoms. Why should I say, that if
materials of the greatest hardness are struck together with a violent
blow, fire is struck out? Are atoms concealed in the steel, or in the
flint? Who shut them in? Or why do they not leap forth spontaneously?
Or how could the seeds of fire remain in a material of the greatest
coldness?
I leave the subject of the flint and steel. If you
hold in the sun an orb of crystal filled with water, fire is kindled
from the light which is reflected from the water, even in the most
severe cold. Must we then believe that fire is contained in the water?
And yet fire cannot be kindled from the sun even in summer. If you
shall breathe upon wax, or if a light vapour shall touch anything --
either the hard surface s of marble or a plate of metal --water is
gradually condensed by means of the most minute drops. Also from the
exhalation of the earth or sea mist is formed, which either, being
dispersed, moistens whatever it has covered, or being collected, is
carried aloft by the wind to high mountains, and compressed into cloud,
and sends down great rains. Where, then, do we say that fluids are
produced? Is it in the vapour? Or in the exhalation? Or in the
wind? But nothing can be formed in that which
is neither touched nor seen. Why should I speak of animals, in whose
bodies we see nothing formed without plan, without arrangement, without
utility, without beauty, so that the most skilful and careful marking
out (6) of all the parts and members repels the idea of accident and
chance? But let us suppose it possible that the limbs, and bones, and
nerves, and blood should be made up of atoms. What of the senses, the
reflection, the memory, the mind, the natural capacity: from what seeds
can they be compacted? (7) He says, From the most minute. There are
therefore others of greater size. How, then, are they indivisible?
In the next place, if the things which are not seen
are formed from invisible seeds, it follows that those which are seen
are from visible seeds. Why, then, does no one see them? But whether
any one regards the invisible parts which are in man, or the parts
which can be touched, and which are visible, who does not see that both
parts exist in accordance with design? (8) How, then, can bodies which
meet together without design effect anything reasonable? (9) For we see
that there is nothing in the whole world which has not in itself very
great and wonderful design. And since this is above the sense and
capacity of man, to what can it be more rightly attributed than to the
divine providence? If a statue, the resemblance of man, is made by the
exercise of design and art, shall we suppose that man himself is made
up of fragments which come together at random? And what resemblance to
the truth is there in the thing produced, (10) when the greatest and
most surpassing skill (11) can imitate nothing more than the mere
outline and extreme lineaments (12) of the body? Was the skill of man
able to give to his production any motion or sensibility? I say nothing
of the exercise of the sight, of hearing, and of smelling, and the
wonderful uses of the other members, either those which are in sight or
those which are hidden from view. What artificer could have fabricated
either the heart of man, or the voice, or his very wisdom? Does any man
of sound mind, therefore, think that that which man cannot do by reason
and judgement, may be accomplished by a meeting together of atoms
everywhere adhering to each other? You see into what foolish ravings
they have fallen, while they are unwilling to assign to God the making
and the care of all things
Let us, however, concede to them that the things
which are earthly are made froth atoms: are the things also which are
heavenly? They
267
say that the gods are without contamination, eternal, and blessed; and
they grant to them alone an exemption, so that they do not appear to be
made up of a meeting together of atoms. For if the gods also had been
made up of these, they would be liable to be dispersed, the seeds at
length being resolved, and returning to their own nature. Therefore, if
there is something which the atoms could not produce, why may we not
judge in the same way of the others? But I ask why the gods did not
build for themselves a dwelling-place before those first elements
produced the world? It is manifest that, unless the atoms had come
together and made the heaven, the gods would still be suspended through
the midst of empty space. By what counsel, then, by what plan, did the
atoms from a confused mass collect themselves, so that from some the
earth below was formed into a globe, and the heaven stretched out
above, adorned with so great a variety of constellations that
nothing can be conceived more embellished? Can he, therefore, who
sees such and so great objects, imagine that they were made without any
design, without any providence, without any divine intelligence, but
that such great and wonderful things arose out of fine and minute
atoms? Does it not resemble a prodigy, that there should be any human
being who might say these things, or that there should be those who
might believe them--as Democritus, who was his hearer, or Epicurus, to
whom all folly flowed forth from the fountain of Leucippus? But, as
others say, the world was made by Nature, which is without perception
and figure. (1) But this is much more absurd. If Nature made the world,
it must have made it by judgment and intelligence; for it is lie that
makes something who has either the inclination to make it, or
knowledge. If nature is without perception and figure, how can that be
made by it which has both perception and figure, unless by chance any
one thinks that the fabric of animals, which is so delicate, could have
been formed and animated by that which is without perception, or that
that figure of heaven, which is prepared with such foresight for the
uses of living beings, suddenly came into existence by some accident or
other, without a builder, without an artificer? (2)
"If there is anything," says Chrysippus, "which
effects those things which man, though he is endowed with reason,
cannot do, that assuredly is greater, and stronger, and wiser than
man." But man cannot make heavenly things; therefore that which shall
produce or has produced these things surpasses man in art, in design,
in skill, and in power. Who, therefore, can it be but God? But Nature,
which they
suppose to be, as it were, the mother of all things, if it has not a
mind, will effect nothing, will contrive nothing; for where there is no
reflection there is neither motion nor efficacy. But if it uses counsel
for the commencement of anything, reason for its arrangement, art for
its accomplishment, energy for its consummation, and power to govern
and control, why should it be called Nature rather than God? Or if a
concourse of atoms, or Nature without mind, made those things which we
see, I ask why it was able to make the heaven, but unable to make a
city or a house? (3) Why it made mountains of marble, but did not make
columns and statues? But ought not atoms to have come together to
effect these things, since they leave no position untried? For
concerning Nature, which has no mind, it is no wonder that it forgot to
do these things. What, then, is the case? It is plain that God, when He
commenced this work of the world,--than which nothing can be better
arranged with respect to order, nor more befitting as to utility, nor
more adorned as to beauty, nor greater as to bulk,--Himself made the
things which could not be made by man; and among these also man
himself, to whom He gave a portion of His own wisdom, and furnished him
with reason, as much as earthly frailty was capable of receiving, that
he might make for himself the things which were necessary for his own
uses.
But if in the commonwealth of this world, so to
speak, there is no providence which rules, no God who administers, no
sense at all prevails in this nature of things. From what source
therefore will it be believed that the human mind, with its skill and
its intelligence, had its origin? For if the body of man was made from
the ground, from which circumstance man received his name; (4) it
follows that the soul, which has intelligence, and is the ruler of the
body, which the limbs obey as a king and commander, which can neither
be looked upon nor comprehended, could not have come to man except from
a wise nature. But as mind and soul govern everybody, so also does God
govern the world. For it is not probable that lesser and humble things
bear rule, but that greater and highest things do not bear rule. In
short, Marcus Cicero, in his Tusculan Disputations, (5) and in his
Consolation, says: "No origin of souls can be found on earth. For there
is nothing, he says, mixed and compound (6) in souls, or which may
appear to be produced and made up from the earth; nothing moist or
airy, (7) or of the nature of fire.
268
For in these natures there is nothing which has the force of memory, of
mind and reflection, which both retains the past and foresees the
future, and is able to comprise the present; which things alone are
divine. For no source will ever be found from which they are able to
come to man, unless it be from God." Since, therefore, with the
exception of two or three vain calumniators, it is agreed upon that the
world is governed by providence, as also it was made, and there is no
one who ventures to prefer the opinion of Diagoras and Theodorus, or
the empty fiction of Leucippus, or the levity of Democritus and
Epicurus, either to the authority of those seven ancient men who were
called wise, (1) or to that of Pythagoras or of Socrates or Plato, and
the other philosophers who judged that there is a providence; therefore
that opinion also is false, by which they think that religion was
instituted by wise men for the sake of terror and fear, in order that
ignorant men might abstain from sins.
But if this is true, it follows that we are derided
by the wise men of old. But if they invented religion for the sake of
deceiving us, and moreover of deceiving the whole human race, therefore
they were not wise, because falsehood is not consistent with the
character of the wise man. But grant that they were wise; what great
success in falsehood was it, that they were able to deceive not only
the unlearned, but Plato also, and Socrates, and so easily to
delude Pythagoras, Zeno, and Aristotle, the chiefs of the greatest
sects? There is therefore a divine providence, as those men whom I have
named perceived, by the energy and power of which all things which we
see were both made and are governed. For so vast a system of
things? such arrangement and such regularity in preserving the settled
orders and times, could neither at first have arisen without a
provident artificer, or have existed so many ages without a powerful
inhabitant, or have been perpetually governed without a skilful and
intelligent (3) ruler; and reason itself declares this. For whatever
exists which has reason, must have arisen from reason. Now reason is
the part of an intelligent and wise nature; but a wise and intelligent
nature can be nothing else than God. Now the world, since it has
reason, by which it is both governed and kept together, was therefore
made by God. But if God is the maker and ruler of the world, then
religion is rightly and truly established; for honour and worship are
due to the author and common parent of all things.
CHAP. XI. --OF GOD, AND THAT THE ONE GOD, AND BY WHOSE PROVIDENCE THE
WORLD IS GOVERNED AND EXISTS.
Since it is agreed upon concerning providence, it
follows that we show whether it is to be believed that it belongs to
many, or rather to one only. We have sufficiently taught, as I think,
in our Institutions, that there cannot be many gods; because, if the
divine energy and power be distributed among several, it must
necessarily be diminished. But that which is lessened is plainly
mortal; but if He is not mortal, He can neither be lessened nor
divided. Therefore there is but one God, in whom complete energy and
power can neither be lessened nor increased. But if there are many,
while they separately have something of power and authority, the sum
itself decreases; nor will they separately be able to have the whole,
which they have in corn-moN with others: so much will be wanting to
each as the others shall possess. There cannot therefore be many rulers
in this world, nor many masters in one house, nor many pilots in one
ship, nor many leaders in one herd or flock, nor many queens in one
swarm. But there could not have been many suns in heaven, as there are
not several souls in one body; so entirely
does the whole of nature agree in unity.But
if the world
"Is nourished by a soul, A spirit whose celestial
flame
Glows IN each member of the frame,
And stirs the mighty whole," (4)
it is evident from the testimony of the poet, that there is one God who
inhabits the world, since the whole body cannot be inhabited and
governed except by one mind. Therefore all divine power must be in one
person, by whose will and command all things are ruled; and therefore
He is so great, that He cannot be described in words by man, or
estimated by the senses. From what source, therefore, did the opinion
or persuasion s respecting many gods come to men? Without doubt, all
those who are worshipped as gods were men, and were also the earliest
and greatest kings; but who is ignorant that they were invested with
divine honours after death, either on account of the virtue by which
they had profited the race of men, or that they obtained immortal
memory on account of the benefits and inventions by which they had
adorned human life? And not only men, but women also. And this, both
the most ancient writers of Greece, whom they call theologi, (6) and
also Roman writers following and imitating the
269
Greeks, teach; of whom especially Euhemerus and our Ennius, who point
out the birthdays, marriages, offspring, governments, exploits, deaths,
and tombs (1) of all of them. And Tullius, following them, in his third
book, On the Nature of the Gods, destroyed the public religions; but
neither he himself nor any other person was able to introduce the true
one, of which he was ignorant. And thus he himself testified that that
which was false was evident; that the truth, however, lay concealed.
"Would to heaven," he says, "that I could as easily discover true
things as refute those that are false!" (2) And this he proclaimed not
with dissimulation as an Academic, but truly and in accordance with the
feeling of his mind, because the truth cannot be uprooted from human
perceptions: that which the foresight of man was able to attain to, he
attained to, that he might expose false things. For whatever is
fictitious and false, because it is supported by no reason, is easily
destroyed. There is therefore one God, the source and origin of all
things, as Plato both felt and taught in the Timoeus, whose majesty he
declares to be so great, that it can neither be comprehended by the
mind nor be expressed by the tongue.
Hermes bears the same testimony, whom Cicero asserts
(3) to be reckoned by the Egyptians among the number of the gods. I
speak of him who, on account of his excellence and knowledge of many
arts, was called Trismegistus; and he was far more ancient not only
than Plato, but than Pythagoras, and those seven wise men. (4) In
Xenophon, (5) Socrates, as he discourses, says that "the form of God
ought not to be inquired about:" and Plato, in his Book Laws, (6) says:
"What God is, ought not to be the subject of inquiry, because it can
neither be found out nor related." Pythagoras also admits that there is
but one God, saying that there is an incorporeal mind, which, being
diffused and stretched through all nature, gives vital perception to
all living creatures; but Antisthenes, in his Physics, said that there
was but one natural God, although the nations and cities have gods of
their own people. Aristotle, with his followers the Peripatetics, and
Zeno with his followers the Stoics, say nearly the same things. Truly
it would be a long task to follow up the opinions of all separately,
who, although they used different names, nevertheless agreed in one
power which governed the world. But, however, though philosophers and
poets, and those, in short, who worship the gods, often acknowledge the
Supreme God, yet
no one ever inquired into, no one discussed, the subject of His worship
and honours; with that persuasion, in truth, with which, always
believing Him to be bounteous and incorruptible, they think (7) that He
is neither angry with any one, nor stands in need of any worship. Thus
there can be no religion where there is no fear. (8)
CHAP. XII.--OF RELIGION AND THE FEAR OF GOD.
Now, since we have replied to the impious and
detestable wisdom, (9) or rather senselessness of some, let us return
to our proposed subject. We have said that, if religion is taken away,
neither wisdom nor justice can be retained: wisdom, because the
understanding of the divine nature, in which we differ from the
brutes, is found in man alone; justice, because unless God,
who cannot be deceived, shall restrain our desires, we
shall live wickedly and impiously. Therefore, that our actions should
be viewed by God, pertains not only to the usefulness of common
life, but even to the truth; because, if religion and justice are taken
away, having lost our reason, we either descend to the senselessness
(10) of the herds; or to the savageness of the beasts, yea, even
more so, since the beasts spare animals of their own kind. What will be
more savage, what more unmerciful, than man, if, the fear of a superior
being taken away, he shall be able either to escape the notice of or to
despise the might of the laws? It is therefore the fear of God alone
which guards the mutual society of men, by which life itself is
sustained, protected, and governed. But that fear is taken away if man
is persuaded that God is without anger; for that He is moved and
indignant when unjust actions are done, not only the common advantage,
but even reason itself, and truth, persuade us. We must again return to
the former subjects, that, as we have taught that the world was made by
God, we may teach why it was made.
CHAP. XllI. -- OF THE ADVANTAGE AND USE OF THE
WORLD AND OF THE SEASONS.
If any one considers the whole government of the
world, he will certainly understand how true is the opinion of the
Stoics, who say that the world was made on our account. For all the
things of which the world is composed, and which it produces from
itself, are adapted to the use of man. Man, accordingly, uses fire for
the purpose of warmth and light, and of softening his food, and for the
working of iron; he uses
270
springs for drinking, and for baths; he uses rivers for irrigating the
fields, and assigning boundaries to countries; he uses the earth for
receiving a variety of fruits, the hills for planting vineyards, the
mountains for the use of trees and firewood, (1) the plains for crops
of grain; he uses the sea not only for commerce, and for receiving
supplies from distant countries, but also for abundance of every kind
of fish. But if he makes use of these elements to which he is nearest,
there is no doubt that he uses the hear-en also, since the offices even
of heavenly things are regulated for the fertility of the earth from
which we live. The sun, with its ceaseless courses and unequal
intervals, (2) completes its annual circles, and either at his rising
draws forth the day for labour, or at his setting brings on the night
for repose; and at one time by his departure farther towards the south,
at another time by his approach nearer towards the north, he causes the
vicissitudes of winter and summer, so that both by the moistures and
frosts of winter the earth becomes enriched for fruitfulness, and by
the heats of summer either the produce of grass (3) is hardened by
maturity, or that which is in moist places, being seethed and heated,
becomes ripened. The moon also, which governs the time of night,
regulates her monthly courses by the alternate loss and recovery of
light, (4) and by the brightness of her shining illumines the nights
obscure with gloomy darkness, so that journeys in the summer heat, and
expeditions, and works, may be performed without labour and
inconvenience; since
"By night the light stubble, by night
The dry meadows are better mown." (5)
The other heavenly bodies also, either at their rising or setting,
supply favourable times (6) by their fixed positions. (7) Moreover,
they also afford guidance to ships, that they may not wander through
the boundless deep with uncertain course, since the pilot duly
observing them arrives at the harbour of the shore at which he
aims. (8) Clouds are attracted by the breath of the winds, that
the fields of sown grain may be watered with showers, that the vines
may abound with produce, and the trees with fruits. And these things
are exhibited by a succession of changes throughout the year, that
nothing may at any time be wanting by which the life of men is
sustained. But (9) (it is said) the same earth nourishes the other
living creatures, and by the produce of the
same even the dumb animals are fed. Has not God laboured also for the
sake of the dumb animals? By no means; because they are void of reason.
On the contrary, we understand that even these themselves in the same
manner were made by God for the use of man, partly for food, partly for
clothing, partly to assist him in his work; so that it is manifest that
the divine providence wished to furnish and adorn the life of men with
an abundance of objects and resources, and on this account He both
filled the air with birds, and the sea with fishes, and the earth with
quadrupeds. But the Academics, arguing against the Stoics, are
accustomed to ask why, if God made all things for the sake of men, many
things are found even opposed, and hostile, and injurious to us, as
well in the sea as on the land. And the Stoics, without any regard to
the truth, most foolishly repelled this. For they say that there are
many things among natural productions, (10) and reckoned among animals,
the utility of which hitherto (11) escapes notice, but that this is
discovered in process of the times, as necessity and use have already
discovered many things which were unknown in former ages. What utility,
then, can be discovered in mice, in beetles, in serpents, which are
troublesome and pernicious to man? Is it that some medicine lies
concealed in them? If there is any, it will at some time be found out,
namely, as a remedy against evils, whereas they complain that it is
altogether evil. They say that the viper, when burnt and reduced to
ashes, is a remedy for the bite of the same beast. How much better had
it been that it should not exist at all, than that a remedy should be
required against it drawn from itself?
They might then have answered with more conciseness
and truth after this manner. When God had formed man as it were His own
image, that which was the completion of His workmanship, He breathed
wisdom into him alone, so that he might bring all things into
subjection to his own authority and government, and make use of all the
advantages of the world. And yet He set before him both good and evil
things, inasmuch as He gave to him wisdom, the whole nature of which is
employed in discerning things evil and good: for no one can choose
better things, and know what is good, unless he at the same time knows
to reject and avoid the things which are evil. (12) They are both
mutually connected with each other, so that, the one being taken away,
the other must also be taken away. Therefore, good and evil things
being set before it, then at length wisdom discharges its office, and
desires
271
the good for usefulness, but rejects the evil for safety. Therefore, as
innumerable good things have been given which it might enjoy, so also
have evils, against which it might guard. For if there is no evil, no
danger--nothing, in short, which can injure man--all the material of
wisdom is taken away, and will be unnecessary for man. For if only good
things are placed in sight, what need is there of reflection, of
understanding, of knowledge, of reason? since, wherever he shall extend
his hand, that is befitting and adapted to nature; so that if any one
should wish to place a most exquisite dinner before infants, who as yet
have no taste, it is plain that each will desire that to which either
impulse, or hunger, or even accident, shall attract them; and whatever
they shall take, it will be useful and salutary to them. What injury
will it therefore be for them always to remain as they are, and always
to be infants and unacquainted with affairs? But if you add a mixture
either of bitter things, or things useless, or even poisonous, they are
plainly deceived through their ignorance of good and evil, unless
wisdom is added to them, by which they may have the rejection of evil
things and the choice of good things. You see, therefore, that we have
greater need of wisdom on account of evils; and unless these things had
been proposed to us, we should not be a rational animal. But if this
account is true, which the Stoics were in no manner able to see, that
argument also of Epicurus is done away. God, he says, either wishes to
take away evils, and is unable; or He is able, and is unwilling; or He
is neither willing nor able, or He is both willing and able. If He is
willing and is unable, He is feeble, which is not in accordance with
the character of God; if He is able and unwilling, He is envious, which
is equally at variance with God; if He is neither willing nor able, He
is
both envious and feeble, and therefore not God; if He is both willing
and able, which alone is suitable to God, from what source then are
evils? or why does He not remove them? I know that many of the
philosophers, who defend providence, are accustomed to be disturbed by
this argument, and are almost driven against their will to admit that
God takes no interest in anything, which Epicurus especially aims at;
but having examined the matter, we easily do away with this formidable
argument. For God is able to do whatever He wishes, and there is no
weakness or envy in God. He is able, therefore, to take away evils; but
He does not wish to do so, and yet He is not on that account envious.
For on this account He does not take them away, because He at the same
time gives wisdom, as I have shown; and there is more of goodness and
pleasure in wisdom than of annoyance in evils. For wisdom causes us
even to know God, and
by that knowledge to attain to immortality, which is the chief
good. Therefore, unless we first know evil, we shall be unable to know
good. But Epicurus did not see this, nor did any other, that if evils
are taken away, wisdom is in like manner taken away; and that no traces
of virtue remain in man, the nature of which consists in enduring and
overcoming the bitterness of evils. And thus, for the sake of a slight
gain (1) in the taking away of evils, we should be deprived of a good,
which is very great, and true, and peculiar to us. It is plain,
therefore, that all things are proposed for the sake of man, as well
evils as also goods.
CHAP. XIV. --WHY GOD MADE MAN.
It follows that I show for what purpose God made man
himself. As He contrived the world
for the sake of man, so He formed man himself t on His own
account, as it were a priest of a divine
temple, a spectator of His works and of heavenly objects. For he
is the only being who, since he is intelligent and capable of reason,
is able to understand God, to admire His works, and perceive His energy
and power; for on this account he is furnished with judgment,
intelligence, and prudence. On this account he alone, beyond the other
living creatures, has been made with an upright body and attitude, so
that he seems to have been raised up for the contemplation of his
Parent. (2) On this account he alone has received language, and a
tongue the interpreter of his thought, that he may be able to declare
the majesty of his Lord. Lastly, for this cause all things were placed
under his control, that he himself might be under the control of God,
their Maker and Creator. If God, therefore, designed man to be a
worship per of Himself, and on this account gave him so much honour,
that he might rule over all things; it is plainly most just that he
should worship Him (3) who bestowed upon him such great gifts, and love
man, who is united with us in the participation of the divine justice.
For it is not right that a worshipper of God should he injured by a
worshipper of God. From which it is understood that man was made for
the sake of religion and justice. And of this matter Marcus Tullius is
a witness in his books respecting the Laws, since he thus speaks: (4)
"But of all things concerning which learned men dispute, nothing is of
greater consequence than that it should be altogether understood that
we are born to justice." And if this is most true, it follows that God
will have all men to be just,
272
that is, to have God and man as objects of their affection; to honour
God in truth as a Father, and to love man as a brother: for m these two
things the whole of justice is comprised. But he who either fails to
acknowledge God or acts injuriously to man, lives unjustly and contrary
to his nature, and in this manner disturbs the divine institution and
law.
CHAP. XV.--WHENCE SINS EXTENDED TO MAN.
Here perhaps some one may ask, Whence sins extended
to man, or what perversion distorted the rule of the divine institution
to worse things, so that, though he was born to justice, he
nevertheless performs unjust works. I have already in a former place
explained, that God at the same time set before him good and evil, and
that He loves the good, and hates the evil which is contrary to this;
but that He permitted the evil on this account, that the good also
might shine forth, since, as I have often taught, we understand that
the one cannot exist without the other; in short, that the world itself
is made up of two elements opposing and connected with one another, of
fire and moisture, and that light could not have been made unless there
has also been darkness, since there cannot be a higher place without a
lower, nor a rising without a setting, nor warmth without cold, nor
softness without hardness. Thus also we are composed of two substances
equally opposed to one another -- soul and body: the one of which is
assigned to the heaven, because it is slight and not to be handled; the
other to the earth, because it is capable of being laid hold of: the
one is firm (1) and eternal, the other frail and mortal. Therefore good
clings to the one, and evil to the other: light, life, and justice to
the one; darkness, death, anti injustice to the other. Hence there
arose among men the corruption of their nature, so that it was
necessary that a law should be established, by which vices might be
prohibited, and the duties of virtue be en-joined. Since, therefore,
there are good and evil things in the affairs of men, the nature of
which I have set forth, it must be that God is moved to both sides,
both to favour when He sees that just things are done, and to anger
when He perceives unjust things.
But Epicurus opposes us, and says: "If there is in
God the affection of joy leading Him to favour, and of hatred
influencing Him to anger, He must of necessity have both fear, and
inclination, and desire, and the other affections which belong to human
weakness." It does not follow that he who is angry must fear, or that
he who feels joy must grieve; in short, they who are liable to anger
are less timid, and they who are
of a joyful temperament are less affected with grief. What need is
there to speak of the affections of humanity, to which our nature
yields? Let us weigh the divine necessity; for I am unwilling to speak
of nature, since it is believed that our God was never born. The
affection of fear has a subject-matter in man, but it has none in God.
Man, inasmuch as he is liable to many accidents and dangers, fears lest
any greater violence should arise which may strike, despoil, lacerate,
dash down, and destroy him. But God, who is liable neither to want, nor
injury, nor pain, nor death, can by no means fear, because there is
nothing which can offer violence to Him. Also the reason and cause of
desire is manifest in man. For, inasmuch as he was made frail and
mortal, it was necessary that another and different sex should be made,
by union with which offspring might be produced to continue the
perpetuity of his race. But this desire has no place in God, because
frailty and death are far removed from Him; nor is there with Him any
female in whose union He is able to rejoice; nor does He stand in need
of succession, since He will live for ever. The same things may be said
respecting envy and passion, to which, from sure and manifest causes,
man is liable, but to which God is by no means liable. But, in truth,
favour and anger and pity have their substance (2) in God, and that
greatest and matchless power employs them for the preservation of the
world.
CHAP. XVI. --OF GOD, AND HIS ANGER AND AFFECTIONS.
Some one will ask what this substance is. First of all, when evils
befall them, men in their dejected state for the most part have
recourse to God: they appease and entreat Him, believing that He is
able to repel injuries from them. He has therefore an occasion of
exercising pity; for He is not so unmerciful and a despiser of men as
to refuse aid to those who are in distress. Very many, also, who are
persuaded that justice is pleasing to God, both worship Him who is Lord
and Parent of all, and with continual prayers and repeated vows offer
gifts and sacrifices, follow up His name with praises, striving
to gain His favour by just and good works. There is therefore a reason,
on account of which God may and ought to favour them. For if there is
nothing so befitting God as beneficence, and nothing so unsuited to His
character as to be ungrateful, it is necessary that He should make some
return for the services of those who are excellent, and who lead a holy
life, that He may not be liable to the charge of ingratitude which is
worthy of blame (3) even in the case of
273
a man. But, on the contrary, others are daring (1) and wicked, who
pollute all things with their lusts, harass with slaughters, practise
fraud, plunder, commit perjury, neither spare relatives nor parents,
neglect the laws, and even God Himself. Anger, therefore, has a
befitting occasion (2) in God.
For it is not right that, when He sees such things,
He should not be moved, and arise to take vengeance upon the
wicked, and destroy the pestilent and guilty, so as to promote the
interests of all good men. Thus even in anger itself there is also
contained a showing of kindness. (3) Therefore the arguments are found
to be empty and false, either of those who, when they will not admit
that God is angry, will have it that He shows kindness, because this,
indeed, cannot take place without anger; or of those who think that
there is no emotion of the mind in God. And because there are some
affections to which God is not liable, as desire, fear, avarice, grief,
and envy, they have said that He is entirely free from all affection.
For He is not liable to these, because they are vicious affections; but
as to those which belong to virtue,--that is, anger towards the wicked,
regard towards the good, pity towards the afflicted, -- inasmuch as
they are worthy of the divine power, He has affections of His own, (4)
both just and true. And if He is not possessed of them, the life of man
will be thrown into confusion, and the condition of things will come to
such disturbance that the laws will be despised and overpowered, and
audacity alone reign, so that no one can at length be in safety unless
he who excels (5) in strength. Thus all the earth will be laid waste,
as it were, by a common robbery. But now, since the wicked expect
punishment, and the good hope for favour, and the afflicted look for
aid, there is place for virtues, and crimes are more rare. But (6) it
is said, ofttimes the wicked are more prosperous, and the good more
wretched, and the just are harassed with impunity by the unjust. We
will hereafter consider why these things happen. In the meantime let us
explain respecting anger, whether there be any in God; whether He takes
no notice at all, and is unmoved at those things which are done with
impiety.
CHAP. XVII.--OF GOD, HIS CARE AND ANGER.
God, says Epicurus, regards nothing; therefore He
has no power. For he who has power must of necessity regard affairs.
For if He has power, and does not use it, what so great cause
is there that, I will not say our race, but even the universe itself,
should be contemptible in His sight? On this account he says He is pure
(7) and happy, because He is always at rest. (8) To whom, then, has the
administration of so great affairs been entrusted, (9) if these things
which we see to be governed by the highest judgment are neglected by
God? or how can he who lives and perceives be at rest? For rest belongs
either to sleep or to death. But sleep has not rest. For when we are
asleep, the body indeed is at rest, but the soul is restless and
agitated: it forms for itself images which it may behold, so that it
exercises its natural power of motion by a variety of visions, and
calls itself away from false things, until the limbs are satiated, and
receive vigour from rest. Therefore eternal rest belongs to death
alone. Now if death does not affect God, it follows that God is never
at rest. But in what can the action of God consist, but in the
administration of the world? But if God carries on the care of the
world, it follows that He cares for the life of men, and takes notice
of the acts of individuals, and He earnestly desires that they should
be wise and good. This is the will of God, this the divine law; and he
who follows and observes this is beloved by God. It is necessary that
He should be moved with anger against the man who has broken or
despised this eternal and divine law. If, he says, God does harm to any
one, therefore He is not good. They are deceived by no slight error who
defame all censure, whether human or divine, with the name of
bitterness and malice, thinking that He ought to be called injurious
(10) who visits the injurious with punishment. But if this is so, it
follows that we have injurious laws, which enact punishment for
offenders, and injurious judges who inflict capital punishments on
those convicted of crime. But if the law is just which awards to the
transgressor his due, and if the judge is called upright and good when
he punishes crimes, -- for he guards the safety of good men who
punishes the evil,--it follows that God, when He opposes the evil, is
not injurious; but he himself is injurious who either injures an
innocent man, or spares an injurious person that he may injure many.
I would gladly ask from those who represent God as
immoveable, (11) if any one had property, a house, a household" of
slaves, and his slaves, despising the forbearance of their master,
should attack all things, and themselves take the enjoyment of his
goods, if his household should honour them, while the master was
despised by
274
all, insulted, and deserted: could he be a wise man who should not
avenge the insults, but permit those over whom he had power to have the
enjoyment of his property? Can such forbearance be found in any one?
If, indeed, it is to be called forbearance, and not rather a kind of
insensible stupor. But it is easy to endure contempt. What if those
things were done which are spoken of by Cicero? (1) "For I ask, if any
head of a family, (2) when his children had been put to death by a
slave, his wife slain and his house set on fire, should not exact most
severe punishment from that slave, whether he would appear to be kind
and merciful, or inhuman and most cruel?" But if to pardon deeds of
this kind is the part of cruelty rather than of kindness, (3) it is not
therefore the part of goodness in God not to be moved at those things
which are done unjustly. For the world is, as it were, the house of
God, and men, as it were, His slaves; and if His name is a mockery to
them, what kind or amount of forbearance is it to give (4) up His own
honours, to see wicked and unjust things done, and not to be indignant,
which is peculiar and natural to Him who is displeased with sins! To be
angry, therefore, is the part of reason: for thus faults are removed,
and licentiousness is curbed; and this is plainly in accordance with
justice and wisdom.
But the Stoics did not see that there is a
distinction between right and wrong, that there is a just and also an
unjust anger; and because they did not find a remedy for the matter,
they wished altogether to remove it. But the Peripatetics said that it
was not to be cut out, but moderated; to whom we have made a sufficient
reply in the sixth book of the Institutions. (5) Now, that the
philosophers were ignorant of the nature of anger, is plain from their
definitions, which Seneca enumerated in the books which he composed on
the subject of anger. "Anger is," he says, "the desire of avenging an
injury." Others, as Posidonius says, describe it as the desire of
punishing him by whom you think that you have been unfairly injured.
Some have thus defined it: "Anger is an incitement of the mind to
injure him who either has committed an injury, or who has wished to do
so." The definition of Aristotle does not differ greatly from ours; (6)
for he says that "anger is the desire of requiting pain." This is the
unjust anger, con- coming which we spoke before, which is
contained even in the dumb animals; but it is to be restrained in man,
lest he should rush to some very great evil through rage. This cannot
exist
in God, because He cannot be injured; (7) but it is found in man,
inasmuch as he is frail. For the inflicting (8) of injury inflames (9)
anguish, and anguish produces a desire of revenge. Where, then, is that
just anger against offenders? For this is evidently not the desire of
revenge, inasmuch as no injury precedes. I do not speak of those who
sin against the laws; for although a judge may be angry with these
without incurring blame, let us, however, suppose that he ought to be
of a sedate mind when he sentences the guilty to punishment, because he
is the executor (10) of the laws, not of his own spirit or power; for
so they wish it who endeavour to extirpate anger. But I speak of those
in particular who are in our own power, as slaves, children, wives, and
pupils; for when we see these offend, we are incited to restrain them.
For it cannot fail to be, that he who is just and
good is displeased with things which are bad, and that he who is
displeased with evil is moved when he sees it practised. Therefore we
arise to take vengeance, not because we have been injured, but that
discipline may be preserved, morals may be corrected, and
licentiousness be suppressed. This is just anger; and as it is
necessary in man for the correction of wickedness, so manifestly is it
necessary in God, from whom an example comes to man. For as we ought to
restrain those who are subject to our power, so also ought God to
restrain the of-fences of all. And in order that He may do this, He
must be angry; because it is natural for one who is good to be moved
and incited at the fault of another. Therefore they ought to have given
this definition: Anger is an emotion of the mind arousing itself for
the restraining of faults. (11) For the definition given by Cicero,
"Anger is the desire of taking vengeance," does not differ much from
those already mentioned. (12) But that anger which we may call either
fury or rage ought not to exist even in man, because it is altogether
vicious; but the anger which relates to the correction of vices ought
not to be taken away from man; nor can it be taken away from God,
because it is both serviceable for the affairs of men, and necessary.
CHAP. XVIII.--OF THE PUNISHMENT OF FAULTS, THAT IT CANNOT TAKE PLACE
WITHOUT ANGER.
What need is there, they say, of anger, since faults
can be corrected without this affection? But there is no one who can
calmly see any one committing an offence. This may perhaps be
275
possible in him who presides over the laws, because the deed is not
committed before his eyes, but it is brought before him as a doubtful
matter from another quarter. Nor can any wickedness be so manifest,
that there is no place for a de-fence; and therefore it is possible
that a judge may not be moved against him who may possibly be found to
be innocent; and when the detected crime shall have come to light, he
now no longer uses his own opinion, but that of the laws. It may be
granted that he does that which he does without anger; for he has that
which he may follow. We, undoubtedly, when an offence is committed by
our household at home, whether we see or perceive it, must be
indignant; for the very sight of a sin is unbecoming. For he who is
altogether unmoved either approves of faults, which is more disgraceful
and unjust, or avoids the trouble of reproving them, which a tranquil
spirit and a quiet mind despises and refuses, unless anger shall have
aroused and incited it. But when any one is moved, and yet through
unseasonable leniency grants pardon more frequently than is necessary,
or at all times, he evidently both destroys the life of those whose
audacity he is fostering for greater crimes, and furnishes himself with
a perpetual source of annoyances. Therefore the restraining of one's
anger in the case of sins is faulty.
Archytas of Tarentum is praised, who, when he had
found everything ruined (1) on his estate, rebuking the fault of his
bailiff, said, "Wretch, I would have beaten you to death if I had not
been angry." They consider this to be a singular example of
forbearance; but influenced by authority, they do not see how foolishly
he spoke and acted. For if (as Plato says) no prudent man punishes
because there is an offence, but to prevent the occurrence of an
offence, it is evident how evil an example this wise man put forth. For
if slaves shall perceive that their master uses violence when he is not
angry, and abstains from violence (2) when he is angry, it is evident
that they will not commit slight offences, lest they should be
beaten; but will commit the greatest offences, that they may
arouse the anger of the perverse man, and escape with impunity. But I
should praise him if, when he was enraged, he? had given space to his
anger, that the excitement of his mind might calm down through the
i
interval of time, and his chastisement might be
confined within moderate limits. Therefore, on account of the magnitude
of the anger, punishment ought not to have been inflicted, but to
have been delayed, lest it should inflict (3) upon the offender
pain greater than is just, or occasion an outburst of fury in the
punisher. But now,
how is it equitable or wise, that any one should be punished on account
of a slight offence, and should be unpunished on account of a very
great one? But if he had learned the nature and causes of things, he
never would have professed so unsuitable a forbearance, that a wicked
slave should rejoice that his master has been angry with him. For as
God has furnished the human body with many and various senses which are
necessary for the use of life, so also He has assigned to the soul
various affections by which the course of life might be regulated; and
as He has given desire for the sake of producing offspring, so has He
given anger for the sake of restraining faults.
But they who are ignorant of the ends of good and
evil things, as they employ sensual desire for the purposes of
corruption and pleasure, in the same manner make use of anger and
passion for the inflicting of injury, while they are angry with those
whom they regard with hatred. Therefore they are angry even with those
who commit no offence, even with their equals, or even with their
superiors. Hence they daily rush to monstrous (4) deeds; hence
tragedies often arise. Therefore Archytas would be deserving of praise,
if, when he had been enraged against any citizen or equal who injured
him, he had curbed himself, and by forbearance mitigated the
impetuosity of his fury. This self-restraint is glorious, by which any
great evil which impends is restrained; but it is a fault not to check
the faults of slaves and children; for through their escaping without
punishment they will proceed to greater evil. In this case anger is not
to be restrained; but even if it is in a state of inactivity, (5) it
must be aroused. But that which we say respecting man, we also say
respecting God, who made man like to Himself. I omit making mention of
the figure of God, because the Stoics say that God has no form, and
another great subject will arise if we should wish to refute them. I
only speak respecting the soul. If it belongs (6) to God to reflect, to
be wise, to understand, to foresee. to excel, and of all animals man
alone has these qualities, it follows that he was made after the
likeness of God; but on this account he goes on to vice, because, being
mingled with frailty derived from earth, he is unable to preserve pure
and uncontaminated that which he has received from God, unless he is
imbued with the precepts of justice by the same God.
CHAP. XIX.--OF THE SOUL AND BODY, AND OF
PROVIDENCE.
But since he is made up, as we have said, of two
parts, soul and body, the virtues are con-
276
tained in the one, and vices in the other, and they mutually oppose
each other. For the good properties of the soul, which consist in
restraining lusts, are contrary to the body; and the good properties of
the body, which consist in every kind of pleasure, are hostile to the
soul. But if the virtue of the soul shall have resisted the desires,
and suppressed them, he will be truly like to God. From which it is
evident that the soul of man, which is capable of divine virtue, is not
mortal. But there is this distinction, that since virtue is attended
with bitterness, and the attraction of pleasure is sweet, great numbers
are overcome and are drawn aside to the pleasantness; but they who have
given themselves up to the body and earthly things are pressed to the
earth, and are unable to attain to the favour of the divine bounty,
because they have polluted themselves with the defilements of
vices. But they who, following God, and in obedience to Him, have
despised the desires of the body, and, preferring virtue to pleasures,
have preserved innocence and righteousness, these God recognises as
like to Himself.
Since, therefore, He has laid down a most holy law,
and wishes all men to be innocent and beneficent, is it possible that
He should not be angry when He sees that His law is despised, that
virtue is rejected, and pleasure made the object of pursuit? But if He
is the governor of the world, as He might to be, He surely does not
despise that which is even of the greatest importance in the whole
world. If He has fore- sight, as it is befitting that God should
have, it is plain that He consults the interests of the human race, in
order that our life may be more abundantly supplied, and better, and
safer. If He is the Father and God of all, He is undoubtedly delighted
with the virtues of men, and provoked by their vices. Therefore He
loves the just, and hates the wicked. There is no need (one says) of
hatred; for He once for all has fixed a reward for the good, and
punishment for the wicked. But if any one lives justly and innocently,
and at the same time neither worships God nor has any regard for Him,
as Aristides, and Timon, (1) and others of the philosophers, will he
escape (2) with impunity, because, though he has obeyed the law of God,
he has nevertheless despised God Himself? There is therefore something
on account of which God may be angry with one rebelling against Him, as
it were, in reliance upon His integrity. If He can be angry with this
man on account of his pride, why not more so with the sinner, who has
despised the law together with the Lawgiver? The judge
cannot pardon offences, because he is subject to the will of another.
But God can pardon, because He is Himself the arbitrator (3) and judge
of His own law; and when He laid down this, He did not surely deprive
Himself of all power, but He has the liberty of bestowing pardon.
CHAP. XX.--OF OFFENCES, AND THE MERCY OF
GOD.
If He is able to pardon, He is therefore able also
to be angry. Why, then, some one will say, does it often occur, that
they who sin are prosperous, and they who live piously are wretched?
Because fugitives and disinherited (4) persons live without restraint,
and they who are under the discipline of a father or master live in a
more strict and frugal manner. For virtue is proved and fixed s by
means of ills; vices by means of pleasure. Nor, however, ought he who
sins to hope for lasting impunity, because there is no lasting
happiness.
"But, in truth, the last day is always to be looked for by man and no
one ought to be called happy before his death and last funeral rites,"
(6)
as the not inelegant poet says. It is the end which proves happiness,
and no one is able to escape the judgment of God, either when alive or
after death. For He has the power both to cast down the living from on
high, and to punish the dead with eternal torments. Nay, he says, if
God is angry, He ought to have inflicted vengeance at once, and to have
punished every one according to his desert. But (it is replied) if He
had done this, no one would survive. For there is no one who offends in
no respect, and there are many things which excite to the commission of
sin--age, intemperance, want, opportunity, reward. To such an extent is
the frailty of the flesh with which we are clothed liable to sin, that
unless God were indulgent to this necessity, perhaps too few would
live. On this account He is most patient, and restrains His anger. For
because there is in Him perfect virtue, it follows of necessity that
His patience also is perfect, which is itself also a virtue. How many
men, from having been sinners, have afterwards become righteous; from
being injurious, have become good; from being wicked, have become
temperate! How many who were in early life base, and condemned by the
judgment of all, afterwards have turned out praiseworthy? But it is
plain that this could not happen if punishment followed every offence.
277
The public laws condemn those who are manifestly
guilty; but there are great numbers whose offences are concealed, great
numbers who restrain the accuser either by entreaties or by reward,
great numbers who elude justice by favour or influence. But if the
divine censure should condemn all those who escape the punishment of
men, there would be few or even no men on the earth. In short, even
that one reason for destroying the human race might have been a just
one, that men, despising the living God, pay divine honour to earthly
and frail images, as though they were of heaven, adoring works made by
human hands. And though God their Creator made them of elevated
countenance and upright figure, and raised them to the contemplation of
the heaven and the knowledge of God, they have preferred, like cattle,
to bend themselves to the earth. (1) For he is low, and curved, and
bent downward, who, turning away from the sight of heaven and God his
Father, worships things of the earth, which he ought to have trodden
upon, that is, things made and fashioned from earth. Therefore, amidst
such great impiety and such great sins of men, the forbearance of God
attains this object, that men, condemning the errors of their past
life, correct themselves. In short, there are many who are just and
good; and these, having laid aside the worship of earthly things,
acknowledge the majesty of the one and only God. But though the
forbearance of God is very great and most useful; yet, although late,
He punishes the guilty, and does not suffer them to proceed further,
when He sees that they are incorrigible.
CHAP. XXI.--OF THE ANGER OF GOD AND MAN.
There remains one question, and that the last. For
some one will perhaps say, that God is so far from being angry, that in
His precepts He even forbids man to be angry. I might say that the
anger of man ought to be curbed, because he is often angry unjustly;
and he has immediate emotion, because he is only for a time. (2)
Therefore, lest those things should be done which the low, and those of
moderate station, and great kings do in their anger, his rage ought to
have been moderated and suppressed, lest, being out of his mind, (3) he
should commit some inexpiable
crime. But God is not angry for a short time, (4) because He is
eternal and of perfect virtue, and
He is never angry unless deservedly. But, however, the matter is not
so; for if He should altogether prohibit anger, He Himself would have
been in some measure the censurer of His own
workmanship, since He from the beginning had inserted anger in the
liver s of man, since it is believed that the cause of this emotion is
contained in the moisture of the gall. Therefore He does not altogether
prohibit anger, because that affection is necessarily given, but He
forbids us to persevere in anger. For the anger of mortals ought to be
mortal; for if it is lasting, enmity is strengthened to lasting
destruction. Then, again, when He enjoined us to be angry, and yet not
to sin, (6) it is plain that He did not tear up anger by the roots, but
restrained it, that in every correction we might preserve moderation
and justice. Therefore He who commands us to be angry is manifestly
Himself angry; He who enjoins us to be quickly appeased is manifestly
Himself easy to be appeased: for He has enjoined those things which are
just and useful for the interests of society. (7)
But because I had said that the anger of God is not
for a time (8) only, as is the case with man, who becomes inflamed with
an immediate (9) excitement, and on account of his frailty is unable
easily to govern himself, we ought to understand that because God is
eternal, His anger also remains to eternity; but, on the other hand,
that because He is endued with the greatest excellence, He controls His
anger, and is not ruled by it, but that He regulates it according to
His will. And it is plain that this is not opposed to that which has
just been said. For if His anger had been altogether immortal, there
would be no place after a fault for satisfaction or kind feeling,
though He Himself commands men to be reconciled before the setting of
the sun.(10) But the divine anger remains for ever against those who
ever sin. Therefore God is appeased not by incense or a victim, not by
costly offerings, which things are all corruptible, but by a
reformation of the morals: and he who ceases to sin renders the anger
of God mortal. For this reason He does not immediately (11) punish
every one who is guilty, that man may have the opportunity of coming to
a right mind, (12) and correcting himself.
CHAP. XXII.--OF SINS, AND THE VERSES OF THE SIBYLS RESPECTING THEM
RECITED.
This is what I had to say, most beloved Donatus,
respecting the anger of God, that you might know how to refute those
who represent God as being without emotions. (13) It only remains that,
after the practice of Cicero, I should use an
278
epilogue by way of peroration. As he did in the Tusculan Disputations,
(1) when discoursing on the subject of death, so we in this work ought
to bring forward divine testimonies, which may be believed, to refute
the persuasion of those who, believing that God is without anger,
destroy all religion, without which, as we have shown, we are either
equal to the brutes in savageness, or to the cattle in foolishness; for
it is in religion only--that is, in the knowledge of the Supreme
God--that wisdom consists. All the prophets, being filled with the
Divine Spirit, speak nothing else than of the favour of God towards the
righteous, and His anger against the ungodly. And their testimony is
indeed sufficient for us; but because it is not believed by those who
make a display of wisdom by their hair and dress, (2) it was necessary
to refute them by reason and arguments. For they act so
pre-posterously, (3) that human things give authority to divine things,
whereas divine things ought rather to give authority to human.
But let us now leave these things, lest we should produce no
effect upon them, and the subject should be indefinitely drawn out. Let
us therefore seek those testimonies which they can either
believe, or at any rate not oppose.
Authors of great number and weight have made mention
of the Sibyls; of the Greeks, Aristo the Chian, and Apollodorus
the Erythraean; of our writers, Varro and Fenestella. All these
relate that the Erythraean Sibyl was distinguished and noble beyond the
rest. Apollodorus, indeed, boasts of her as his own citizen and
countrywoman. But Fenestella also relates that ambassadors were sent by
the senate to Erythrae, that the verses of this Sibyl might be conveyed
to Rome, and that the consuls Curio and Octavius might take care that
they should be placed in the Capitol, which had then been restored
under the care of Quintus Catulus. In her writings, verses of this kind
are found respecting the Supreme God and Maker of the world: --
"The incorruptible and eternal Maker who dwells in the heaven, holding
forth good to the good, a much greater reward, but stirring up anger
and rage against the evil and unjust."
Again, in another place, enumerating the deeds by which God is
especially moved to anger, she introduced these things: --
"Avoid unlawful services, and serve the living God. Abstain from
adultery and impurity; bring up a pure generation of children; do not
kill: for the Immortal will be angry with every one who may sin."
Therefore He is angry with sinners.
CHAP. XXIII. --OF THE ANGER OF GOD AND THE PUNISHMENT OF SINS, AND A
RECITAL OF THE VERSES OF THE SIBYLS RESPECTING IT; AND, MOREOVER, A
REPROOF AND EXHORTATION.
But because it is related by most learned men that
there have been many Sibyls, the testimony of one may not be sufficient
to confirm the truth, as we purpose to do. The volumes, indeed, of the
Cumaean Sibyl, in which are written the fates of the Romans are kept
secret; but the writings of all the others are, for the most part, not
prohibited from being in common use. And of these another, denouncing
the anger of God against all nations on account of the impiety of men,
thus began:--
"Since great anger is coming upon a disobedient world, I disclose the
commands of God to the last age, prophesying to all men from city to
city."
Another Sibyl also said, that the deluge was caused
by the indignation of God against the unrighteous in a former age, that
the wickedness of the human race might be extinguished:--
"From the time when, the God of heaven being enraged against the cities
themselves and all men, a deluge having burst forth, the sea covered
the earth."
In like manner she foretold a conflagration about to take place
hereafter, in which the impiety of men should again be destroyed:--
" And at some time, God no longer soothing His anger,
but increasing it, and destroying the race of men, and laying waste the
whole of it by fire."
From which mention is thus made concerning Jupiter by Ovid: (4) --
"He remembers also that it is fated that the time shall come in which
the sea, the earth, and the palace of heaven, being caught by fire,
shall be burnt, and the curiously wrought framework of the world (5) be
in danger."
And this must come to pass at the time when the honour and worship of
the Supreme shall have perished among men. The same Sibyl, however,
testifying that He was appeased by reformation (6) of conduct and
self-improvement, added these things :--
"But, ye mortals, in pity (7) turn yourselves now, and do not lead the
great God to every kind of auger."
And also a little later: --
"He will not destroy, but will again restrain His anger, if you all
practise valuable piety in your minds."
Then another Sibyl declares that the Father of heavenly and earthly
things ought to be loved, lest His indignation should arise, to the
destruction of men: --
"Lest by chance the immortal God should be angry, and destroy the whole
race of men, their life and shameless race, it is befitting that we
love the wise, ever-living God the Father."
279
From these things it is evident that the arguments
of the philosophers are vain, who imagine that God is without anger,
and among His other praises reckon that which is most useless,
detracting from Him that which is most salutary for human affairs, by
which majesty itself exists. For this earthly, kingdom and government,
unless guarded by fear, is broken down. Take away anger from a king,
and he will not only cease to be obeyed, but he will even be cast down
headlong from his height. Yea, rather take away this affection from any
person of low degree, and who will not plunder him? Who will not deride
him? Who will not treat him with injury? Thus he will be able to have
neither clothing, nor an abode, nor food, since others will deprive him
of whatever he has; much less can we suppose that the majesty of the
heavenly government can exist without anger and fear. The Milesian
Apollo being consulted concerning the religion of the Jews, inserted
these things in his answer:--
"God, the King and Father of all, before whom the earth trembles, and
the heaven and sea, and whom the recesses of Tartarus and the demons
dread."
If He is so mild, as the philosophers will have it,
how is it that not only the demons and ministers of such great power,
but even the heaven and earth, and the whole system of the universe,
tremble at His presence? For if no one submits to the service of
another except by compulsion, it follows that all government exists by
fear, and fear by anger. For if any one is not aroused against one who
is unwilling to obey, it will not be possible for him to be compelled
to obedience. Let any one consult his own feelings; he will at once
understand that no one can be subdued to the command of another without
anger and chastisement. Therefore, where there shall be no anger, there
will be no authority. But God has authority; therefore also He must
have anger, in which authority consists. Therefore let no one, induced
by the empty prating(1) of the philosophers, train himself to the
contempt of God, which is the greatest impiety. We all are bound both
to love Him, because He is our Father; and to reverence Him, because He
is our Lord: both to pay Him honour, because He is bounteous; and to
fear Him, because He is severe: each character in Him is worthy of
reverence.(2) Who can preserve his piety, and yet fail to love the
parent of his life? or who can with impunity despise Him who, as ruler
of all things, has true and everlasting power over all? If you consider
Him in the character of Father, He supplies to us our entrance to
the light which we enjoy: through Him we live, through Him we have
entered into the abode(3) of this world. If you contemplate Him as God,
it is. He who nourishes us with innumerable re sources: it is He who
sustains us, we dwell in His house, we are His household;(4) and
if we are less obedient than was befitting, and less attentive to
our duty(5) than the endless merits of our Master and Parent demanded:
nevertheless it is of great avail to our obtaining pardon, if we retain
the worship and knowledge of Him; if, laying aside low and earthly
affairs and goods, we meditate upon heavenly and divine things which
are everlasting. And that we may be able to do this, God must be
followed by us, God must be adored and loved; since there is in Him the
substance(6) of things, the principle(7) of the virtues, and the
source of all that is good. For what is greater in power than
God, or more perfect in reason, or brighter in clearness? And since He
begat us to wisdom, and produced us to righteousness, it is not
allowable for man to forsake God, who is the giver of intelligence and
life and to serve earthly and frail things, or, intent upon seeking
temporal goods, to turn aside from innocence and piety. Vicious and
deadly pleasures do not render a man happy; nor does opulence, which is
the inciter of lusts; nor empty ambition; nor frail honours, by which
the human soul, being ensnared and enslaved to the body, is
condemned(8) to eternal death: but innocence and righteousness alone,
the lawful and due reward of which is immortality, which God from the
beginning appointed for holy and uncorrupted minds, which keep
themselves pure and uncontaminated from vices, and from every earthly
impurity. Of this heavenly and eternal reward they cannot be partakers,
who have polluted their conscience by deeds of violence, frauds,
rapine, and deceits; and who, by injuries inflicted upon men, by
impious actions, have branded themselves(9) with indelible stains.
Accordingly it is befitting that all who wish deservedly to be called
wise, who wish to be called men, should despise frail things, should
trample upon earthly things, and should look down upon base(10) things,
that they may be able to be united in a most blissful relationship with
God.
Let impiety and discords be removed; let turbulent
and deadly dissensions be allayed,(11) by which human societies and the
divine union of the public league are broken in upon, divided, and
dispersed; as far as we can, let "us aim at
280
being good and bounteous: if we have a supply of wealth and resources,
let it not be devoted to the pleasure of a single person, but bestowed
on the welfare of many. For pleasure is as shortlived as the body to
which it does service. But justice and kindness are as immortal as the
mind and soul, which by good works attain to the likeness of God. Let
God be consecrated by us, not in temples, but in our heart. All things
which are made by the hand are destructible.(1) Let us cleanse this
temple, which is defiled not by smoke or dust, but by evil
thoughts which is lighted not by blazing tapers? but by the
brightness and light of wisdom. And if we believe that God is always
present in this temple, to whose divinity the secrets of the heart are
open, we shall so live as always to have Him propitious, and never to
fear His anger.
NOTE BY THE AMERICAN EDITOR
It is worth while to direct attention to (book vi.
cap. 2) what our author has said of "true worship," just now, when the
most violent and persistent efforts are made to sensualize Christian
worship, and to explain away the testimony of the Ante-Nicene Fathers
on this important subject. The argument of our author, in its entire
drift, is as applicable to our own times as to his; and, deeply as I
value beauty in the public worship of God, I cannot, as a Nicene
Catholic, do less than adopt the universal sentiment of the early
Fathers as to the limits of decoration.
281
ON THE
WORKMANSHIP OF GOD,
OR THE FORMATION OF MAN
A TREATISE ADDRESSED TO HIS PUPIL DEMETRIANUS.
CHAP. I.--THE INTRODUCTION, AND EXHORTATION TO
DEMETRIANUS.(1)
How disturbed I am, and in the greatest necessities,
you will be able to judge from this little book which I have written to
you, Demetrianus, almost in unadorned words, as the mediocrity of my
talent permitted, that you might know my daily pursuit, and that I
might not be wanting to you, even now an instructor, but of a more
honourable subject and of a better system. For if you afforded yourself
a ready hearer in literature, which did nothing else than form the
style, how much more teachable ought you to be in these true studies,
which have reference even to the life! And I now profess to you, that I
am hindered by no necessity of circumstance or time from composing
something by which the philosophers of our sect(2) which we uphold may
become better instructed and more learned for the future, although they
now have a bad reputation, and are commonly reproved, as living
otherwise than is befitting for wise men, and as concealing their vices
under the covering of a name; whereas they ought either to have
remedied them, or to have altogether avoided them, that they might
render the name of wisdom happy and uncorrupted, their life itself
agreeing with their precepts. I, however, shrink from no labour that I
may at once instruct ourselves and others. For I am not able to
forget myself, and especially at that time when it is most necessary
for me to remember; as also you do not forget yourself, as I hope and
wish. For although the necessity of the state may turn you aside from
true and just works, yet it is impossible that a mind conscious of
rectitude should not from time to time look to the heaven.
I indeed rejoice that all things which are esteemed
blessings turn out prosperously to you,
but only on condition of their changing nothing of your state of mind.
For I fear lest custom and the pleasantness of these subjects should,
as usually happens, creep by degrees into your mind. Therefore I advise
you,
"And repeating it, will again and again advise you,"(3)
not to believe that you have these enjoyments of the earth as great or
true blessings, since they are not only deceitful because they are
doubtful, but also treacherous because they are pleasant. For you know
how crafty that wrestler and adversary of ours is, and also often
violent, as we now see that he is. He employs all these things which
are able to entice as snares, and with such subtilty that they escape
the notice of the eyes of the mind, so that they cannot be avoided by
the foresight of man. Therefore it is the highest prudence to advance
step by step, since he occupies the passes on both sides, and secretly
places stumbling-blocks for our feet. Accordingly I advise you, either
to disregard, if you are able according to your virtue, your prosperity
in which you live, or not to admire it greatly. Remember your true
parent, and in what(4) city you have given your name, and of what rank
you have been. You understand assuredly what I say. For I do not charge
you with pride, of which there is not even a suspicion in your case;
but the things which I say are to be referred to the mind, not to the
body, the whole system of which has been arranged on this account, that
it may be in subjection to the soul as to a master, and may be ruled by
its will. For it is in a certain manner an earthen vessel in which the
soul, that is, the true man himself, is contained, and that vessel
indeed not made by Prometheus, as the poets say, but by that supreme
Creator and Artificer of the world, God, whose divine providence and
most perfect excellence it is neither
282
possible to comprehend by the perception, nor to express in word.
I will attempt, however, since mention has been made
of the body and soul, to explain the nature of each, as far as the
weakness of my understanding sees through; and I think that this duty
is especially to be undertaken on this account, because Marcus Tullius,
a man of remarkable talent, in his fourth book on the Republic, when he
had attempted to do this, concluded a subject of wide extent within
narrow limits, lightly selecting the chief points. And that there might
be no excuse, because he had not followed up this subject, he testified
that neither inclination nor attention had been wanting to him. For in
his first book concerning the Laws, when he was concisely summing up
the same subject, he thus spoke: "Scipio, as it appears to me, has
sufficiently expressed this subject in those books which you have
read." Afterwards, however, in his second book concerning the Nature of
the Gods, he endeavoured to follow up the same subject more
extensively. But since he did not express it sufficiently even there, I
will approach this office, and will take upon myself boldly to explain
that which a man of the greatest eloquence has almost left untouched.
Perhaps you may blame me for attempting to discuss something in matters
of obscurity, when you see that there have been men of such rashness
who are commonly called philosophers, that they scrutinized those
things which God willed to be abstruse and hidden, and investigated the
nature of things in heaven and on earth, which are far removed from us,
and cannot be examined(1) by the eyes, nor touched by the hand, nor
perceived by the senses; and yet they so dispute concerning the nature
of these things, as to wish that the things, which they bring forward
may appear to be proved and known. What reason is there, I pray, why
any one should think it an invidious thing in us, if we wish to look
into and contemplate the system of our body,(2) which is not altogether
obscure, because from the very offices of the limbs, and the uses of
the several parts, it is permitted us to understand with what great
power of providence each part has been made?
CHAP. II.--OF THE PRODUCTION OF THE BEASTS AND
OF MAN.
For our Creator and Parent, God, has given to man
perception and reason, that it might be evident from this that we are
descended from Him, because He Himself is intelligence, He Himself is
perception and reason. Since He did not give that power of reason to
the other
i
animals, He provided beforehand in what manner their life might be more
safe. For He clothed them all with their own natural hair,(3) in order
that they might more easily be able to endure the severity of frosts
and colds. Moreover, He has appointed to every kind its own peculiar
defence for the repelling of attacks from without; so that they may
either oppose the stronger animals with natural weapons, or the feebler
ones may withdraw themselves from danger by the swiftness of their
flight, or those which require at once both strength and swiftness may
protect themselves by craft, or guard themselves in hiding-places.(4)
And so others of them either poise themselves aloft with light plumage,
or are supported by hoofs,(5) or are furnished with horns; some have
arms in their mouth--namely, their teeth(6)--or hooked talons on their
feet; and none of them is destitute of a defence for its own protection.
But if any fall as a prey to the greater animals,
that their race might not utterly perish, they have either been
banished to that region where the greater ones cannot exist, or they
have received a more abundant fruitfulness in production, that food
might be supplied from them to the beasts which are nourished by blood,
and yet their very multitude might survive the slaughter inflicted upon
them, so as to preserve the race.(7) But He made man--reason being
granted to him, and the power of perceiving and speaking being given to
him--destitute of those things which are given to the other animals,
because wisdom was able to supply those things which the condition of
nature had denied to him. He made him naked and defenceless, because he
could be armed by his talent, and clothed by his reason.(8) But it
cannot be expressed how wonderfully the absence of those things which
are given to the brutes contributes to the beauty of man. For if He had
given to man the teeth of wild beasts, or horns, or claws, or hoofs, or
a tail, or hairs of various colour, who cannot perceive how misshapen
an animal he would be, as the dumb animals, if they were made naked and
defenceless? For if you take from these the natural clothing of their
body, or those things by which they are armed of themselves, they can
be neither beautiful nor safe, so that they appear wonderfully
furnished if you think of utility, and wonderfully adorned if you think
of appearance: in such a wonderful manner is utility combined with
beauty.
But with reference to man, whom He formed
283
an eternal and immortal being, He did not arm him, as the others,
without, but within; nor did He place his protection in the body, but
in the soul: since it would have been superfluous, when He had given
him that which was of the greatest value, to cover him with bodily
defences, especially when they hindered the beauty of the human body.
On which account I am accustomed to wonder at the senselessness of the
philosophers who follow Epicurus, who blame the works of nature, that
they may show that the world is prepared and governed by no
providence;(1) but they ascribe the origin of all things to indivisible
and solid bodies, from the fortuitous meetings of which they say that
all things are and were produced. I pass by the things relating to the
work itself with which they find fault, in which matter they are
ridiculously mad; I assume that which belongs to the subject of which
we are now treating.
CHAP.
III.--OF THE CONDITION OF THE BEASTS AND MAN.
They complain that man is born in a more feeble and
frail condition than that in which the other animals are born: for that
these, as soon as they are produced from the womb, immediately raise
themselves on their feet, and express their joy by running to and fro,
and are at once fit for enduring the air, inasmuch as they have come
forth to the light protected by natural coverings; but man, on the
contrary, being naked and defenceless, is cast forth, and driven, as it
were, from a shipwreck, to the miseries of this life; who is neither
able to move himself from the place where he has been born,(2) nor to
seek the nourishment of milk, nor to endure the injury of time.
Therefore they say that Nature is not the mother of the human race, but
a stepmother, who has dealt so liberally with the dumb creation, but
has so produced man, that, without resources, and without strength, and
destitute of all aid, he can do nothing else than give tokens(3) of the
state of his frailty by wailing and lamentations; "as well he may,
whose destiny it is to go through in life so many ills."(4)
And when they say these things they are believed to
be very wise, because every one without consideration is displeased
with his own condition; but I contend that they are never more foolish
than when they say these things.(1) For when I consider the condition
of things, I understand that nothing ought to have been otherwise than
it is--not to say could have been
otherwise, for God is able to do all things: but it must be, that that
most provident majesty made that which was better and more right.
I should like, therefore, to ask those censurers of
the divine works, what they think to be wanting in man, on account of
his being born in a more feeble condition. Do they think that men are,
on this account, brought up worse? Or that they advance the less to the
greatest strength of age? Or that weakness is a hindrance to their
growth or safety, since reason bestows(5) the things which are wanting?
But, they say, the bringing up of man costs the greatest labours: in
truth, the condition of the brute creation is better, because all
these, when they have brought forth their young, have no care except
for their own food; from which it is effected that, their teats being
spontaneously distended, the nourishment of milk is supplied to their
offspring, and that they seek this nourishment by the compulsion of
nature, without any trouble on the part of the mothers. How is it with
birds, which have a different nature? do they not undergo the greatest
labours in bringing up their young, so that they sometimes appear to
have something of human intelligence? For they either build their nests
of mud, or construct them with twigs and leaves, and they sit upon the
eggs without taking food; and since it has not been given to them to
nourish their young from their own bodies, they convey to them food,
and spend whole days in going to and fro in this manner; but by night
they defend, cherish, and protect them. What more can men do? unless it
be this only, that they do not drive away their young when grown up,
but retain them bound by perpetual relationship and the bond of
affection. Why should I say that the offspring of birds is much more
fragile than that of man? Inasmuch as they do not bring forth the
animal itself from the body of the mother, but that which, being warmed
by the nourishment and heat of the body of the mother, produces the
animal; and this, even when animated by breath, being unfledged and
tender, is not only without the power of flying, but even of walking.
Would he not, therefore, be most senseless, if any one should think
that nature has dealt badly with birds, first, because they are twice
born, and then because they are so weak, that they have to be nourished
by food sought with labour by their parents? But they select the
stronger, and pass by the more feeble animals.
I ask, therefore, from those who prefer the
condition of the beasts to their own, what they would choose if God
should give them the choice: would they prefer the wisdom of man
284
together with his weakness, or the strength of the beasts together with
their nature? In truth, they are not so much like the beasts as not to
prefer even a much more fragile condition, provided that it be human,
to that strength of theirs unattended with reason. But, in truth,
prudent men neither desire the reason of man together with frailty, nor
the strength of the dumb animals without reason. Therefore it is
nothing so repugnant or contradictory,(1) that either reason or the
condition of nature should of necessity prepare each animal. If it is
furnished with natural protection, reason is superfluous. For what will
it contrive?(2) What will it do? Or what will it plan? Or in what will
it display that light of the intellect, when Nature of its own accord
grants those things which are able to be the result of reason? But if
it be endued with reason, what need will there be of defences for the
body, when reason once granted is able to supply the office of nature?
And this has such power for the adorning and protection of man, that
nothing greater or better can be given by God. Finally, since man is
possessed of a body which is not great, and of slight strength, and of
infirm health, nevertheless, since he has received that which is of
greater value, he is better equipped than the other animals, and more
adorned. For though he is born frail and feeble, yet he is safe from
all the dumb animals, and all those which are born with greater
strength, though they are able to bear patiently the inclemency of the
sky, yet are unable to be safe from man. Thus it comes to pass that
reason bestows more on man than nature does on the dumb animals; since,
in their case, neither greatness of strength nor firmness of body can
prevent them from being oppressed by us, or from being made subject to
our power.
Can any one, then, when he sees that even
elephants,(3) with their vast bodies and strength, are subservient to
man, complain respecting God, the Maker of all things, because he has
received moderate strength, and a small body; and not estimate
according to their deserts the divine benefits towards himself, which
is the part of an ungrateful man, or (to speak more truly) of a madman?
Plato, I believe, that he might refute these ungrateful men, gave
thanks to nature that he was born a man.(4) How much better and more
soundly did he act, who perceived that the condition of man was better,
than they did who would have preferred that they had been born beasts!
For if God should happen to change them into those animals whose
condition they
prefer to their own, they would now immediately desire to return to
their previous state, and o would with great outcries eagerly demand
their former condition, because strength and firmness of
body are not of such consequence that you should be without the office
of the tongue; or the free course of birds through the air, that you
should be without the hands. For the hands o are of greater service
than the lightness and use n of the wings; the tongue is of greater
service y than the strength of the whole body. What h madness is it,
therefore, to prefer those things which, if they were given, you would
refuse to receive!
CHAP. IV.--OF THE WEAKNESS OF MAN.
They also complain that man is liable to diseases,
and to untimely death. They are indignant, it appears, that they are
not born gods. By no means, they say; but we show from this, that
man was made with no foresight, which ought to have been otherwise.
What if I shall show, that this very thing was foreseen with great
reason, that he might be able to be harassed by diseases, and that his
life might often be cut short in the midst of its course? For, since
God had known that the animal which He had made, of its own accord
passed to death, that it might be capable of receiving death itself,
which is the dissolution of nature, He gave to it frailty, which might
find an approach for death in order to the dissolution of the animal.
For if it had been of such strength that disease and sickness could not
approach it, not even could death, since death is the consequence
of diseases. But how could a premature death be absent from him, for
whom a mature death had been appointed? Assuredly they wish that no man
should die, unless when he has completed his hundredth year. How can
they maintain their consistency in so great an opposition of
circumstances? For, in order that no one may be capable of dying before
a hundred years, something of the strength which is immortal must be
given to him; and when this is granted, the condition of death must
necessarily be excluded. But of what kind can that be, which can render
a man firm and impregnable against diseases and attacks from without?
For, inasmuch as he is composed of bones, and nerves, and flesh, and
blood, which of these can be so firm as to repel frailty and death?
That man, therefore, may not be liable to dissolution before that time
which they think ought to have been appointed for him, of what material
will they assign to him a body? All things which can be seen and
touched are frail. It remains that they seek something from heaven,
since there is nothing on earth which is not weak.
Since, therefore, man had to be so formed by
285
God, that he should at some time be mortal, the matter itself
required that he should be made with a frail and earthly body. It is
necessary, therefore, that he should at some time receive death, since
he is possessed of a body; for every body is liable to
dissolution and to death. Therefore they are most foolish who complain
of premature death, since the condition of nature makes a place for it.
Thus it will follow that he is subject also to diseases; for nature
does not admit that infirmity can be absent from that body which is at
some time to undergo dissolution. But let us suppose it to be possible,
as they wish, that man is not born under those conditions by which he
is subject to disease or death, unless, having completed the course of
his life, he shall have arrived at the extremity of old age. They do
not, therefore, see what would be the consequence if it were so
arranged, that it would be plainly impossible to die at another time;
but if any one can be deprived of nourishment by another, it will be
possible for him to die. Therefore the case requires that man, who
cannot die before an appointed day, should have no need of the
nourishment of food, because it may be taken from him; but if he shall
have no need of food, he will now not be a man, but will become a god.
Therefore, as I have already said, they who complain of the frailty of
man, make this complaint especially, that they were not born immortal
and everlasting. No one ought to die unless he is old. On this account,
in truth, he ought to die, because he is not God. But mortality cannot
be united with immortality: for if a man is mortal in old age, he
cannot be immortal in youth; neither is the condition of death foreign
to him who is at some time about to die; nor is there any immortality
to which a limit is appointed. Thus it comes to pass, that the
exclusion of immortality for ever, and the reception of mortality for a
time, place man in such a condition that he is at some time mortal.
Therefore the necessity is in all points
suitable,(1) that he ought not to have been otherwise than he is, and
that it was impossible. But they do not see the order of consequences,
because they have once committed an error in the main point itself. For
the divine providence having been excluded from the affairs of men, it
necessarily followed that all things were produced of their own accord.
Hence they invented the notion of those blows and fortuitous meetings
together of minute seeds, because they did not see the origin of
things. And when they had thrown themselves into this difficulty,
necessity now compelled them to think that souls were born together
with bodies, and in like manner were extinguished together with bodies;
for they had
made the assumption, that nothing was made by the divine mind. And they
were unable to prove this m any other way, than by showing that there
were some things in which the system of providence appeared to be at
fault.(2) Therefore they blamed those things in which providence
wonderfully expressed its divinity, as those things which I have
related concerning diseases and premature death; whereas they ought to
have considered, these things being assumed, what would be the
necessary consequences (but those things which I have spoken are the
consequences) if he were not liable to diseases, and did not require a
dwelling, nor clothing. For why should he fear the winds, or rains, or
colds, the power of which consists in this, that they bring diseases?
For on this account he has received wisdom, that he may guard his
frailty against things that would injure him. The necessary consequence
is, that since he is liable to diseases for the sake of retaining his
wisdom, he must also be liable to death; because he to whom death does
not come, must of necessity be firm. But infirmity has in itself the
condition of death; but where there shall be firmness, neither can old
age have any place, nor death, which follows old age.
Moreover, if death were appointed for a fixed age,
man would become most arrogant, and would be destitute of all humanity.
For almost all the rights of humanity, by which we are united with one
another, arise from fear and the consciousness of frailty. In short,
all the more feeble and timid animals herd together, that, since they
are unable to protect themselves by strength, they may protect
themselves by their multitude; but the stronger animals seek solitudes,
since they trust in their force and strength.(3) If man also, in the
same manner, had sufficient strength for the repelling of dangers, and
did not stand in need of the assistance of any other, what society
would there be? Or what system? What humanity? Or what would be more
harsh than man? What more brutal? What more savage? But since he is
feeble, and not able to live by himself apart from man, he desires
society, that his life, passed in intercourse with others, may become
both more adorned and more safe. You see, therefore, that the whole
reason of man centres most of all in this, that he is born naked and
fragile, that he is attacked by diseases, that he is punished by
premature death. And if these things should be taken away from man,
reason also, and wisdom, must necessarily be taken away. But I am
discussing too long respecting things which are manifest, since it is
clear that nothing ever was made, or could have been made, without
providence. And if
286
I should now wish to discuss respecting all its works in order, the
subject would be infinite. But I have purposed to speak so much
concerning the body of man only, that I may show in it the power of
divine providence, how great it has been in those things only which are
easy of comprehension and open; for those things which relate to the
soul can neither be subjected to the eyes, nor comprehended. Now we
speak concerning the vessel itself of man, which we see.
CHAP.
V.--OF THE FIGURES AND LIMBS OF ANIMALS.
In the beginning, when God was forming the animals,
He did not wish to conglobate(1) and collect them into a round shape,
that they might be able easily to put themselves in motion for walking,
and to turn themselves in any direction; but from the highest part of
the body He lengthened out the head. He also carried out to a greater
length some of the limbs, which are called feet, that, being fixed on
the ground with alternate motions, they might lead forward the animal
wherever his inclination had borne him, or the necessity of seeking
food had called him. Moreover, He made four limbs standing out from the
very vessel of the body: two behind, which are in all animals--the
feet; also two close to the head and neck, which supply various uses to
animals. For in cattle and wild beasts they are feet like the hinder
ones; but in man they are hands, which are produced not for walking,
but for acting and controlling.(2) There is also a third class, in
which those former limbs are neither feet nor hands; but wings, which,
having feathers arranged in order, supply the use of flying.(3) Thus
one formation has different forms and uses; and that He might firmly
hold together the density itself of the body, by binding together
greater and small bones, He compacted a kind of keel, which we
call the spine; and He did not think
fit to form it of one continued bone, lest the animal should not have
the power of walking and bending itself. From its middle part, as it
were, He has extended in a different direction transverse and fiat
bones, by which, being slightly curved, and almost drawn together to
themselves as into a circle, the inward organs(4) may be covered, that
those parts which needed to be soft and less strong might be protected
by the encircling of a solid framework.(5) Bat at the end of that
joining together which we have said to resemble the keel of a ship, He
placed the head, in which might be the government of the whole
living creature; and this name was given to it, as indeed Varro writes
to Cicero, because from this the senses and the nerves take their
beginning.
But those parts, which we have said to be lengthened
out from the body, either for the sake of walking, or of acting, or of
flying, He would have to consist of bones, neither too long, for the
sake of rapidity of motion, nor too short, for the sake of firmness,
but of a few, and those large. For either they are two as in man, or
four as in a quadruped. And these He did not make solid, lest in
walking sluggishness and weight should retard; but He made them hollow,
and full of marrow within, to preserve the vigour of the body. And
again, He did not make them equally extended to the end; but He
conglobated their extremities with coarse knots, that they might be
able more easily to be bound with sinews, and to be turned more easily,
from which they are called joints. (6) These knots He made firmly
solid, and covered with a soft kind of covering, which is called
cartilage; for this purpose, that they might be bent without galling or
any sense of pain. He did not, however, form these after one fashion.
For He made some simple and round into an orb, in those joints at least
in which it was befitting that the limbs should move in all directions,
as in the shoulders, since it is necessary that the hands should move
and be twisted about in any direction; but others He made broad, and
equal, and round towards one part, and that plainly in those places
where only it was necessary for the limbs to be bent, as in the knees,
and in the elbows, and in the hands themselves. For as it was at the
same time pleasant to the sight, and useful, that the hands should move
in every direction from that position from which they spring; so
assuredly, if this same thing should happen to the elbows, a motion of
that kind would be at once superfluous and unbecoming. For then the
hand, having lost the dignity which it now has, through its excessive
flexibility,(7) would appear like the trunk of an elephant; and man
would be altogether snake-handed,(8)--an instance of which has been
wonderfully effected in that monstrous beast. For God, who wished to
display His providence and power by a wonderful variety of many things,
inasmuch as He had not extended the head of that animal to such a
length that he might be able to touch the earth with his mouth, which
would have been horrible and hideous, and because He bad so armed the
mouth itself with extended tusks, that even if he touched the earth the
tusks would still deprive him of the power of feeding, He lengthened out
287
between these from the top of the forehead a soft and flexible limb, by
which he might be able to grasp and lay hold of anything, lest the
prominent magnitude of the tusks, or the shortness of the neck, should
interfere with the arrangement for taking food.
CHAP. VI.--OF THE ERROR OF EPICURUS, AND OF THE LIMBS AND THEIR
USE.
I cannot here be prevented from again showing the
folly of Epicurus. For all the ravings of Lucretius(1) belong to him,
who, in order that he might show that animals are not produced by any
contrivance of the divine mind, but, as he is wont to say, by chance,
said that in the beginning of the world innumerable other animals of
wonderful form and magnitude were produced; but that they were unable
to be permanent, because either the power of taking food, or the method
of uniting and generating, had failed them. It is evident that, in
order to make a place for his atoms flying about through the boundless
and empty space, he wished to exclude the divine providence. But when
he saw that a wonderful system of providence is contained in all things
which breathe, what vanity was it (O mischievous one!) to say that
there had been animals of immense size, in which the system of
production ceased!
Since, therefore, all things which we see are
produced with reference to a plan--for nothing but a plan(2) can effect
this very condition of being born--it is manifest that nothing could
have been born without a plan. For it was previously foreseen in the
formation of everything, how it should use the service of the limbs for
the necessaries of life; and how the offspring, being produced from the
union of bodies, might preserve all living creatures by their several
species. For if a skilful architect, when he designs to construct
some great building, first of all considers what will be the effect(3)
of the complete building, anti previously ascertains by measurement
what situation is suitable for a light weight, in what place a massive
part of the structure will stand, what will be the intervals between
the columns, what or where will be the descents and outlets of the
falling waters and the reservoirs,--he first, I say, foresees these
things, that he may begin together with the very foundations whatever
things are necessary for the work when now completed,--why should any
one suppose that, in the contrivance of animals, God did not foresee
what things were necessary for living, before giving life itself? For
it is manifest that life could not
exist, unless those things by which it exists were previously
arranged.(4)
Therefore Epicurus saw in the bodies of animals the
skill of a divine plan; but that he might carry into effect that which
he had before imprudently assumed, he added another absurdity agreeing
with the former. For he said that the eyes were not produced for
seeing, nor the ears for hearing, nor the feet for walking, since these
members were produced before there was the exercise of seeing, hearing,
and walking; but that all the offices of these members arose from
hem after their production.(5) I fear lest the refutation of such
extravagant and ridiculous stories should appear to be no less
foolish; but it pleases me to be foolish, since we are dealing with a
foolish man, lest he should think himself too clever.(6) What do you
say, Epicurus? Were not the eyes produced for seeing? Why, then,
do they see? Their use, he says, afterwards showed itself. Therefore
they were produced for the sake of seeing, since they can do
nothing else but see. Likewise, in the case of the other limbs, use
itself shows for what purpose they were produced. For it is plain that
this use could have no existence, unless all the limbs had been made
with such arrangement and foresight, that they might be able to have
their use.
For what if you should say, that birds were not made
to fly, nor wild beasts to rage, nor fishes to swim, nor men to be
wise, when it is evident that living creatures are subject to that
natural disposition and office to which each was created? But it is
evident that he who has lost the main point itself of the truth must
always be in error. For if all things are produced not by providence,
but by a fortuitous meeting together of atoms, why does it never happen
by chance, that those first principles meet together in such a way as
to make an animal of such a kind, that it might rather hear with its
nostrils, smell with its eyes, and see(7) with its ears? For if the
first principles leave no kind of position untried, monstrous
productions of this kind ought daily to have been brought forth, in
which the arrangement of the limbs might be distorted,(8) and the use
far different from that which prevails. But since all the races of
animals, and all the limbs, observe their own laws and arrangements,
and the uses assigned to them, it is plain that nothing is made by
chance, since a perpetual arrangement of the divine plan is preserved.
But we will refute Epicurus at another time. Now let
288
us discuss the subject of providence, as we have begun.
CHAP. VII.--OF ALL THE PARTS OF THE BODY.
God therefore connected and bound together the parts
which strengthen(1) the body, which we call bones, being knotted and
joined to one another by sinews, which the mind might make use of, as
bands,(2) if it should wish to hasten forward or to lag behind; and,
indeed, without any labour or effort, but with a very slight
inclination, it might moderate and guide the mass of the whole body.
But He covered these with the inward organs,(3) as was befitting to
each place, that the parts which were solid might be enclosed and
concealed. Also He mixed with the inward organs, veins as streams
divided through the whole body, through which the moisture and the
blood, running in different directions, might be-dew all the limbs with
the vital juices; and He fashioned these inward organs after that
manner which was befitting to each kind and situation, and covered them
with skin drawn over them, which He either adorned with beauty only, or
covered with thick hair, or fenced with scales, or adorned with
brilliant feathers. But that is a wonderful contrivance of God,
that one arrangement and one state exhibits innumerable varieties of
animals. For in almost all things which breathe there is the same
connection and arrangement of the limbs. For first of all is the
head, and annexed to this the neck; also the breast adjoined to the
neck, and the shoulders projecting from it, the belly adhering to the
breast; also the organs of generation subjoined to the belly; in the
last place, the thighs and feet. Nor do the limbs only keep their own
course and position in all, but also the parts of the limbs. For in the
head itself alone the ears occupy a fixed position the eyes a fixed
position likewise the nostrils, the mouth also, and in it the
teeth and tongue. And though all these things are the same in all
animals, yet there is an infinite and manifold diversity of the
things formed; because those things of which I have spoken, being
either more drawn out or more contracted, are comprehended by
lineaments differing in various ways. What! is not that divine, that in
so great a multitude of living creatures each animal is most excellent
in its own class and species?--so that if any part should be taken from
one to another, the necessary result would be, that nothing would be
more embarrassed for use, nothing more unshapely to look upon; as if
you should give a prolonged neck to an elephant, or a short neck to a
camel;
or if you should attach feet or hair to serpents, in which the length
of the body equally stretched out required nothing else, except that
being marked as to their backs with spots, and supporting themselves by
their smooth scales, with winding courses they should glide into
slippery tracts. But in quadrupeds the same designer lengthened out the
arrangement of the spine, which is drawn out from the top of the head
to a greater length on the outside of the body, and pointed it into a
tail, that the parts of the body which are offensive might either be
covered on account of their unsightliness, or be protected on account
of their tenderness, so that by its motion certain minute and injurious
animals might be driven away from the body; and if you should take away
this member, the animal would be imperfect and weak. But where there is
reason and the hand, that is not so necessary as a covering of hair. To
such an extent are all things most befittingly arranged, each in its
own class, that nothing can be conceived more unbecoming than a
quadruped which is naked, or a man that is covered.
But, however, though nakedness itself on the part of
man tends in a wonderful manner to beauty, yet it was not adapted to
his head; for what great deformity there would be in this, is evident
from baldness. Therefore He clothed the head with hair; and because it
was about to be on the top, He added it as an ornament, as it were, to
the highest summit of the building. And this ornament is not collected
into a circle, or rounded into the figure of a cap, lest it
should be unsightly by leaving some parts bare; but it is freely poured
forth in some places, and with drawn in others, according to the
comeliness of each place. Therefore, the forehead entrenched by a
circumference, and the hair put forth from the temples before the ears,
and the uppermost parts of these being surrounded after the manner of a
crown, and all the back part of the head covered, display an appearance
of wonderful comeliness. Then the nature of the beard contributes in an
incredible degree to distinguish the maturity of bodies, or to the
distinction of sex, or to the beauty of manliness and strength; so that
it appears that the system of the whole work would not have been in
agreement, if anything had been made otherwise than it is.
CHAP. VIII.--OF THE PARTS OF MAN:
THE EYES AND EARS,
Now I will show the plan of the whole man, and will
explain the uses and habits of the several members which are exposed to
view in the body, or concealed. When, therefore, God had determined of
all the animals to make man alone heavenly, and all the rest earthly, He
289
raised him erect(1) to the contemplation of the heaven, and made him a
biped, doubtless that he might look to the same quarter from which he
derives his origin; but He depressed the others to the earth, that,
inasmuch as they have no expectation of immortality, being cast down
with their whole body to the ground, they might be subservient to their
appetite and food. And thus the right reason and elevated position of
man alone, and his countenance, shared with and closely resembling God
his Father, bespeak his origin and Maker.(2) His mind, nearly divine,
because it has obtained the rule not only over the animals which are on
the earth, but even over his own body, being situated in the highest
part, the head, as in a lofty citadel, looks out upon and observes all
things. He formed this its palace, not drawn out and extended, as in
the case of the dumb animals, but like an orb and a globe,
because all(3) roundness belongs to a perfect plan and figure.
Therefore the mind and that divine fire is covered with it,(4) as with
a vault;(5) and when He had covered its highest top with a natural
garment, He alike furnished and adorned the front part which is called
the, face, with the necessary services of the members.
And first, He closed the orbs of the eyes with
concave apertures, from which boring(6)' Varro thought that the
forehead(7) derived its name; and He would have these to be neither
less nor more than two, because no number is more perfect as to
appearance than that of two: as also He made the ears two, the
doubleness(8) of which bears with it an incredible degree of beauty,
both because each part is adorned with a resemblance, and that voices
coming from both sides(9) may more easily be collected. For the form
itself is fashioned after a wonderful manner: because He would not have
their apertures to be naked and uncovered, which would have been
less becoming and less useful; since the voice might fly beyond the
narrow space of simple caverns, and be scattered, did not the apertures
themselves confine it, received through hollow windings and kept back
from reverberation, like those small vessels, by the application
of which narrow-mouthed vessels are accustomed to be filled.
These ears, then, which have their name from
the drinking(10) in of voices, from which Virgil says,(11)
or because the Greeks call the voice itself
<greek>audhn</greek>, from hearing,--the ears (aures) were
named as though audes by the change of a letter,-God would not form of
soft skins, which, hanging down and flaccid, might take away beauty;
nor of hard and solid bones, lest, being stiff and immoveable, they
should be inconvenient for use. But He designed that which might be
between these, that a softer cartilage might bind them, and that they
might have at once a befitting anti flexible firmness. In these the
office of bearing only is placed, as that of seeing is in the
eyes, the acuteness of which is especially inexplicable and wonderful;
for He covered their orbs, presenting the similitude of gems in that
part with which they had to see, with transparent membranes, that the
images of objects placed opposite them, being refracted(12) as in
a mirror, might penetrate to the innermost perception. Through these
membranes, therefore, that faculty which is called the mind sees those
things which are without; lest you should happen to think that we see
either by the striking" of the images, as the philosophers discuss,
since the office of seeing ought to be in that which sees, not in that
which is seen; or in the tension of the air together with the eyesight;
or in the outpouring of the rays: since, if it were so, we should see
the ray towards which we turn with our eyes, until the air, being
extended together with the eyesight, or the rays being poured out,
should arrive at the object which was to be seen.
But since we see at the same moment of time, and for
the most part, while engaged on other business, we nevertheless behold
all things which are placed opposite to us, it is more true and evident
that it is the mind which, through the eves, sees those things which
are placed opposite to it, as though through windows covered with
pellucid crystal or transparent stone;(14) and therefore the mind and
inclination are often known from the eyes. For the refutation of which
Lucretius(15) employed a very senseless argument. For if the mind, he
says, sees through the eye, it would see better if the eyes were torn
out and dug up, inasmuch as doors being torn up together with the
door-posts let in more light than if they were covered. Truly his eyes,
or rather those of Epicurus who taught him, ought to have been dug out,
that they might not see, that the torn-out orbs, and the burst fibres
of the eyes, and the blood flowing through the veins, and the flesh
increasing from wounds, and the scars drawn over at last can admit no
light; unless by chance he would have it that eyes are produced
resembling cars, so that we should see
290
not so much with eyes as with apertures, than which there can be
nothing more unsightly or more useless. For how little should we
be able to see, if from the innermost recesses of the head the mind
should pay attention through Slight fissures of caverns; as, if any one
should wish to look through a stalk of hemlock. he would see no more
than the capability of the stalk itself admitted! For sight, therefore,
it was rather needful that the members should be collected together
into an orb, that the sight might be spread in breadth and the parts
which adjoined them in the front of the face, that they might freely
behold all things. Therefore the unspeakable power of the divine
providence made two orbs most resembling each other, and so bound them
together that they might be able not only to be altogether turned, but
to be moved and directed with moderation.(1) And He willed that the
orbs themselves should be full of a pure and clear moisture, in the
middle part of which sparks of lights might be kept shut up, which we
call the pupils, in which, being pure and delicate, are contained the
faculty and method of seeing. The mind therefore directs itself through
these orbs that it may see, and the sight of both the eyes is mingled
and joined together in a wonderful manner.
CHAP. IX.--OF THE SENSES AND THEIR POWER.
It pleases me in this place to censure the folly of
those who, while they wish to show that the senses are false, collect
many instances in which the eyes are deceived; and among them this
also, that all things appear double to the mad and intoxicated, as
though the cause of that error were obscure. For it happens on this
account, because there are two eyes. But hear how it happens. The sight
of the eyes consists in the exertion of the soul. Therefore, since the
mind, as has been above said, uses the eyes as windows, this happens
not only to those who are intoxicated or mad, but even to those who are
of sound mind, and sober. For if you place any object too near, it will
appear double, for there is a certain interval and space in which the
sight of the eyes meets together. Likewise, if you call the soul back
as if to reflection, and relax the exertion of the mind, then the sight
of each eye is drawn asunder, and they each begin to see separately.
If you, again, exert the mind and direct the
eyesight, whatever appeared double unites into one. What wonder,
therefore, if the mind, impaired by poison anti the powerful influence
of wine, cannot direct itself to seeing, as the feet cannot to walking
when they are weak through the numbness of the sinews, or if the force
of
madness raging against the brain disunites the agreement of the eyes?
Which is so true, that in the case of one-eyed(2) men, if they become
either mad or intoxicated, it can by no means happen that they see any
object double. Wherefore, if the reason is evident why the eyes are
deceived, it is clear that the senses are not false: for they either
are not deceived if they are pure and sound; or if they are deceived,
yet the mind is not deceived which recognises their error.
CHAP. X.--OF THE OUTER
LIMBS OF MAN, AND THEIR USE.
But let us return to the works of God. That the
eyes, therefore, might be better protected from injury, He concealed
them with the coverings of the eyelashes,(3) from which Varro thinks
that the eyes(4) derived their name. For even the eyelids themselves,
in which there is the power of rapid motion, and to which throbbing(5)
gives their name, being protected by hairs standing in order, afford a
most becoming fence to the eyes; the continual motion of which, meeting
with incomprehensible rapidity, does not impede the course of the
sight, and relieves the eyes.(6) For the pupil--that is, the
transparent membrane--which ought not to be drained and to become dry,
unless it is cleansed by continual moisture so that it shines clearly,
loses its power.(7) Why should I speak of the summits of the eyebrows
themselves, furnished with short hair? Do they not, as it were by
mounds, both afford protection to the eyes. so that nothing may fall
into them from above,(8) and at the same time ornament? And the nose,
arising from the confines of these, and stretched out, as it were, with
an equal ridge, at once serves to separate anti to protect the
two eyes. Below also, a not unbecoming swelling of the cheeks, gently
rising after the similitude of hills, makes the eyes safer on every
side; and it has been provided by the great Artificer, that if there
shall happen to be a more violent blow, it may be repelled by the
projecting parts. But the upper part of the nose as far as the middle
has been made solid; but the lower part has been made with a softened
cartilage annexed to it, that it may be pliant(9) to the use of the
fingers. Moreover, in this, though a single member, three offices are
placed: one, that of drawing the breath; the second, that of smelling;
the third, that the secretions of the brain may escape through its
caverns. And in how wonderful, how divine a manner did God
291
contrive these also, so that the very cavity of the nose should not
deform the beauty of the face: which would certainly have been the case
if one single aperture only were open. But He enclosed and divided
that, as though by a wall drawn through the middle, and made it most
beautiful by the very circumstance of its being double.(1) From which
we understand of how much weight the twofold number, made firm by one
simple connection, is to the perfection of things.
For though the body is one, yet the whole could not
be made up of single members, unless it were that there should be parts
on the right hand or on the left. Therefore, as the two feet and also
hands not only avail to some utility and practice either of walking or
of doing something, but also bestow an admirable character and
comeliness; so in the head, which is, as it were, the crown of the
divine work, the hearing has been divided by the great Artificer into
two ears, and the sight into two eyes, and the smelling into two
nostrils, because the brain, in which is contained the system of the
sensation, although it is one, yet is divided into two parts by the
intervening membrane. But the heart also, which appears to be the abode
of wisdom, although it is one, yet has two recesses within, in which
are contained the living fountains of blood, divided by an intervening
barrier: that as in the world itself the chief control, being twofold
from simple matter, or simple from a twofold matter, governs and keeps
together the whole; so in the body, all the parts, being constructed of
two, might present an inseparable unity. Also how useful and how
becoming is the appearance and the opening of the mouth transversely
cannot be expressed; the use of which consists in two offices, that of
taking food and speaking.
The tongue enclosed within, which by its motions
divides the voice into words, and is the interpreter of the mind,
cannot, however, by itself alone fulfil the office of speaking, unless
it strikes its edge against the palate, unless aided by striking
against the teeth or by the compression of the lips. The teeth,
however, contribute more to speaking: for infants do not begin to speak
before they have teeth; and old men, when they have lost their teeth,
so lisp that they appear to have returned afresh to infancy. But these
things relate to man alone, or to birds, in which the tongue, being
pointed and vibrating with fixed motions, expresses innumerable
in-flexions of songs and various kinds of sounds. It has, moreover,
another office also, which it exercises in all, and this alone in the
dumb animals, that it collects the food when bruised and ground by the
teeth, and by its force presses it down when collected into bails, and
transmits it to the belly. Accordingly, Varro thinks that the name of
tongue was given to it from binding(2) the food. It also assists the
beasts in drinking: for with the tongue stretched out and hollowed they
draw water; and when they have taken it in the hollow(3) of the tongue,
lest by slowness and delay it should flow away, they dash(4) it against
the palate with swift rapidity. This, therefore, is covered by the
concave part of the palate as by a shell,(5) and God has surrounded it
with the enclosure of the teeth as with a wall.
But He has adorned the teeth themselves, which are
arranged in order in a wonderful manner, lest, being bare and
exposed,(6) they should be a terror rather than an ornament, with soft
gums, which are so named from producing teeth, and then with the
coverings of the lips; and the hardness of the teeth, as in a
millstone, is greater and rougher than in the other bones, that they
might be sufficient for bruising the food and pasture. But how
befittingly has He divided(7) the lips themselves, which as it were
before were united! the upper of which, under the very middle of the
nostrils, He has marked with a kind of slight cavity, as with a valley:
He has gracefully spread out(8) the lower for the sake of beauty. For,
as far as relates to the receiving of flavour, he is deceived, whoever
he is, who thinks that this sense resides in the palate; for it is the
tongue by which flavours are perceived, and not the whole of it: for
the parts of it which are more tender on either side, draw in the
flavour with the most delicate perceptions. And though nothing is
diminished from that which is eaten or drunk, yet the flavour in an
indescribable manner penetrates to the sense, in the same way in which
the taking of the smell detracts nothing from any material.
And how beautiful the other parts are can scarcely
be expressed. The chin, gently drawn down from the cheeks, and the
lower part of it so closed that the lightly imprinted division appears
to mark its extreme point: the neck stiff and well rounded: the
shoulders let down as though by gentle ridges from the neck: the
fore-arms(9) powerful, and braced(10) by sinews for firmness: the great
strength of the upper-arms(11) standing out with remarkable muscles:
the useful and becoming bending of the elbows. What shall I say of the
hands, the ministers of reason and wisdom? Which the most skilful
Creator made with a flat and moderately concave bend, that if
292
anything was to be held, it might conveniently rest upon them, and
terminated them in the fingers; in which it is difficult to explain
whether the appearance or the usefulness is greater. For the perfection
and completeness of their number, and the comeliness of their order and
gradation, and the flexible bending of the equal joints, and the round
form of the nails, comprising and strengthening the tips of the fingers
with concave coverings, lest the softness of the flesh should yield in
holding any object, afford great adornment. But this is convenient for
use, in wonderful ways, that one separated from the rest rises together
with the hand itself, and is enlarged(1) in a different direction,
which, offering itself as though to meet the others, possesses all the
power of holding and doing either alone, or in a special manner, as the
guide and director of them all; from which also it received the name of
thumb,(2) because it prevails among the others by force and power. It
has two joints standing out, not as the others, three; but one is
annexed by flesh to the hand for the sake of beauty: for if it had been
with three joints, and itself separate, the foul and unbecoming
appearance would have deprived the hand of all grace.
Again, the breadth of the breast, being elevated,
and exposed to the eyes, displays a wonderful dignity of its condition;
of which this is the cause, that God appears to have made man only, as
it were, reclining with his face upward: for scarcely any other animal
is able to lie upon its back. But He appears to have formed the dumb
animals as though lying on one side, and to have pressed them to the
earth. For this reason He gave them a narrow breast, and removed from
sight, and prostrate(3) towards the earth. But He made that of man open
and erect, because, being full of reason given from heaven, it was not
befitting that it should be humble or unbecoming. The nipples also
gently rising, and crowned with darker and small orbs, add something of
beauty; being given to females for the nourishment of their young, to
males for grace only, that the breast might not appear mis-shapen, and,
as it were, mutilated. Below this is placed the fiat surface of the
belly, about the middle of which the navel distinguishes by a not
unbecoming mark, being made for this purpose, that through it the
young, while it is in the womb, may be nourished.
CHAP. XI.--OF TITLE INTESTINES IN MAN, AND
THEIR USE.
It necessarily follows that I should begin to speak
of the inward parts also, to which has been assigned not beauty,
because they are con-cealed from view, but incredible utility, since it
was necessary that this earthly body should be nourished with some
moisture from food and drink, as the earth itself is by showers and
frosts. The most provident Artificer placed in the middle of it a
receptacle for articles of food, by means of which, when digested and
liquefied, it might distribute the vital juices to all the members. But
since man is composed of body and soul, that receptacle of which I have
spoken above affords nourishment only to the body; to the soul, in
truth, He has given another abode. For He has made a kind of intestines
soft and thin,(4) which we call the lungs, into which the breath might
pass by an alternate interchange;(5) and He did not form this after the
fashion of the uterus, lest the breath should all at once be poured
forth, or at once inflate it. And on this account He did not make it a
full intestine,(6) but capable of being inflated, and admitting the
air, so that it might gradually receive the breath; while the vital air
is spread through that thinness, and might again gradually give it
back, while it spreads itself forth from it: for the very alternation
of blowing and breathing,(7) and the process of respiration, support
life in the body.
Since, therefore, there are in man two
receptacles,--one of the air which nourishes the soul,(8) the other of
the food which nourishes the body,--there must be two tubes(9) through
the neck for food, and for breath, the upper of which leads from the
mouth to the belly, the lower from the nostrils to the lungs. And the
plan and nature of these are different: for the passage which is from
the mouth has been made soft, and which when closed always adheres(10)
to itself, as the month itself; since drink and food, being corporeal,
make for themselves a space for passage, by moving aside and opening
the gullet. The breath, on the other hand, which is incorporeal and
thin, because it was unable to make for itself a space, has received an
open way, which is called the windpipe. This is composed of flexible
and soft bones, as though of rings fitted together after the manner of
a hemlock stalk,(11) and adhering together; and this passage is always
open. For the breath can have no cessation in passing; because it,
which is always passing to and fro, is checked as by a kind of obstacle
through means of a portion of a member usefully sent down from the
brain, and which is called the uvula, lest, drawn by pestilential air,
293
it should come with impetuosity and spoil the slightness(1) of its
abode, or bring the whole violence of the injury upon the inner
receptacles. And on this account also the nostrils are slightly open,
which are therefore so named, because either smell or breath does not
cease to flow(2) through these, which are, as it were, the doors of
this tube. Yet this breathing-tube lies open(3) not only to the
nostrils, but also to the mouth in the extreme regions of the palate,
where the risings of(4) the jaws, looking towards the uvula, begin to
raise themselves into a swelling. And the reason of this arrangement is
not obscure: for we should not have the power of speaking if the
windpipe were open to the nostrils only, as the path of the gullet is
to the mouth only; nor could the breath proceeding from it cause the
voice, without the service of the tongue.
Therefore the divine skill opened a way for the
voice from that breathing-tube, so that the tongue might be able to
discharge its office, and by its strokes divide into words the even s
course of the voice itself. And this passage, if by any means it is
intercepted, must necessarily cause dumbness. For he is assuredly
mistaken, whoever thinks that there is any other cause why men are
dumb. For they are not tongue-tied, as is commonly believed; but they
pour forth that vocal breath through the nostrils, as though
bellowing,(6) because there is either no passage at all for the voice
to the mouth, or it is not so open as to be able to send forth the full
voice. And this generally comes to pass by nature; sometimes also it
happens by accident that this entrance is blocked up and does not
transmit the voice to the tongue, and thus makes those who can speak
dumb. And when this happens, the hearing also must necessarily be
blocked up; so that because it cannot emit the voice, it is also
incapable of admitting it. Therefore this passage has been opened for
the purpose of speaking. It also affords this advantage, that in
frequenting the bath,(7) because the nostrils are not able to endure
the heat, the hot air is taken in by the mouth; also, if phlegm
contracted by cold shall have happened to stop up the breathing pores
of the nostrils, we may be able to draw the air through the mouth,
lest, if the passage s should be obstructed, the breath should be
stifled. But the food being received into the stomach, and
mixed with the moisture of the drink, when it has now been digested by
the heat, its juice, being in an indescribable manner diffused through
the limbs, bedews and invigorates the whole body.
The manifold coils also of the intestines, and their
length rolled together on themselves, and yet fastened with one band,
are a wonderful work of God. For when the stomach has sent forth from
itself the food softened, it is gradually thrust forth through those
windings of the intestines, so that whatever of the moisture by which
the body is nourished is in them, is divided to all the members. And
yet, lest in any place it should happen to adhere and remain fixed,
which might have taken place on account of the turnings of the
coils,(9) which often turn back to themselves, and which could not have
happened without injury, He has spread over(10) these from within a
thicker juice, that the secretions of the belly might more easily work
their way through the slippery substance to their outlets. It is also a
most skilful arrangement, that the bladder, which birds do not use,
though it is separated from the intestines, and has no tube by which it
may draw the urine from them, is nevertheless filled and distended with
moisture. And it is not difficult to see how this comes to pass. For
the parts of the intestines which receive the food and drink from the
belly are more open than the other coils, and much more delicate. These
entwine themselves around and encompass the bladder; and when the meat
and the drink have arrived at these parts in a mixed state, the
excrement becomes more solid, and passes through, but all the moisture
is strained through those tender parts,(11) and the bladder, the
membrane of which is equally fine and delicate, absorbs and collects
it, so as to send it forth where nature has opened an outlet.
CHAP. XII.--DE UTERO, ET CONCEPTIONE ATQUE
SEXIBUS.(12)
De utero quoque et conceptione, quoniam de internis
loquimur, dici necesse est, ne quid praeterisse videamur; quae quamquam
in operto latent, sensum tamen atque intelligentiam latere non possunt.
Vena in maribus, quae seminium continet, duplex est, paulo interior,
quam illud humoris obscoeni receptaculum. Sicut enim renes duo sunt,
itemque testes, ita et venae seminales duae, in una tamen compage
cohaerentes; quod videmus in corporibus animalium, cum interfecta(13)
patefiunt. Sed illa dexterior masculinum continet semen, sinisterior
foemininum; et omnino in toto corpore pars dextra masculina est,
sinistra veto foeminina. Ipsum semen quidam putant ex medullis tantum,
qui-
294
dam ex omni corpore ad venam genitalem confluere, ibique concrescere.
Sed hoc, humana mens, quomodo fiat, non potest comprehendere. Item in
foeminis uterus in duas se dividit partes, quae in diversum diffussae
ac reflexae, circumplicantur, sicut arietis cornua. Quae pars in
dextram retorquetur, masculina est; quae in sinistram, foeminina.
Conceptum igitur Varro et Aristoteles sic fieri
arbitrantur. Aiunt non tantum maribus inesse semen, verum etiam
foeminis, et inde plerumque matribus similes procreari; sed earum
semen sanguinem esse purgatum, quod si recte cum virili mixture
sit, utraque concreta et simul co-agulata informari: et primum quidem
cor hominis effingi, quod in eo sit et vita omnis et sapientia; denique
totum opus quadragesimo die consummari. Ex abortionibus haec fortasse
collecta sunt. In avium tamen foetibus primurn oculos fingi dubium non
est, quod in ovis saepe deprehendimus. Unde fieri non posse arbitror
quin fictio a capite sumat exordium.
Similitudines autem in corporibus filiorum sic fieri
putant. Cum semina inter se permixta coalescunt, si virile superaverit,
patri similem provenire, seu marem, seu foeminam; si muliebre
praevaluerit, progeniem cujusque sexus ad imaginem respondere maternam.
Id autem praevalet e duobus, quod fuerit uberius; alterum enim
quodammodo amplectitur et includit: hinc plerumque fled, ut unius
tantum lineamenta praetendat. Si vero aequa fuerit ex pari semente
permixtio, figuras quoque misceri, ut soboles illa communis aut neutrum
referre videatur, quia totum ex altero non habet; aut utrumque, quia
partem de singulis mutuata est. Nam in cor-poribus animalium videmus
aut confundi parentum colores, ac fieri tertium neutri generantium
simile; aut utriusque sic exprimi, ut discoloribus membris per omne
corpus concors mixtura varietur. Dispares quoque naturae hoc modo fieri
putantur. Cum forte in laevam uteri partem masculinae stirpis semen
inciderit, marem quidem gigni opinatio est; sed quia sit in foeminina
parte conceptus, aliquid in se habere foemineum, supra quam decus
virile patiatur; vel formam insignem, vel nimium candorem, vel
cor-poris levitatem, vel artus delicatos, vel staturam brevem, vel
vocem gracilem, vel animum imbecillum, vel ex his plura. Item, si
partem in dextram semen foeminini sexus influxerit, foeminam quidem
procreari; sed quoniam in masculina parte concepta sit, habere in se
aliquid virilita-tis, ultra quam sexus; ratio permittat; aut valida
membra, aut immoderatam Iongitudinem, aut fuscum colorem, aut hispidam
faciem, aut vulture indecorum, aut vocem robustam, aut animum audacem,
aut ex his plura.
Si vero masculinum in dexteram, foemininum in
sinistram pervenerit, utrosque foetus recte provenire; ut et foeminis
per omnia naturae suae decus constet, et maribus tam mente, quam
corpore robur virile servetur. Istud vero ipsum quam mirabile
institutum Dei, quod ad conservationem generum singulorum, duos sexus
maris ac foeminae machinatus est; quibus inter se per voluptatis
illecebras copulatis, successiva soboles pareretur, ne omne genus
viventium conditio mortalitatis extingueret. Sed plus roboris maribus
attributum est, quo facilius ad patientiam jugi maritalis foeminae
cogerentur. Vir itaque nominatus est, quod major in eo vis est, quire
in foemina; et hinc virtus nomen accepit. Item mulier (ut Varro
interpretatur) a mollitie, immutata et detracta littera, velut mollier;
cui suscepto foetu, cum partus appropinquare jam coepit, turgescentes
mammae dulcibus succis distenduntur, et ad nutrimenta nascentis
fontibus lacteis foecundum pectus exuberat. Nec enim decebat aliud quam
ut sapiens animal a corde alimoniam duceret. Idque ipsum solertissime
comparatum est, ut candens ac pinguis humor teneritudinem novi corporis
irrigaret, donec ad capiendos fortiores cibos, et dentibus instruatur,
et viribus roboretur. Sed redeamus ad propositum, ut caetera, quae
supersunt, breviter explicemus.
CHAP. XIII.--OF THE LOWER MEMBERS.
Poteram nunc ego ipsorum quoque genitalium membrorum
mirificam rationem tibi exponere, nisi me pudor ab hujusmodi sermone
revocaret: itaque a nobis indumento verecundiae, quae sunt pudenda
velentur. Quod ad hanc rem attinet, queri satis est, homines impios ac
profanos summum nefas admittere, qui divinum et admirabile Dei opus, ad
propagandam successionem inexcogitabili ratione provisum et effectum,
vel ad turpissimos quaestus, vel ad obscoenae libidinis pudenda opera
convertunt, ut jam nihil aliud ex re sanctissima petant, quam inanem et
sterilem voluptatem.
How is it with respect to the other parts of the
body? Are they without order and beauty? The flesh rounded off into the
hates, how adapted to the office of sitting! and this also more firm
than in the other limbs, lest by the pressure of the bulk of the body
it should give way to the bones. Also the length of the thighs drawn
out, and strengthened by broader muscles, in order that it might more
easily sustain the weight of the body; and as this is gradually
contracted, it is bounded(1) by the knees, the comely joints(2) of
which supply a bend which is most adapted for walking and sitting. Also
the legs not drawn out in an equal manner, lest an unbecoming figure
should deform the feet; but they are at once strengthened and adorned by
295
well-turned(1) calves gently standing out and gradually diminishing.
But in the soles of the feet there is the same plan
as in the hands, but yet very different: for since these are, as it
were, the foundations of the whole body,(2) the admirable Artificer has
not made them of a round appearance, lest man should be unable to
stand, or should need other feet for standing, as is the case
with quadrupeds; but He has formed them of a longer and more extended
shape, that they might make the body firm by their flatness,(3) from
which circumstance their name was given to them. The toes are of the
same number with the fingers, for the sake of appearance rather than
utility; and on this account they are both joined together, and short,
and put together by gradations; and that which is the greatest of
these, since it was not befitting that it should be separated from the
others, as in the hand, has been so arranged in order, that it appears
to differ from the others m magnitude and the small space which
intervenes. This beautiful union(4) of them strengthens the pressure of
the feet with no slight aid; for we cannot be excited to running,
unless, our toes being pressed against the ground, and resting upon the
soil, we take an impetus and a spring. I appear to have explained all
things of which the plan is capable of being understood. I now come to
those things which are either doubtful or obscure.
CHAP. XIV.--OF THE UNKNOWN PURPOSE OF SOME
OF THE INTESTINES.
It iS evident that there are many things in the
body, the force and purpose of which no one can perceive but He who
made them. Can any one suppose that he is able to relate what is the
advantage, and what the effect, of that slight transparent membrane by
which the stomach is netted over and covered? What the twofold
resemblance of the kidneys? which Varro says are so named because
streams of foul moisture arise from these; which is far from being the
case, because, rising on either side of the spine, they are united, and
are separated from the intestines. What is the use of the spleen? What
of the liver? Organs which appear as it were to be made up(5) of
disordered blood. What of the very bitter moisture of the gall? What of
the heart? unless we shall happen to think that they ought to be
believed, who think that the affection of anger is placed in the gall,
that of fear in the heart, of joy in the spleen. But they will have it
that the office of the liver is, by its embrace and heat, to digest the
food in the stomach; some think that the desires of the amorous
passions are contained in the liver.
First of all, the acuteness of the human sense is
unable to perceive these things, because their offices lie concealed;
nor, when laid open, do they show their uses. For, if it were so,
perhaps the more gentle animals would either have no gall at all, or
less than the wild beasts; the more timid ones would have more heart,
the more lustful would have more liver, the more playful more spleen.
As, therefore, we perceive that we bear with our ears, that we see with
our eyes, that we smell with our nostrils; so assuredly we should
perceive that we are angry with the gall, that we desire with the
liver, that we rejoice with the spleen. Since, therefore, we do not at
all perceive from what part those affections come, it is possible that
they may come from another source, and that those organs may have a
different effect to that which we suppose. We cannot prove, however,
that they who discuss these things speak falsely. But I think that all
things which relate to the motions of the mind and soul, are of so
obscure and profound a nature, that it is beyond the power of man to
see through them clearly. This, however, ought to be sure and
undoubted, that so many objects and so many organs have one and the
same office--to retain the soul in the body. But what office is
particularly assigned to each, who can know, except the Designer, to
whom alone His own work is known?
CHAP. XV.--OF THE VOICE.
But what account can we give of the voice?
Grammarians, indeed, and philosophers, define the voice to be air
struck by the breath; from which words(6) derive their name:
which is plainly false. For the voice is not produced outside of the
mouth, but within, and therefore that opinion is more probable, that
the breath, being compressed, when it has struck against the obstacle
presented by the throat, forces out the sound of the voice: as when we
send down the breath into an open hemlock stalk, having applied it to
the lips, and the breath, reverberating from the hollow of the stalk,
and rolled back from the bottom, while it returns(7) to that descending
through meeting with itself, striving for an outlet, produces a sound;
and the wind, rebounding by itself, is animated into vocal breath. Now,
whether this is true, God, who is the designer, may see. For the voice
appears to arise not from the mouth, but from the innermost breast. In
fine, even when the mouth is closed, a sound such as is possible is
emitted from the nostrils.
296
Moreover, also, the voice is not affected by that greatest breath with
which we gasp, but with a light and not compressed breath, as often as
we wish. It has not therefore been comprehended in what manner it takes
place, or what it is altogether. And do not imagine that I am now
failing into the opinion of the Academy, for all things are not
incomprehensible. For as it must be confessed that many things
are unknown, since God has willed that they should exceed the
understanding of man; so, however, it must be acknowledged that there
are many which may
both be perceived by the senses and comprehended by the reason. But we
shall devote an entire treatise to the refutation of the philosophers.
Let us therefore finish the course over which we are now running.
CHAP. XVI.--OF THE MIND AND ITS SEAT.
That the nature of the mind is also
incomprehensible, who can be ignorant, but he who is altogether
destitute of mind, since it is not known in what place the mind is
situated, or of what nature it is? Therefore various things have been
discussed by philosophers concerning its nature and place. But I will
not conceal what my own sentiments are: not that I should affirm that
it is so--for in a doubtful matter it is the part of a foolish person
to do this ; but that when I have set forth the difficulty of the
matter, you may understand how great is the magnitude off the divine
works. Some would have it, that the seat of the mind is in the
breast. But if this is so, how wonderful is it, that a faculty which is
situated in an obscure and dark habitation should be employed in so
great a light of reason and intelligence; then that the senses
from every part of the body come together to it, so that it
appears to be present in any quarter of the limbs ! Others have said
that its seat is in the brain : and, indeed, they have used probable
arguments, saying that it was doubtless befitting that that which had
the government of the whole body should especially have its abode in
the highest place, as though in the citadel of the body; and that
nothing should be in a more elevated position than that which governs
the whole by reason,: just as the Lord Himself, and Ruler of the
universe, is in the highest place. Then they say, that the organs which
are the ministers of each sense, that is, of hearing, and seeing,
and smelling, are situated in the head, and that the channels of all
these lead not to the breast, but to the brain: otherwise we must be
more slow in the exercise of our senses, until the power of sensation
by a long course should descend through the neck even to the breast.
These, in truth, do not greatly err, or perchance not at all. For the
mind, which exercises control over the body, appears to be placed
in the highest part, the head, as God is in heaven; but when it is
engaged in any reflection, it appears to pass to the breast, and, as it
were, to withdraw to some secret recess, that it may elicit and draw
forth counsel, as it were, from a hidden treasury. And therefore, when
we are intent upon reflection, and when the mind, being occupied, has
withdrawn itself to the inner depth,(1) we are accustomed neither to
hear the things which sound about us, nor to see the things which stand
in our way. But whether this is the case, it is assuredly a matter of
admiration how this takes place, since there is no passage from the
brain to the breast. But if it is not so, nevertheless it is no less a
matter of admiration that, by some divine plan or other, it is caused
that it appears to be so. Can any fail to admire that that living and
heavenly faculty which is called the mind or the soul, is of such
volubility(2) that it does not rest even then when it is asleep; of
such rapidity, that it surveys the whole heaven at one moment of time;
and, if it wills, flies over seas, traverses lands and
cities,--in short, places in its own sight all things which it
pleases, however far and widely they are removed?
And does any one wonder if the divine mind of God,
being extended(3) through all parts of the universe, runs to and fro,
and rules all things, governs all things, being everywhere present,
everywhere diffused; when the strength and power of the human mind,
though enclosed within a mortal body, is so great, that it can in no
way be restrained even by the barriers of this heavy and slothful body,
to which it is bound, froth bestowing upon itself, in its impatience of
rest, the power of wandering without restraint? Whether, therefore, the
mind has its dwelling in the head or in the breast, can any one
comprehend what power of reason effects, that that incomprehensible
faculty either remains fixed in the marrow of the brain, or in that
blood divided into two parts(4) which is enclosed in the heart; and not
infer from this very circumstance how great is the power of God,
because the soul does not see itself, or of what nature or where it is;
and if it did see, yet it would not be able to perceive in what manner
an incorporeal substance is united with one which is corporeal? Or if
the mind has no fixed locality, but runs here and there scattered
through the whole body,--which is possible, and was asserted by
Xenocrates, the disciple of Plato,--then, inasmuch as intelligence is
present in every part of
297
the body, it cannot be understood what that mind is, or what its
qualities are, since its nature is so subtle and refined, that, though
infused into solid organs by a living and, as it were, ardent
perception, it is mingled with all the members.
But take care that you never think it probable, as
Aristoxenus said, that the mind has no existence, but that the power of
perception exists from the constitution of the body and the
construction of the organs, as harmony does in the case of the lyre.
For musicians call the stretching and sounding of the strings to entire
strains, without any striking of notes in agreement with them, harmony.
They will have it, therefore, that the soul in man exists in a manner
like that by which harmonious modulation exists on the lyre; namely,
that the firm uniting of the separate parts of the body and the vigour
of all the limbs agreeing together, makes that perceptible motion, and
adjusts(1) the mind, as well-stretched things produce harmonious sound.
And as, in the lyre, when anything has been interrupted or relaxed, the
whole method of the strain is disturbed and destroyed; so in the body,
when any part of the limbs receives an injury, the whole are weakened,
and all being corrupted and thrown into confusion, the power of
perception is destroyed: and this is called death. But he, if he had
possessed any mind, would never have transferred harmony from the lyre
to man. For the lyre cannot of its own accord send forth a sound, so
that there can be in this any comparison and resemblance to a living
person; but the soul both reflects and is moved of its own accord. But
if there were in us anything resembling harmony, it would be moved by a
blow from without, as the strings of the lyre are by the hands; whereas
without the handling of the artificer, and the stroke of the fingers,
they lie mute and motionless. But doubtless he(2) ought to have beaten
by the hand, that he might at length observe; for his mind, badly
compacted From his members, was in a state of torpor.
CHAP.XVII.--OF THE SOUL, AND THE OPINION OF PHILOSOPHERS CONCERNING IT.
It remains to speak of the soul, although its system
and nature cannot be perceived. Nor, therefore, do we fail to
understand that the soul. is immortal, since whatever is vigorous and
is in motion by itself at all times, and cannot be seen or touched,
must he eternal. But what the soul is, is not yet agreed upon by
philosophers, and perhaps will never be agreed upon. For some have said
that it is blood, others that it is fire, others wind, from which it
has received its name of anima, or animus, because in Greek the wind is
called anemos(3) and yet none of these appears to have spoken anything.
For if the soul appears to be extinguished when the blood is poured
forth through a wound, or is exhausted by the heat of fevers, it does
not therefore follow that the system of the soul is to be placed in the
material of the blood; as though a question should arise as to the
nature of the light which we make use of, and the answer should be
given that it is oil, for when that is consumed the light is
extinguished: since they are plainly different, but the one is the
nourishment of the other. Therefore the soul appears to be like light,
since it is not itself blood, but is nourished by the moisture of the
blood, as light is by oil.
But they who have supposed it to be fire made use of
this argument, that when the soul is present the body is warm, but on
its departure the body grows cold. But fire is both without perception
and is seen, and burns when touched. But the soul is both endowed with
perception and cannot be seen, and does not burn. From which it is
evident that the soul is something like God. But they who suppose that
it is wind are deceived by this, because we appear to live by drawing
breath from the air. Varro gives this definition: "The soul is air
conceived in the mouth, warmed in the lungs, heated in the heart,
diffused into the body." These things are most plainly false. For I say
that the nature of things of this kind is not so obscure, that we do
not even understand what cannot be true. If any one should say to me
that the heaven is of brass, or crystal, or, as Empedocles says, that
it is frozen air, must I at once assent because I do not know of what
material the heaven is? For as I know not this, I know that. Therefore
the soul is not air conceived in the mouth, because the soul is
produced much before air can be conceived in the mouth. For it is not
introduced into the body after birth, as it appears to some
philosophers, but immediately alter conception, when the divine
necessity has formed the offspring in the womb; for it so lives within
the bowels of its mother, that it is increased in growth, and delights
to bound with repeated beatings. In short, there must be a miscarriage
if the living young within shall die. The other parts of the definition
have reference to this, that during those nine months in which we were
in the womb we appear to have been dead. None, therefore. of these
three opinions is true. We cannot, however, say that they who held
these sentiments were false to such an extent that they said nothing at
all; for we live at once by the blood, and heat, and breath. But since
the soul
298
exists in the body by the union of all these, they did not express what
it was in its own proper sense;(1) for as it cannot be seen, so it
cannot be expressed.
CHAP. XVIII.--OF THE SOUL AND THE MIND, AND
THEIR AFFECTIONS.
There follows another, and in itself an inexplicable
inquiry: Whether the soul and the mind are the same, or there be one
faculty by which we live, and another by which we perceive and have
discernment.(2) There are not wanting arguments on either side. For
they who say that they are one faculty make use of this argument, that
we cannot live without perception, nor perceive without life, and
therefore that that which is incapable of separation cannot be
different; but that whatever it is, it has the office of living and the
method of perception. On which account two(3) Epicurean poets speak of
the mind and the soul indifferently. But they who say that they are
different argue in this way: That the mind is one thing, and the soul
another, may be understood from this, that the mind may be extinguished
while the soul is uninjured, which is accustomed to happen in the case
of the insane; also, that the soul is put to rest(4) by death, the mind
by sleep, and indeed in such a manner that it is not only ignorant of
what is taking place,(5) or where it is, but it is even deceived by the
contemplation of false objects. And how this takes place cannot
accurately be perceived; why it takes place can be perceived. For we
can by no means rest unless the mind is kept occupied by the
similitudes(6) of visions. But the mind lies hid, oppressed with sleep,
as fire buried(7) by ashes drawn over it; but if you stir it a little
it again blazes, and, as it were, wakes up.(8) Therefore it is called
away by images,(9) until the limbs, bedewed with sleep, are
invigorated; for the body while the perception is awake, although
it lies motionless, yet is not at rest, because the perception burns in
it, and vibrates as a flame, and keeps all the limbs bound to
itself. But when the mind is transferred from its application to
the contemplation of images, then at length the whole body is resolved
into rest. But the mind is transferred from dark thought, when, under
the influence of darkness, it has begun to be alone with itself. While
it is intent upon those things concerning which it is reflecting, sleep
suddenly creeps on, and the thought itself imperceptibly turns aside to
the nearest appearances:(10) thus it begins also to see those things
which it had placed before its eyes. Then it proceeds further, and
finds diversions(11) for itself, that it may not interrupt the most
healthy repose of the body. For as the mind is diverted in the day by
true sights, so that it does not sleep; so is it diverted in the night
by false sights, so that it is not aroused. For if it perceives no
images, it will follow of necessity either that it is awake, or that it
is asleep in perpetual death. Therefore the system of dreaming has been
given by God for the sake of sleeping; and, indeed, it has been given
to all animals in common; but this especially to man, that when God
gave this system on account of rest, He left to Himself the power of
teaching man future events by means of the dream.(12) For narratives
often testify that there have been dreams which have had an immediate
and a remarkable accomplishment,(13) and the answers of our prophets
have been after the character of a dream.(14) On which account they are
not always true, nor always false, as Virgil testified,(15) who
supposed that there were two gates for the passage of dreams. But those
which are false are seen for the sake of sleeping; those which are true
are sent by God, that by this revelation we may learn impending goods
or evils.
CHAP. XIX.--OF THE SOUL, AND IT GIVEN BY GOD.
A question also may arise respecting this, whether
the soul is produced from the father, or rather from the mother, or
indeed from both. But I think that this judgment is to be formed as
though in a doubtful matter.(16) For nothing is true of these three
opinions, because souls are produced neither from both nor from either.
For a body may be produced from a body, since something is contributed
from both; but a soul cannot be produced from souls, because nothing
can depart from a slight and incomprehensible subject. Therefore the
manner of the production of souls belongs entirely to God alone.
"In fine, we are all sprung from a heavenly seed, all all have that
sameFather."
as Lucretius(17) says. For nothing but what is mortal can be generated
from mortals. Nor ought he to be deemed a father who in no way
299
perceives that he has transmitted or breathed a soul from his own; nor,
if he perceives it, comprehends in his mind when or in what manner that
effect is produced.
From this it is evident that souls are not given by
parents, but by one and the same God and Father of all, who alone has
the law and method of their birth, since He alone produces them. For
the part of the earthly parent is nothing more than with a sense of
pleasure to emit the moisture of the body, in which is the material of
birth, or to receive it; and to this work man's power is limited,(1)
nor has he any further power. Therefore men wish for the birth of sons,
because they do not themselves bring it about. Everything beyond this
is the work of God,--namely, the conception itself, and the moulding of
the body, and the breathing in of life, and the bringing forth in
safety, and whatever afterwards contributes to the preservation of man:
it is His gift that we breathe, that we live, and are vigorous. For,
besides that we owe it to His bounty that we are safe in body, and that
He supplies us with nourishment from various sources, He also gives to
man wisdom, which no earthly father can by any means give; and
therefore it often happens that foolish sons are born from wise
parents, and wise sons from foolish parents, which some persons
attribute to fate and the stars. But this is not now the time to
discuss the subject of fate. It is sufficient to say this, that even if
the stars hold together the efficacy of all things, it is nevertheless
certain that all things are done by God, who both made and set in order
the stars themselves. They are therefore senseless who detract this
power from God, and assign it to His work.
He would have it, therefore, to be in our own power,
whether we use or do not use this divine and excellent gift of God.
For, having granted this, He bound man himself by the mystery(2) of
virtue, by which he might be able to gain life. For great is the power,
great the reason, great the mysterious purpose of man; and if any one
shall not abandon this, nor betray his fidelity and devotedness, he
must be happy: he, in short, to sum up the matter in few words, must of
necessity resemble God. For he is in error whosoever judges of(3)
man by his flesh. For this worthless body(4) with which we are clothed
is the receptacle of man.(5) For man himself, can neither be touched,
nor looked upon, nor grasped, because he lies hidden within this body,
which is seen. And if he shall be more luxurious and delicate in this
life than its nature demands, if he shall despise virtue, and give
himself to the pursuit of fleshly lusts, he will fall and be pressed
down to the earth; but if (as his duty is) he shall readily and
constantly maintain his position, which is right for him, and he has
rightly obtained,(6)--if he shall not be enslaved to the earth, which
he ought to trample upon and overcome, he will gain eternal life.
CHAP. XX.--OF HIMSELF AND THE TRUTH.
These things I have written to you, Demetrianus, for
the present in few words, and perhaps with more obscurity than was
befitting, in accordance with the necessity of circumstances and the
time, with which you ought to be content, since you are about to
receive more and better things if God shall favour us. Then,
accordingly, I will exhort you with greater clearness and truth to the
learning of true philosophy. For I have determined to commit to writing
as many things as I shall be able, which have reference to the
condition of a happy life; and that indeed against the philosophers,
since they are pernicious and weighty for the disturbing of the truth.
For the force of their eloquence is incredible, and their subtlety in
argument and disputation may easily deceive any one; and these we will
refute partly by our own weapons, but partly by weapons borrowed from
their mutual wrangling, so that it may be evident that they rather
introduced error than removed it.
Perhaps you may wonder that I venture to undertake
so great a deed. Shall we then suffer the truth to be extinguished or
crushed? I, in truth, would more willingly fail even under this
burthen. For if Marcus Tullius, the unparalleled example of eloquence
itself, was often vanquished by men void of learning and
eloquence,--who, however, were striving for that which was true,--why
should we despair that the truth itself will by its own peculiar force
and clearness avail against deceitful and captious eloquence? They
indeed are wont to profess themselves advocates of the truth; but who
can defend that which he has not learned, or make clear to others that
which he himself does not know? I seem to promise a great thing; but
there is need of the favour of Heaven, that ability and time may be
given us for following our purpose. But if life is to be wished for by
a wise man, assuredly I should wish to live for no other reason than
that I may effect something which may be worthy of life, and which may
be useful to my readers, if
300
not for eloquence, because there is in me but a slight stream of
eloquence, at any rate for living, which is especially needful. And
when I have accomplished this, I shall think that I have lived enough,
and that I have discharged the duty of a man, if my labour shall have
freed some men from errors, and have directed them to the path which
leads to heaven.
GENERAL NOTE BY THE AMERICAN EDITOR.
Just here I economize a little spare room to note
the cynical Gibbon's ideas about Lactantius and his works. He quotes
him freely, and recognises his Ciceronian Latinity, and even the
elegance of his rhetoric, and the spirit and eloquence with which he
can garnish the "dismal tale" of coming judgments, based on the
Apocalypse. But then, again(1) he speaks of him as an "obscure
rhetorician," and affects a doubt as to his sources of information,
notably in doubting the conversation between Galerius and Diocletian
which forced the latter to abdicate. This is before he decides to
attribute the work on the Deaths of Persecutors to somebody else, or,
rather, to quote its author ambiguously as Caecilius. And here we may
insert what he says on this subject, as follows:--
"It is certain that this . . . was composed and
published while Licinius, sovereign of the East, still preserved the
friendship of Constantine and of the Christians. Every reader of taste
must perceive that the style is of a very different and inferior
character to that of Lactantius; and such, indeed, is the judgment of
Le Clerc(2) and Lardner.(3) Three arguments (from the title of the book
and from the names of Donatus and Caecilius) are produced by the
advocates of Lactantius.(4) Each of these proofs is, singly, weak and
defective; but their concurrence has great weight. I have often
fluctuated, and shall tamely(5) follow the Colbert MS. in calling the
author, whoever he was, Caecilius."
After this the critic adheres to this ambiguity. I
have no wish to argue otherwise. Quite as important are his notes on
the Institutes. He states the probable conjecture of two original
editions,--the one under Diocletian, and the other under Licinius. Then
he says:(6)--
"I am almost convinced that Lactantius dedicated his
Institutions to the sovereign of Gaul at a time when Galerius, Maximin,
and even Licinius, persecuted the Christians; that is, between the
years A.D. 306 and A.D. 311
On the dubious passages(7) he remarks:(8)--
"The first and most important of these is, indeed,
wanting in twenty-eight MSS., but is found in nineteen. If we weigh the
comparative value of those MSS., one, . . . in the King of France's
library,(9) may be alleged in its favour. But the passage is omitted in
the correct MS. of Bologna, which the Pere de Montfaucon(10) ascribes
to the sixth or seventh century. The taste of most of the editors(11)
has felt the genuine style of Lactantius."
Do not many indications point to the natural
suggestion of a third original edition, issued after the conversion of
Constantine? Or the questionable passages may be the interpolations of
Lactantius himself.
301
OF THE MANNER IN WHICH THE PERSECUTORS DIED.(1)
ADDRESSED TO DONATUS.
CHAP. I.
THE Lord has heard those supplications which you, my
best beloved Donatus,(2) pour forth in His presence all the day long,
and the supplications of the rest of our brethren, who by a glorious
confession have obtained an everlasting crown, the reward of their
faith. Behold, all the adversaries are destroyed, and tranquillity
having been re-established throughout the Roman empire, the late
oppressed Church arises again, and the temple of God, overthrown by the
hands of the wicked, is built with more glory than before. For God has
raised up princes to rescind the impious and sanguinary edicts of the
tyrants and provide for the welfare of mankind; so that now the cloud
of past times is dispelled, and peace and serenity gladden all hearts.
And after the, furious whirlwind and black tempest, the heavens
are now become calm, and the wished-for light has shone forth; and now
God, the hearer of prayer, by His divine aid has lifted His prostrate
and afflicted servants from the ground, has brought to an end the
united devices of the wicked, and wiped off the tears from the faces of
those who mourned. They who insulted over the Divinity, lie low; they
who cast down the holy temple, are fallen with more tremendous ruin;
and the tormentors of just men have poured out their guilty souls
amidst plagues inflicted by Heaven, and amidst deserved tortures.
For God delayed to punish them, that, by great and marvellous
examples, He might teach posterity that He alone is God, and that with
fit vengeance He executes judgment on the proud, the impious, and the
persecutors.(3)
Of the end of those men I have thought good to
publish a narrative, that all who are afar off, and all who shall arise
hereafter, may learn how the Almighty manifested His power and
sovereign greatness in rooting out and utterly destroying the enemies
of His name. And this will become evident, when I relate who were the
persecutors of the Church from the time of its first constitution, and
what were the punishments by which the divine Judge, in His severity,
took vengeance on them.
CHAP. II.
In the latter days of the Emperor Tiberius, in the
consulship of Ruberius Geminus and Fufius Geminus, and on the tenth of
the kalends of April,(4) as I find it written, Jesus Christ was
crucified by the Jews.(5) After He bad risen again on the third day, He
gathered together His apostles, whom fear, at the time of His being
laid hold on, had put to flight; and while He sojourned with them forty
days, He opened their hearts, interpreted to them the Scripture, which
hitherto had been wrapped up in obscurity, ordained and fitted them for
the preaching of His word and doctrine, and regulated all things
concerning the institutions of the New Testament; and this having been
accomplished, a cloud and whirlwind enveloped Him, and caught Him up
from the sight of men unto heaven.
His apostles were at that time eleven in number, to
whom were added Matthias, in the room of the traitor Judas, and
afterwards Paul. Then were they dispersed throughout all the earth to
preach the Gospel, as the Lord their Master had commanded them; and
during twenty-five years, and until the beginning of the reign of the
Emperor Nero, they occupied themselves in laying the foundations of the
Church in every province
and city.And while Nero reigned, the Apostle Peter came to Rome, and,
through the power of God committed unto him, wrought certain miracles,
and, by turning many to the true religion, built up a faithful and
stedfast temple
302
unto the Lord. When Nero heard of those things, and observed that not
only in Rome, but in every other place, a great multitude revolted
daily from the worship of idols, and, condemning their old ways, went
over to the new religion, he, an execrable and pernicious tyrant,
sprung forward to raze the heavenly temple and destroy the true faith.
He it was who first persecuted the servants of God; he crucified Peter,
and slew Paul:(1) nor did he escape with impunity; for God looked on
the affliction of His people; and therefore the tyrant, bereaved of
authority, and precipitated from the height of empire, suddenly
disappeared, and even the burial-place of that noxious wild beast was
nowhere to be seen. This has led some persons of extravagant
imagination to suppose that, having been conveyed to a distant region,
he is still reserved alive; and to him they apply the Sibylline verses
concerning
"The fugitive, who slew his own mother, being to come from the
uttermostboundaries of the earth;"
as if he who was the first should also be the last persecutor, and thus
prove the forerunner of Antichrist! But we ought not to believe those
who, affirming that the two prophets Enoch and Elias have been
translated into some remote place that they might attend our Lord when
He shall come to judgment,(2) also fancy that Nero is to appear
hereafter as the forerunner of the devil, when he shall come to lay
waste the earth and overthrow mankind.
CHAP. III.
After an interval of some years from the death of
Nero, there arose another tyrant no less wicked (Domitian), who,
although his government was exceedingly odious, for a very long time
oppressed his subjects, and reigned in security, until at length he
stretched forth his impious hands against the Lord. Having been
instigated by evil demons to persecute the righteous people, he was
then delivered into the power of his enemies, and suffered due
punishment. To be murdered in his own palace was not vengeance ample
enough: the very memory of his name was erased. For although he had
erected many admirable edifices, and rebuilt the Capitol, and left
other distinguished marks of his magnificence, yet the senate did so
persecute his name, as to leave no remains of his statues, or traces of
the inscriptions put up in honour of him; and by most solemn and severe
decrees it branded him, even after death, with perpetual infamy. Thus,
the commands of the tyrant having been rescinded, the Church was not
only restored to her former state, but she shone forth with additional
splendour, and became more and more flourishing. And in the times
that followed, while many well-deserving princes guided the helm of the
Roman empire, the Church suffered no violent assaults from her
enemies, and she extended her hands unto the east and unto the
west, insomuch that now there was not any the most remote corner of the
earth to which the divine religion had not penetrated, or any nation of
manners so barbarous that did not, by being converted to the worship of
God, become mild and gentle.(3)
CHAP. IV.
This long peace,(4) however, was afterwards
interrupted. Decius appeared in the world, an accursed wild beast, to
afflict the Church,-- and who but a bad man would persecute religion?
It seems as if he had been raised to sovereign eminence, at once to
rage against God, and at once to fall; for, having undertaken an
expedition against the Carpi, who had then possessed themselves of
Dacia and Moefia, he was suddenly surrounded by the barbarians, and
slain, together with great part of his army; nor could he be honoured
with the rites of sepulture, but, stripped and naked, he lay to be
devoured by wild beasts and birds,(5)--a fit end for the enemy of God.
CHAP. V.
And presently Valerian also, in a mood alike
frantic, lifted up his impious hands to assault God, and, although his
time was short, shed much righteous blood. But God punished him in a
new and extraordinary manner, that it might be a lesson to future ages
that the adversaries of Heaven always receive the just recompense of
their iniquities. He, having been made prisoner by the Persians, lost
not only that power which he had exercised without moderation, but also
the liberty of which be had deprived others; and he wasted the
remainder of his days in the vilest condition of slavery: for Sapores,
the king of the Persians, who had made him prisoner, whenever he chose
to get into his carriage or to mount on horseback, commanded the Roman
to stoop and present his back; then, setting his foot on the shoulders
of Valerian, he said, with a smile of reproach, "This is true, and not
what the Romans delineate on board or plaster." Valerian lived for a
considerable time under the well-merited insults of his conqueror; so
that the Roman name remained long the scoff and derision of the
barbarians: and this also was added to the severity of his punishment,
that although he had an emperor for his son, he found no one to revenge
his captivity and most abject and ser-
303
vile state; neither indeed was he ever demanded back Afterward,
when he had finished this shameful life under so great dishonour, he
was flayed, and his skin, stripped from the flesh, was dyed with
vermilion, and placed in the temple of the gods of the barbarians, that
the remembrance of a triumph so signal might be perpetuated, and that
this spectacle might always be exhibited to our ambassadors, as an
admonition to the Romans, that, beholding the spoils of their captived
emperor in a Persian temple, they should not place too great confidence
in their own strength.
Now since God so punished the sacrilegious, is it
not strange that any one should afterward have dared to do, or even to
devise, aught against the majesty of the one God, who governs and
supports all things?
CHAP. VI.
Aurelian might have recollected the fate of the
captived emperor, yet, being of a nature outrageous and headstrong, he
forgot both his sin and its punishment, and by deeds of cruelty
irritated the divine wrath. He was not, however, permitted to
accomplish what he had devised; for just as he began to give a loose to
his rage, he was slain. His bloody edicts had not yet reached the more
distant provinces, when he himself lay all bloody on the earth at
Caenophrurium in Thrace, assassinated by his familiar friends, who had
taken up groundless suspicions against him.
Examples of such a nature, and so numerous, ought to
have deterred succeeding tyrants; nevertheless they were not only not
dismayed, but, in their misdeeds against God, became more bold and
presumptuous.
CHAP. VII.
While Diocletian, that author of ill, and deviser of
misery, was ruining all things, he could not withhold his insults, not
even against God. This man, by avarice partly, and partly by timid
counsels, overturned the Roman empire. For he made choice of three
persons to share the government with him; and thus, the empire having
been quartered, armies were multiplied, and each of the four princes
strove to maintain a much more considerable military force than any
sole emperor had done in times past.(1) There began to be fewer men who
paid taxes than there were who received wages; so that the means of the
husbandmen being exhausted by enormous impositions, the farms were
abandoned, cultivated grounds became woodland, and universal dismay
prevailed. Besides, the provinces were divided into minute portions,
and many presidents and a multitude of inferior officers lay heavy on
each territory, and almost on each city. There were also many stewards
of different degrees, and deputies of presidents. Very few civil causes
came before them: but there were condemnations daily, and forfeitures
frequently inflicted; taxes on numberless commodities, and those not
only often repeated, but perpetual, and, in exacting them, intolerable
wrongs.
Whatever was laid on for the maintenance of the
soldiery might have been endured; but Diocletian, through his
insatiable avarice, would never allow the sums of money in his treasury
to be diminished: he was constantly heaping together extraordinary aids
and free gifts, that his original hoards might remain untouched and
inviolable. He also, when by various extortions he had made all things
exceedingly dear, attempted by an ordinance to limit their prices. Then
much blood was shed for the veriest trifles; men were afraid to expose
aught to sale, and the scarcity became more excessive and grievous than
ever, until, in the end, the ordinance, after having proved destructive
to multitudes, was from mere necessity abrogated. To this there were
added a certain endless passion for building, and on that account,
endless exactions from the provinces for furnishing wages to labourers
and artificers, and supplying carriages and whatever else was requisite
to the works which he projected. Here public halls, there a circus,
here a mint, and there a workhouse for making implements of war; in one
place a habitation for his empress, and in another for his daughter.
Presently great part of the city was quitted, and all men removed with
their wives and children, as from a town taken by enemies; and when
those buildings were completed, to the destruction of whole provinces,
he said, "They are not right,
let them be done on another plan." Then they were to be pulled down, or
altered, to undergo perhaps a future demolition. By such folly was he
continually endeavouring to equal Nicomedia with the city Rome in
magnificence.
I omit mentioning how many perished on account of their
possessions or wealth; for such evils were exceedingly frequent, and
through their frequency appeared almost lawful. But this was
peculiar to him, that whenever he saw a field remarkably well
cultivated, or a house of uncommon elegance, a false accusation and a
capital punishment were straightway prepared against the proprietor; so
that it seemed as if Diocletian could not be guilty of rapine without
also shedding blood.
CHAP. VIII.
What was the character of his brother in empire,
Maximian, called Herculius? Not unlike to that of Diocletian;
and, indeed, to render
304
their friendship so close and faithful as it was, there must have been
in them a sameness of inclinations and purposes, a corresponding will
and unanimity in judgment. Herein alone they were different, that
Diocletian was more avaricious and less resolute, and that Maximian,
with less avarice, had a bolder spirit, prone not to good, but to evil.
For while he possessed Italy, itself the chief seat of empire, and
while other very opulent provinces, such as Africa and Spain, were near
at hand, he took little care to preserve those treasures which he had
such fair opportunities of amassing. Whenever he stood in need of more,
the richest senators were presently charged, by suborned evidences, as
guilty of aspiring to the empire; so that the chief luminaries of the
senate were daily extinguished. And thus the treasury, delighting in
blood, overflowed with ill-gotten wealth.
Add to all this the incontinency of that pestilent
wretch, not only in debauching males, which is hateful and abominable,
but also in the violation of the daughters of the principal men of the
state; for wherever he journeyed, virgins were suddenly torn from the
presence of their parents. In such enormities he placed his supreme
delight, and to indulge to the utmost his lust and flagitious desires
was in his judgment the felicity of his reign.
I pass over Constantius, a prince unlike the others,
and worthy to have had the sole government of the empire.
CHAP. IX.
But the other Maximian (Galerius), chosen by
Diocletian for his son-in-law, was worse, not only than those two
princes whom our own times have experienced, but worse than all the bad
princes of former days. In this wild beast there dwelt a native
barbarity and a savageness foreign to Roman blood; and no wonder, for
his mother was born beyond the Danube, and it was an inroad of the
Carpi that obliged her to cross over and take refuge in New Dacia. The
form of Galerius corresponded with his manners. Of stature tall, full
of flesh, and swollen to a horrible bulk of corpulency; by his speech,
gestures, and looks, he made himself a terror to all that came near
him. His father-in-law, too, dreaded him excessively. The cause was
this. Narseus, king of the Persians, emulating the example set him by
his grandfather Sapores, assembled a great army, and aimed at becoming
master of the eastern provinces of the Roman empire. Diocletian, apt to
be low-spirited and timorous in every commotion, and fearing a fate
like that of Valerian, would not in person encounter Narseus; but he
sent Galerius by the way of Armenia, while he himself halted in the
eastern provinces, and anxiously watched the
event. It is a custom amongst the barbarians to take everything that
belongs to them into the field. Galerius laid an ambush for them, and
easily overthrew men embarrassed with the multitude of their followers
and with their baggage. Having put Narseus to flight, and returned with
much spoil, his own pride and Diocletian's fears were greatly
increased. For after this victory he rose to such a pitch of
haughtiness as to reject the appellation of Caesar;(1) and when he
heard that appellation in letters addressed to him, he cried out, with
a stern look and terrible voice, "How long am I to be Caesar?" Then he
began to act extravagantly, insomuch that, as if he had been a second
Romulus, he wished to pass for and to be called the offspring of Mars;
and that he might appear the issue of a divinity, he was willing that
his mother Romula should be dishonoured with the name of adulteress.
But, not to confound the chronological order of events, I delay the
recital of his actions; for indeed afterwards, when Galerius got the
title of emperor, his father-in-law having been divested of the
imperial purple, he became altogether outrageous, and of unbounded
arrogance.
While by such a conduct, and with such associates,
Diocles--for that was the name of Diocletian before he attained
sovereignty--occupied himself in subverting the commonweal, there was
no evil which his crimes did not deserve: nevertheless he reigned most
prosperously, as long as he forbore to defile his hands with the blood
of the just; and what cause he had for persecuting them, I come now to
explain.
CHAP. X.
Diocletian, as being of a timorous disposition, was
a searcher into futurity, and during his abode in the East he began to
slay victims, that from their livers he might obtain a prognostic of
events; and while he sacrificed, some attendants of his, who were
Christians, stood by, and they put the immortal sign on their
foreheads. At this the demons were chased away, and the holy rites
interrupted. The soothsayers trembled, unable to investigate the wonted
marks on the entrails of the victims. They frequently repeated the
sacrifices, as if the former had been unpropitious; but the victims,
slain from time to time, afforded no tokens for divination. At length
Tages, the chief of the soothsayers,(2) either from guess or from his
own observation, said, "There are profane persons here, who obstruct
the rites." Then Diocletian, in furious passion, ordered not only all
who were assisting at the holy ceremonies, but also
305
all who resided within the palace, to sacrifice, and, in case of their
refusal, to be scourged. And further, by letters to the commanding
officers, he enjoined that all soldiers should be forced to the like
impiety, under pain of being dismissed the service. Thus far his rage
proceeded; but at that season he did nothing more against the law
and religion of God. After an interval of some time he went to winter
in Bithynia; and presently Galerius Caesar came thither, inflamed with
furious resentment, and purposing to excite the inconsiderate old man
to carry on that persecution which he had begun against the Christians.
I have learned that the cause of his fury was as follows.
CHAP. XI.
The mother of Galerius, a woman exceedingly
superstitious, was a votary of the gods of the mountains. Being of such
a character, she made sacrifices almost every day, and she feasted her
servants on the meat offered to idols: but the Christians of her family
would not partake of those entertainments; and while she feasted with
the Gentiles, they continued in fasting and prayer. On this account she
conceived ill-will against the Christians, and by woman-like complaints
instigated her son, no less superstitious than herself, to destroy
them. So, during the whole winter, Diocletian and Galerius held
councils together, at which no one else assisted; and it was the
universal opinion that their conferences respected the most momentous
affairs of the empire. The old man long opposed the fury of Galerius,
and showed how pernicious it would be to raise disturbances throughout
the world and to shed so much blood; that the Christians were
wont with eagerness to meet death; and that it would be enough
for him to exclude persons of that religion from the court(1) and
the army. Yet he could not restrain the madness of that obstinate
man. He resolved, therefore, to take the opinion of his friends. Now
this was a circumstance in the bad disposition of Diocletian,
that whenever he determined to do good, he did it without advice, that
the praise might be all his own; hut whenever he determined to do ill,
which he was sensible would be blamed, he called in many advisers, that
his own fault might be imputed to other men: and therefore a few
civil magistrates, and a few military commanders, were admitted to give
their counsel; and the question was put to them according to priority
of rank. Some, through personal ill-will towards the Christians, were
of opinion that they ought to be cut off, as enemies of the gods
and adversaries of the established religious ceremonies. Others thought
differently, but, having understood the will of Galerius, they, either
from dread of displeasing or from a desire of gratifying him, concurred
in the opinion given against the Christians. Yet not even then could
the emperor be prevailed upon to yield his assent. He determined above
all to consult his gods; and to that end he despatched a soothsayer to
inquire of Apollo at Miletus, whose answer wa such as might be expected
from an enemy of the divine religion. So Diocletian was drawn over from
his purpose. But although he could struggle no longer against his
friends, and against Caesar and Apollo, yet still he attempted to
observe such moderation as to command the business to be carried
through without bloodshed; whereas Galerius would have had all persons
burnt alive who refused to sacrifice.
CHAP. XII.
A fit and auspicious day was sought out for the
accomplishment of this undertaking; and the festival of the god
Terminus, celebrated on the sevens of the kalends of March,(2) was
chosen, in preference to all others, to terminate, as it were, the
Christian religion.
"That day, the harbinger of
death, arose,
First cause of ill,
and long enduring woes;"
of woes which befell not only the Christians, but the whole earth. When
that day dawned, in the eighth consulship of Diocletian and seventh of
Maximian, suddenly, while it was yet hardly light, the prefect,
together with chief commanders, tribunes, and officers of the treasury,
came to the church in Nicomedia, and the gates having been forced open,
they searched everywhere for an image of the Divinity. The books of the
Holy Scriptures were found, and they were committed to the flames; the
utensils and furniture of the church were abandoned to pillage: all was
rapine, confusion, tumult. That church, situated on rising ground, was
within view of the palace; and Diocletian and Galerius stood, as if on
a watch-tower, disputing long whether it ought to be set on fire. The
sentiment of Diocletian prevailed, who dreaded lest, so great a fire
being once kindled, some part of the city might he burnt; for there
were many and large buildings that surrounded the church. Then the
Pretorian Guards came in battle array, with axes and other iron
instruments, and having been let loose everywhere, they in a few hours
levelled that very lofty edifice with the ground.(3)
CHAP. XIII.
Next day an edict was published, depriving the
Christians of all honours and dignities;
306
ordaining also that, without any distinction of rank or degree, they
should be subjected to tortures, and that every suit at law should be
received against them; while, on the other hand, they were debarred
from being plaintiffs in questions of wrong, adultery, or theft; and,
finally, that they should neither be capable of freedom, nor have right
of suffrage. A certain person tore down this edict, and cut it in
pieces, improperly indeed, but with high spirit, saying in scorn,
"These are the triumphs of Goths and Sarmatians." Having been instantly
seized and brought to judgment, he was not only tortured, but burnt
alive, in the forms of law; and having displayed admirable patience
under sufferings, he was consumed to ashes.
CHAP. XIV.
But Galerius, not satisfied with the tenor of the
edict, sought in another way to gain on the emperor. That he might urge
him to excess of cruelty in persecution, he employed private emissaries
to set the palace on fire; and some part of it having been burnt, the
blame was laid on the Christians as public enemies; and the very
appellation of Christian grew odious(1) on account of that fire. It was
said that the Christians, in concert with the eunuchs, had plotted to
destroy the princes; and that both of the princes had well-nigh been
burnt alive in their own palace. Diocletian, shrewd and intelligent as
he always chose to appear, suspected nothing of the contrivance, but,
inflamed with anger, immediately commanded that all his own domestics
should be tortured to force a confession of the plot. He sat on his
tribunal, and saw innocent men tormented by fire to make discovery. All
magistrates, and all who had superintendency in the imperial palace,
obtained special commissions to administer the torture; and they strove
with each other who should be first in bringing to light the
conspiracy. No circumstances, however, of the fact were detected
anywhere; for no one applied the torture to any domestics of Galerius.
He himself was ever with Diocletian, constantly urging him, and never
allowing the passions of the inconsiderate old man to cool. Then,
after an interval of fifteen days, he attempted a second fire; but that
was perceived quickly, and extinguished. Still, however, its author
remained unknown. On that very day, Galerius, who in the middle
of winter bad prepared for his departure, suddenly hurried out of
the city, protesting that he fled to escape being burnt alive.
CHAP. XV.
And now Diocletian raged, not only against his own
domestics, but indiscriminately against
all; and he began by forcing his daughter Valeria and his wife Prisca
to be polluted by sacrificing. Eunuchs, once the most powerful, and who
had chief authority at court and with the emperor, were slain.
Presbyters and other officers of the Church were seized, without
evidence by witnesses or confession, condemned, and together with their
families led to execution. In burning alive, no distinction of sex or
age was regarded; and because of their great multitude, they were not
burnt one after another, but a herd of them were encircled with the
same fire; and servants, having millstones tied about their necks, were
cast into the sea. Nor was the persecution less grievous on the rest of
the people of God; for the judges, dispersed through all the temples,
sought to compel every one to sacrifice. The prisons were crowded;
tortures, hitherto unheard of, were invented; and lest justice should
be inadvertently administered to a Christian, altars were placed in the
courts of justice, hard by the tribunal, that every litigant might
offer incense before his cause could be heard. Thus judges were no
otherwise approached than divinities. Mandates also had gone to
Maximian Herculius and Constantius, requiring their concurrence in the
execution of the edicts; for in matters even of such mighty importance
their opinion was never once asked. Herculius, a person of no merciful
temper, yielded ready obedience, and enforced the edicts throughout his
dominions of Italy. Constantius, on the other hand, lest he should have
seemed to dissent from the injunctions of his superiors, permitted the
demolition of churches,--mere walls, and capable of being built up
again,--but he preserved entire that true temple of God, which is the
human body.(2)
CHAP. XVI.
Thus was all the earth afflicted; and from east to
west, except in the territories of Gaul, three ravenous wild beasts
continued to rage.
"Had I a hundred mouths, a hundred tongues,
A voice of brass, and adamantine lungs,
Not half the dreadful scene could I disclose,"
or recount the punishments inflicted by the rulers in every province on
religious and innocent men.
But what need of a particular recital of those
things, especially to you, my best beloved Donatus,(3) who above all
others was exposed to the storm of that violent persecution? For when
you had fallen into the hands of the prefect Flaccinian, no puny
murderer, and afterwards of Hierocles, who from a deputy became
president of Bithynia, the author and adviser of the persecution, and
last of all into the hands of his suc-
307
cessor Priscillian, you displayed to mankind a pattern of invincible
magnanimity. Having been nine times exposed to racks and diversified
torments, nine times by a glorious profession of your faith you foiled
the adversary; in nine combats you subdued the devil and his
chosen soldiers; and by nine victories you triumphed, over this
world and its terrors. How pleasing the spectacle to God, when He
beheld you a conqueror, yoking in your chariot not white horses, nor
enormous elephants, but those very men who had led captive the nations!
After this sort to lord it over the lords of the earth is triumph
indeed! Now, by your valour were they conquered, when you set at
defiance their flagitious edicts, and, through stedfast faith and the
fortitude of your soul, you routed all the vain terrors of tyrannical
authority. Against you neither scourges, nor iron claws, nor
fire, nor sword, nor various kinds of torture, availed aught; and
no violence could bereave you of your fidelity and persevering
resolution. This it is to be a disciple of God, and this it is to be a
soldier of Christ; a soldier whom no enemy can dislodge, or wolf
snatch, from the heavenly camp; no artifice ensnare, or pain of body
subdue, or torments overthrow. At length, after those nine glorious
combats, in which the devil was vanquished by you, he dared not
to enter the lists again with one whom, by repeated trials, he had
found unconquerable; and he abstained from challenging you any more,
lest you should have laid hold on the garland of victory already
stretched out to you; an unfading garland, which, although you have not
at present received it, is laid up in the kingdom of the Lord for your
virtue and deserts. But let us now return to the course of our
narrative.
CHAP. XVII.
The wicked plan having been carried into execution,
Diocletian, whom prosperity had now abandoned, set out instantly for
Rome, there to celebrate the commencement of the twentieth year of his
reign. That solemnity was performed on the twelfth of the kalends of
December;(1) and suddenly the emperor, unable to bear the Roman freedom
of speech, peevishly and impatiently burst away from the city. The
kalends of January(2) approached, at which day the consulship, for the
ninth time, was to be offered to him; yet, rather than continue
thirteen days longer in Rome, he chose that his first appearance as
consul should be at Ravenna. Having, however, begun his journey in
winter, amidst intense cold and incessant rains, he contracted a slight
but lingering disease: it harassed him without intermission, so that he
was obliged for the most part to be carried in a litter. Then, at the
close of summer, he made a circuit along the banks of the Danube, and
so came to Nicomedia. His disease had now become more grievous and
oppressing; yet he caused himself to be brought out, in order to
dedicate that circus which, at the conclusion of the twentieth year of
his reign, he had erected. Immediately he grew so languid and feeble,
that prayers for his life were put up to all the gods. Then suddenly,
on the ides of December,(3) there was heard in the palace sorrow, and
weeping, and lamentation, and the courtiers ran to and fro; there was
silence throughout the city, and a report went of the death, and even
of the burial, of Diocletian: but early on the morrow it was suddenly
rumoured that he still lived. At this the countenance of his domestics
and courtiers changed from melancholy to gay. Nevertheless there were
who suspected his death to be kept secret until the arrival of Galerius
Caesar, lest in the meanwhile the soldiery should attempt some change
in the government; and this suspicion grew so universal, that no one
would believe the emperor alive, until, on the kalends of March,(4) he
appeared in public, but so wan, his illness having lasted almost a
year, as hardly to be known again. The fit of stupor, resembling death,
happened on the ides of December; and although he in some measure
recovered, yet he never attained to perfect health again, for he became
disordered in his judgment, being at certain times insane and at others
of sound mind.
CHAP. XVIII.
Within a few days Galerius Caesar arrived, not to
congratulate his father-in-law on the re-establishment of his health,
but to force him to resign the empire. Already he had urged Maximian
Herculius to the like purpose, and by the alarm of civil wars terrified
the old man into compliance; and he now assailed Diocletian. At first,
in gentle and friendly terms, he said that age and growing infirmities
disabled Diocletian for the charge of the commonweal, and that he had
need to give himself some repose after his labours. Galerius, in
confirmation of his argument, produced the example of Nerva, who laid
the weight of empire on Trajan.
But Diocletian made answer, that it was unfit for
one who had held a rank, eminent above all others and conspicuous, to
sink into the obscurity of a low station; neither indeed was it safe,
because in the course of so long a reign he must unavoidably have made
many enemies. That the case of Nerva was very different: he, after
308
having reigned a single year, felt himself, either from age or from
inexperience in business, unequal to affairs so momentous, and
therefore threw aside the helm of government, and returned to that
private life in which he had already grown old. But Diocletian added,
that if Galerius wished for the title of emperor, there was nothing to
hinder its being conferred on him and Constantius, as well as on
Maximian Herculius.
Galerius, whose imagination already grasped at the
whole empire, saw that little but an unsubstantial name would accrue to
him from this proposal, and therefore replied that the settlement made
by Diocletian himself ought to be inviolable; a settlement which
provided that there should be two of higher rank vested with supreme
power, and two others of inferior, to assist them. Easily might concord
be preserved between two equals, never amongst four;(1) that he, if
Diocletian would not resign, must consult his own interests, so as to
remain no longer in an inferior rank, and the last of that rank; that
for fifteen years past he had been confined, as an exile, to Illyricum
and the banks of the Danube, perpetually struggling against barbarous
nations, while others, at their ease, governed dominions more extensive
than his, and better civilized.
Diocletian already knew, by letters from Maximian
Herculius, all that Galerius had spoken at their conference, and also
that he was augmenting his army; and now, on hearing his discourse, the
spiritless old man burst into tears, and said, "Be it as you will."
It remained to choose Caesars by common consent.
"But," said Galerius, "why ask the advice of Maximian and Constantius,
since they must needs acquiesce in whatever we do?"--"Certainly they
will," replied Diocletian, "for we must elect their sons."
Now Maximian Herculius had a son, Maxentius, married
to the daughter of Galerius, a man of bad and mischievous dispositions,
and so proud and stubborn withal, that he would never pay the wonted
obeisance either to his father or father-in-law, and on that account he
was hated by them both. Constantius also had a son, Constantine, a
young man of very great worth, and well meriting the high station of
Caesar. The distinguished comeliness of his figure, his strict
attention to all military duties, his virtuous demeanour and singular
affability, had endeared him to the troops, and made him the choice of
every individual. He was then at court, having long before been
created by Diocletian a tribune of the first order.
"What is to be done?" said Galerius, "for that Maxentius
deserves not the office. He who,
while yet a private man, has treated me with contumely, how will
he act when once he obtains power?"--"But Constantine is amiable, and
will so rule as hereafter, in the opinion of mankind, to surpass the
mild virtues of his father."--"Be it so, if my inclinations and
judgment are to be disregarded. Men ought to be appointed who are at my
disposal, who will dread me, and never do anything unless by my
orders."--"Whom then shall we appoint?"--"Severus."--"How! that dancer,
that habitual drunkard, who turns night into day, and day into
night?"--"He deserves the office, for he has approved himself a
faithful paymaster and purveyor of the army; and, indeed, I have
already despatched him to receive the purple from the hands of
Maximian."--"Well, I consent; but whom else do you suggest?"--"Him,"
said Galerius, pointing out Daia, a young man, half-barbarian. Now
Galerius had lately bestowed part of his own name on that youth, and
called him Maximin, in like manner as Diocletian formerly bestowed on
Galerius the name of Maximian, for the omen's sake, because Maximian
Herculius had served him with unshaken fidelity.--"Who is that you
present?"--"A kinsman of mine."--"Alas!" said Diocletian, heaving
a deep sigh, "you do not propose men fit for the charge of public
affairs!"--"I have tried them."--"Then do you look to it, who are about
to assume the administration of the empire: as for me, while I
continued emperor, long and diligent have been my labours in providing
for the security of the commonweal; and now, should anything disastrous
ensue, the blame will not be mine."
CHAP. XIX.
Matters having been thus concerted, Diocletian and
Galerius went in procession to publish the nomination of Caesars. Every
one looked at Constantine; for there was no doubt that the choice would
fall on him. The troops present, as well as the chief soldiers of the
other legions, who had been summoned to the solemnity, fixed their eyes
on Constantine, exulted in the hope of his approaching election, and
occupied themselves in prayers for his prosperity. Near three miles
from Nicomedia there is an eminence, on the summit of which Galerius
formerly received the purple; and there a pillar, with the statue of
Jupiter, was placed. Thither the procession went. An assembly of the
soldiers was called. Diocletian, with tears, harangued them, and said
that he was become infirm, that he needed repose after his fatigues,
anti that he would resign the empire into hands more vigorous and able,
and at the same time appoint new Caesars. The spectators, with the
utmost earnestness, waited for the nomination. Suddenly he declared that
309
the Caesars were Severus and Maximin. The amazement was universal.
Constantine stood near in public view, and men began to question
amongst themselves whether his name too had not been changed into
Maximin; when, in the sight of all, Galerius, stretching back his hand,
put Constantine aside, and drew Daia forward, and, having divested him
of the garb of a private person, set him in the most conspicuous place.
All men wondered who he could be, and from whence he came; but none
ventured to interpose or move objections, so confounded were their
minds at the strange and unlooked-for event. Diocletian took off his
purple robe, put it on Daia, and resumed his own original name of
Diocles. He descended from the tribunal, and passed through Nicomedia
in a chariot; and then this old emperor, like a veteran soldier freed
from military service, was dismissed into his own country; while Daia,
lately taken from the tending of cattle in forests to serve as a common
soldier, immediately made one of the lifeguard, presently a tribune,
and next day Caesar, obtained authority to trample under foot and
oppress the empire of the East; a person ignorant alike of war and of
civil affairs, and from a herdsman become a leader of armies.
CHAP. XX.
Galerius having effected the expulsion of the two
old men, began to consider himself alone as the sovereign of the Roman
empire. Necessity had required the appointment of Constantius to the
first rank; but Galerius made small account of one who was of an easy
temper, and of health declining and precarious. He looked for the
speedy death of Constantius. And although that prince should recover,
it seemed not difficult to force him to put off the imperial purple;
for what else could he do, if pressed by his three colleagues to
abdicate? Galerius had Licinius ever about his person, his old and
intimate acquaintance, and his earliest companion in arms, whose
counsels he used in the management of all affairs; yet he would not
nominate Licinius to the dignity of Caesar, with the title of son, for
he purposed to nominate him, in the room of Constantius, to the dignity
of emperor, with the title of brother, while he himself might hold
sovereign authority, and rule over the whole globe with unbounded
licence. After that, he meant to have solemnized the vicennial
festival; to have conferred on his son Candidianus, then a boy of nine
years of age, the office of Caesar; and, in conclusion, to have
resigned, as Diocletian had done. And thus, Licinius and Severus being
emperors, and Maximin and Candidianus in the next station of Caesars,
he fancied that, environed as it were by an impregnable wall, he should
lead an old age. of security and peace. Such were his projects; but
God, whom he had made his adversary, frustrated all those imaginations.
CHAP. XXI.
Having thus attained to the highest power, he bent
his mind to afflict that empire into which he had opened his way. It is
the manner and practice of the Persians for the people to yield
themselves slaves to their kings, and for the kings to treat their
people as slaves. This flagitious man, from the time of his victories
over the Persians, was not ashamed incessantly to extol such an
institution, and he resolved to establish it in the Roman dominions;
and because he could not do this by an express law, he so acted, in
imitation of the Persian kings, as to bereave men of their liberties.
He first of all degraded those whom he meant to punish; and then not
only were inferior magistrates put to the torture by him, but also the
chief men in cities, and persons of the most eminent rank, and this too
in matters of little moment, and in civil questions. Crucifixion was
the punishment ready prepared in capital cases; and for lesser crimes,
fetters. Matrons of honourable station were dragged into workhouses;
and when any man was to be scourged, there were four posts fixed in the
ground, and to them he was tied, after a manner unknown in the
chastisement of slaves. What shall I say of his apartment for sport,
and of his favourite diversions? He kept bears, most resembling himself
in fierceness and bulk, whom he had collected together during the
course of his reign. As often as he chose to indulge his humour, he
ordered some particular bear to be brought in, and men were thrown to
that savage animal, rather to be swallowed up than devoured; and when
their limbs were torn asunder, he laughed with excessive complacency:
nor did he ever sup without being spectator of the effusion of human
blood. Men of private station were condemned to be burnt alive; and he
began this mode of execution by edicts against the Christians,
commanding that, after torture and condemnation, they should be burnt
at a slow fire. They were fixed to a stake, and first a moderate flame
was applied to the soles of their feet, until the muscles, contracted
by burning, were torn from the bones; then torches, lighted and put out
again, were directed to all the members of their bodies, so that no
part had any exemption. Meanwhile cold water was continually poured on
their faces, and their mouths moistened, lest, by reason of their jaws
being parched, they should expire. At length they did expire, when,
after many hours, the violent heat had consumed their skin and
penetrated into their intestines. The dead carcases were laid on a
310
funeral pile, and wholly burnt; their bones were gathered, ground to
powder, and thrown into the river, or into the sea.
CHAP. XXII.
And now that cruelty, which he had learned in
torturing the Christians, became habitual, and he exercised it against
all men indiscriminately.(1) He was not wont to inflict the slighter
sorts of punishment, as to banish, to imprison, or to send criminals to
work in the mines; but to burn, to crucify, to expose to wild beasts,
were things done daily, and without hesitation. For smaller offences,
those of his own household and his stewards were chastised with lances,
instead of rods; and, in great offences, to be beheaded was an
indulgence shown to very few; and it seemed as a favour, on account of
old services, when one was permitted to die in the easiest manner. But
these were slight evils in the government of Galerius, when compared
with what follows. For eloquence was extinguished, pleaders cut off,
and the learned in the laws either exiled or slain. Useful letters came
to be viewed in the same light as magical and forbidden arts; and all
who possessed them were trampled upon and execrated, as if they had
been hostile to government, and public enemies. Law was dissolved, and
unbounded licence permitted to judges,--to judges chosen from amongst
the soldiery, rude and illiterate men, and let loose upon the
provinces, without assessors to guide or control them.
CHAP. XXIII.
But that which gave rise to public and universal
calamity, was the tax imposed at once on each province and city.
Surveyors having been spread abroad, and occupied in a general and
severe scrutiny, horrible scenes were exhibited, like the outrages of
victorious enemies, and the wretched state of captives. Each spot of
ground was measured, vines and fruit-trees numbered, lists taken of
animals of every kind, and a capi-tation-roll made up. In cities, the
common people, whether residing within or without the walls, were
assembled, the market-places filled with crowds of families, all
attended with their children and slaves, the noise of torture and
scourges resounded, sons were hung on the rack to force discovery of
the effects of their fathers, the most trusty slaves compelled by pain
to bear witness against their masters, and wives to bear witness
against their husbands, In default of all other evidence, men were
tortured to speak against themselves; and no sooner did agony oblige
them to acknowledge what they had not, but those imaginary effects were
noted down in the lists. Neither youth, nor old age, nor sickness,
afforded any exemption. The diseased and the infirm were carried in;
the age of each was estimated; and, that the capitation-tax might be
enlarged, years were added to the young and struck off from the old.
General lamentation and sorrow prevailed. Whatever, by the laws of war,
conquerors had done to the conquered, the like did this man presume to
perpetrate against Romans and the subjects of Rome, because his
forefathers had been made liable to a like tax imposed by the
victorious Trajan, as a penalty on the Dacians for their frequent
rebellions. After this, money was levied for each head, as if a price
had been paid for liberty to exist; yet full trust was not reposed on
the same set of surveyors, but others and others still were sent round
to make further discoveries; and thus the tributes were redoubled, not
because the new surveyors made any fresh discoveries, but because they
added at pleasure to the former rates, lest they should seem to have
been employed to no purpose. Meanwhile the number of animals decreased,
and men died; nevertheless taxes were paid even for the dead, so that
no one could either live or cease to live without being subject to
impositions. There remained mendicants alone, from whom nothing could
be exacted, and whom their misery and wretchedness secured from
ill-treatment. But this pious man had compassion on them, and
determining that they should remain no longer in indigence, he caused
them all to be assembled, put on board vessels, and sunk in the sea. So
merciful was he in making provision that under his administration no
man should want! And thus, while he took effectual measures that none,
under the reigned pretext of poverty, should elude the tax, he put to
death a multitude of real wretches, in violation of every law of
humanity.
CHAP. XXIV.
Already the judgment of God approached him, and that
season ensued in which his fortunes began to droop and to waste away.
While occupied in the manner that I have described above, he did not
set himself to subvert or expel Constantius, but waited for his death,
not imagining, however, that it was so nigh. Constantius, having become
exceedingly ill, wrote to Galerius, and requested that his son
Constantine might be sent to see him. He had made a like request long
before, but in vain; for Galerius meant nothing less than to grant it.
On the contrary, he laid repeated snares for the life of that young
man, because he durst not use open violence, lest he should stir up
civil wars against himself, and incur that which he most dreaded, the
hate
311
and resentment of the army. Under pretence of manly exercise and
recreation, he made him combat with wild beasts: but this device was
frustrated; for the power of God protected Constantine, and in the very
moment of jeopardy rescued him from the hands of Galerius. At length,
Galerius, when he could no longer avoid complying with the request of
Constantius, one evening gave Constantine a warrant to depart, and
commanded him to set out next morning with the imperial despatches.
Galerius meant either to find some pretext for detaining Constantine,
or to forward orders to Severus for arresting him on the road.
Constantine discerned his purpose; and therefore, after supper, when
the emperor was gone to rest, he hasted away, carried off from the
principal stages all the horses maintained at the public expense, and
escaped. Next day the emperor, having purposely remained in his
bed-chamber until noon, ordered Constantine to be called into his
presence; but he learnt that Constantine had set out immediately after
supper. Outrageous with passion, he ordered horses to be made ready,
that Constantine might be pursued and dragged back; and hearing that
all the horses had been carried off from the great road, he could
hardly refrain from tears. Meanwhile Constantine, journeying with
incredible rapidity, reached his father, who was already about to
expire. Constantius recommended his son to the soldiers, delivered the
sovereign authority into his hands, and then died, as his wish had long
been, in peace and quiet.
Constantine Augustus, having assumed the government,
made it his first care to restore the Christians to the exercise of
their worship and to their God; and so began his administration by
reinstating(1) the holy religion.
CHAP. XXV.
Some few days after, the portrait of Constantine,
adorned with laurels, was brought to the pernicious wild beast, that,
by receiving that symbol, he might acknowledge Constantine in the
quality of emperor. He hesitated long whether to receive it or not, and
he was about to commit both the portrait and its bearer to the flames,
but his confidants dissuaded him from a resolution so frantic. They
admonished him of the danger, and they represented that, if Constantine
came with an armed force, all the soldiers, against whose inclination
obscure or unknown Caesars had been created, would acknowledge him, and
crowd eagerly to his standard. So Galerius, although with the utmost
unwillingness, accepted the portrait, and sent the imperial purple to
Constantine, that he might seem of his own accord to have received that
prince into partnership of power with him. And now his plans were
deranged, and he could not, as he intended formerly, admit Licinius,
without exceeding the limited number of emperors. But this he devised,
that Severus, who was more advanced in life, should be named emperor,
and that Constantine, instead of the title of emperor, to which he had
been named, should receive that of Caesar in common with Maximin Daia,
and so be degraded from the second place to the fourth.
CHAP. XXVI.
Things seemed to be arranged in some measure to the
satisfaction of Galerius, when another alarm was brought, that his
son-in-law Maxentius had been declared emperor at Rome. The cause was
this: Galerius having resolved by permanent taxes to devour the empire,
soared to such extravagance in folly, as not to allow an exemption from
that thraldom even to the Roman people. Tax-gatherers therefore were
appointed to go to Rome, and make out lists of the citizens. Much about
the same time Galerius had reduced the Pretorian Guards. There remained
at Rome a few soldiers of that body, who, profiting of the opportunity,
put some magistrates to death, and, with the acquiescence of the
tumultuary populace, clothed Maxentius in the imperial purple.
Galerius, on receiving this news, was disturbed at the strangeness of
the event, but not much dismayed. He hated Maxentius, and he could not
bestow on him the dignity of Caesar already enjoyed by two (Daia and
Constantine); besides, he thought it enough for him to have once
bestowed that dignity against his inclination. So he sent for Severus,
exhorted him to regain his dominion and sovereignty, and he put under
his command that army which Maximian Herculius had formerly commanded,
that he might attack Maxentius at Rome. There the soldiers of Maximian
had been oftentimes received with every sort of luxurious
accommodation, so that they were not only interested to preserve the
city, but they also longed to fix their residence in it.
Maxentius well knew the enormity of his own
offences; and although he had as it were an hereditary claim to the
services of his father's army, and might have hoped to draw it over to
himself, yet he reflected that this consideration might occur to
Galerius also, and induce him to leave Severus in Illyricum, and march
in person with his own army against Rome. Under such apprehensions,
Maxentius sought to protect himself from the danger that hung over him.
To his father, who since his abdication resided in Campania, he sent
the purple, and saluted him again Augustus. Maximian, given to change,
312
eagerly resumed that purple of which he had unwillingly divested
himself. Meanwhile Severus marched on, and with his troops approached
the walls of the city. Presently the soldiers raised up their ensigns,
abandoned Severus, and yielded themselves to Maxentius, against whom
they had come. What remained but flight for Severus, thus deserted? He
was encountered by Maximian, who had resumed the imperial dignity. On
this he took refuge in Ravenna, and shut himself up there with a few
soldiers. But perceiving that he was about to be delivered up, he
voluntarily surrendered himself, and restored the purple to him from
whom he had received it; and after this he obtained no other grace but
that of an easy death, for he was compelled to open his veins, and in
that gentle manner expired.
CHAP. XXVII.
But Maximian, who knew the outrageous temper of
Galerius, began to consider that, fired with rage on hearing of the
death of Severus, he would march into Italy, and that possibly he might
be joined by Data, and so bring into the field forces too powerful to
be resisted. Having therefore fortified Rome, and made diligent
provision for a defensive war, Maximian went into Gaul, that he might
give his younger daughter Fausta in marriage to Constantine, and thus
win over that prince to his interest. Meantime Galerius assembled his
troops, invaded Italy, and advanced towards Rome, resolving to
extinguish the senate and put the whole people to the sword. But he
found everything shut and fortified against him. There was no hope of
carrying the place by storm, and to besiege it was an arduous
undertaking; for Galerius had not brought with him an army sufficient
to invest the walls. Probably, having never seen Rome, he imagined it
to be little superior in size to those cities with which be was
acquainted. But some of his legions, detesting the wicked enterprise of
a father against his son-in-law, and of Romans against Rome, renounced
his authority, and carried over their ensigns to the enemy. Already had
his remaining soldiers begun to waver, when Galerius, dreading a fate
like that of Severus, and having his haughty spirit broken and
humiliated, threw himself at the feet of his soldiers, and continued to
beseech them that he might not be delivered to the foe, until, by the
promise of mighty largesses, he prevailed on them. Then he retreated
from Rome, and fled in great disorder. Easily might he have been cut
off in his flight, had any one pursued him even with a small body of
troops. He was aware of his danger, and allowed his soldiers to
disperse themselves, and to plunder and destroy far and wide, that, if
there were any pursuers, they might be deprived of all means of
subsistence in a mined country. So the parts of Italy through which
that pestilent band took its course were wasted, all things pillaged,
matrons forced, virgins violated, parents and husbands compelled by
torture to disclose where they had concealed their goods, and their
wives and daughters; flocks and herds of cattle were driven off like
spoils taken from barbarians. And thus did he, once a Roman emperor,
but now the ravager of Italy, retire into his own territories, after
having afflicted all men indiscriminately with the calamities of war.
Long ago, indeed, and at the very time of his obtaining sovereign
power, he had avowed himself the enemy of the Roman name; and he
proposed that the empire should be called, not the Roman, but the
Dacian empire.
CHAP. XXVIII.
After the flight of Galerius, Maximian, having
returned from Gaul, held authority in common with his son; but more
obedience was yielded to the young man than to the old: for Maxentius
had most power, and had been longest in possession of it; and it was to
him that Maximian owed on this occasion the imperial dignity. The old
man was impatient at being denied the exercise of uncontrolled
sovereignty, and envied his son with a childish spirit of rivalry; and
therefore he began to consider how he might expel Maxentius and resume
his ancient dominion. This appeared easy, because the soldiers who
deserted Severus had originally served in his own army. He called an
assembly of the people of Rome, and of the soldiers, as if he had been
to make an harangue on the calamitous situation of public affairs.
After having spoken much on that subject, he stretched his hands
towards his son, charged him as author of all ills and prime cause of
the calamities of the state, and then tore the purple from his
shoulders. Maxentius, thus stripped, leaped headlong from the tribunal,
and was received into the arms of the soldiers. Their rage and clamour
confounded the unnatural old man, and, like another Tarquin the Proud,
he was driven from Rome.
CHAP. XXIX.
Then Maximian returned into Gaul; and after having
made some stay in those quarters, he went to Galerius, the enemy of his
son, that they might confer together, as he pretended, about the
settlement of the commonweal; but his true purpose was, under colour of
reconciliation, to find an opportunity of murdering Galerius, and of
seizing his share of the empire, instead of his own, from which he had
been everywhere excluded.
313
Diocles was at the court of Galerius when Maximian
arrived; for Galerius, meaning now to invest Licinius with the ensigns
of supreme power in the room of Severus, had lately sent for Diocles to
be present at the solemnity. So it was performed in presence both of
him and of Maximian; and thus there were six who ruled the empire at
one and the same time.(1)
Now the designs of Maximian having been frustrated,
he took flight, as he had done twice before, and returned into Gaul,
with a heart full of wickedness, and intending by treacherous devices
to overreach Constantine, who was not only his own son-in-law, but also
the child of his son-in-law; and that he might the more successfully
deceive, he laid aside the imperial purple. The Franks had taken up
arms. Maximian advised the unsuspecting Constantine not to lead
all his troops against them, and he said that a few soldiers would
suffice to subdue those barbarians. He gave this advice that an
army might be left for him to win over to himself, and that
Constantine, by reason of his scanty forces, might be overpowered. The
young prince believed the advice to be judicious, because given by an
aged and experienced commander; and he followed it, because given
by a father-in-law. He marched, leaving the most considerable
part of his forces behind. Maximian waited a few days; and as soon as,
by his calculation, Constantine had entered the territory of the
barbarians, he suddenly resumed the imperial purple, seized the public
treasures, after his wont made ample donatives to the soldiery, and
feigned that such disasters had befallen Constantine as soon after
befell himself. Constantine was presently informed of those events,
and, by marches astonishingly rapid, he flew back with his army.
Maximian, not yet prepared to oppose him, was overpowered at unawares,
and the soldiers returned to their duty. Maximian had possessed himself
of Marseilles (he fled thither), and shut the gates. Constantine drew
nigh, and seeing Maximian on the walls, addressed him in no harsh
or hostile language, and demanded what he meant, and what it was that
he wanted, and why he had acted in a way so peculiarly unbecoming him.
But Maximian from the walls incessantly uttered abuse and curses
against Constantine. Then, of a sudden, the gates on the opposite side
having been unbarred, the besiegers were admitted into the city. The
rebel emperor, and unnatural parent and a perfidious father-in-law, was
dragged into the presence of Constantine, heard a recital made of his
crimes, was divested of his imperial robe, and, after this reprimand,
obtained his life.
CHAP. XXX.
Maximian, having thus forfeited the respect due to
an emperor and a father-in-law, grew impatient at his abased condition,
and, emboldened by impunity, formed new plots against Constantine. He
addressed himself to his daughter Fausta, and, as well by entreaties as
by the soothing of flattery, solicited her to betray her husband. He
promised to obtain for her a more honourable alliance than that with
Constantine; and he requested her to allow the bed-chamber of the
emperor to be left open, and to be slightly guarded. Fausta undertook
to do whatever he asked, and instantly revealed the whole to her
husband. A plan was laid for detecting Maximian in the very execution
of his crime. They placed a base eunuch to be murdered instead of the
emperor. At the dead of night Maximian arose, and perceived all things
to be favourable for his insidious purpose. There were few soldiers on
guard, and these too at some distance from the bed-chamber. However, to
prevent suspicion, he accosted them, and said that he had had a dream
which he wished to communicate to his son-in-law. He went in armed,
slew the eunuch, sprung forth exultingly, and avowed the murder. At
that moment Constantine showed himself on the opposite side with a band
of soldiers; the dead body was brought out of the bed-chamber; the
murderer, taken in the fact, all aghast,
"Stood like a stone, silent and motionless;"
while Constantine upbraided him for his impiety and enormous guilt. At
last Maximian obtained leave that the manner of his death should be at
his own choice, and he strangled himself.
Thus that mightiest sovereign of Rome--who ruled so
long with exceeding glory, and who celebrated his twentieth
anniversary--thus that most haughty man had his neck broken, and ended
his detestable life by a death base and ignominious.
CHAP. XXXI.
From Maximian, God, the avenger of religion and of
His people, turned his eyes to Galerius, the author of the accursed
persecution, that in his punishment also He might manifest the power of
His majesty. Galerius, too, was purposing to celebrate his twentieth
anniversary; and as, under that pretext, he had, by new taxes payable
in gold and silver, oppressed the provinces, so now, that he might
recompense them by celebrating. the promised festival, he used the like
pretext for repeating his oppressions. Who can relate in fit terms the
methods used to harass mankind in levying the tax, and especially with
regard to corn and the other fruits of the earth? The officers, or
rather the execu-
314
tioners, of all the different magistrates, seized on each individual,
and would never let go their hold. No man knew to whom he ought to make
payment first. There was no dispensation given to those who had
nothing; and they were required, under pain of being variously
tortured, instantly to pay, notwithstanding their inability. Many
guards were set round, no breathing time was granted, or, at any season
of the year, the least respite from exactions. Different
magistrates, or the officers of different magistrates, frequently
contended for the right of levying the tax from the same persons. No
threshing-floor without a tax-gatherer, no vintage without a watch, and
nought left for the sustenance of the husbandman! That food
should be snatched from the mouths of those who had earned it by toil,
was grievous: the hope, however, of being afterwards relieved, might
have made that grievance supportable; but it was necessary for every
one who appeared at the anniversary festival to provide robes of
various kinds, and gold and silver besides. And one might have said,"
How shall I furnish myself with those things, O tyrant void of
understanding, if you carry off the whole fruits of my ground, and
violently seize its expected produce?" Thus, throughout the dominions
of Galerius, men were spoiled of their goods, and all was raked
together into the imperial treasury, that the emperor might be enabled
to perform his vow of celebrating a festival which
he was doomed never to celebrate.
CHAP. XXXII.
Maximin Daia was incensed at the nomination of
Licinius to the dignity of emperor, and he would no longer be called
Caesar, or allow himself to be ranked as third in authority. Galerius,
by repeated messages, besought Daia to yield, and to acquiesce in his
arrangement, to give place to age, and to reverence the grey hairs of
Licinius. But Daia became more and more insolent. He urged that, as it
was he who first assumed the purple, so, by possession, he had right to
priority in rank; and he set at nought the entreaties and the
injunctions of Galerius. That brute animal was stung to the quick, and
bellowed when the mean creature whom he had made Caesar, in expectation
of his thorough obsequiousness, forgot the great favour conferred on
him, and impiously withstood the requests and will of his benefactor.
Galerius at length, overcome by the obstinacy of Daia, abolished the
subordinate title of Caesar, gave to himself and Licinius that of the
Augusti, and to Daia and Constantine that of sons of the Augusti. Daia,
some time after, in a letter to Galerius, took occasion to observe,
that at the last general muster he had been saluted by his army under
the title of Augustus. Galerius, vexed and grieved at this, commanded
that all the four should have the appellation of emperor.(1)
CHAP. XXXIII.
And now, when Galerius was in the eighteenth year of
his reign, God struck him with an incurable plague. A malignant ulcer
formed itself low down in his secret parts, and spread by degrees. The
physicians attempted to eradicate it, and healed up the place affected.
But the sore, after having been skinned over, broke out again; a vein
burst, and the blood flowed in such quantity as to endanger his life.
The blood, however, was stopped, although with difficulty. The
physicians had to undertake their operations anew, and at length they
cicatrized the wound. In consequence of some slight motion of his body,
Galerius received a hurt, and the blood streamed more abundantly than
before. He grew emaciated, pallid, and feeble, and the bleeding then
stanched. The ulcer began to be insensible to the remedies applied, and
a gangrene seized all the neighbouring parts. It diffused itself the
wider the more the corrupted flesh was cut away, and everything
employed as the means of cure served but to aggravate the disease.
"The masters of the healing art withdrew."
Then famous physicians were brought in from all quarters; but no human
means had any success. Apollo and AEsculapius were besought
importunately for remedies: Apollo did prescribe, and the distemper
augmented. Already approaching to its deadly crisis, it had occupied
the lower regions of his body: his bowels came out, and his whole seat
putrefied. The luckless physicians, although without hope of overcoming
the malady, ceased not to apply fomentations and administer medicines.
The humours having been repelled, the distemper attacked his
intestines, anti worms were generated in his body. The stench was so
foul as to pervade not only the palace, but even the whole city; and no
wonder, for by that time the passages from his bladder and bowels,
having been devoured by the worms, became indiscriminate, and his body,
with intolerable anguish, was dissolved into one mass of corruption.(2)
"Stung to the soul, he bellowed with the pain,
So roars the wounded bull."--PITT.
They applied warm flesh of animals to the chief seat
of the disease, that the warmth might draw out those minute worms; and
accordingly, when the dressings were removed, there issued forth an
innumerable swarm: nevertheless the
315
prolific disease had hatched swarms much more abundant to prey upon and
consume his intestines. Already, through a complication of distempers,
the different parts of his body had lost their natural form: the
superior part was dry, meagre, and haggard, and his ghastly-looking
skin had settled itself deep amongst his bones while the inferior,
distended like bladders, re rained no appearance of joints. These
things happened in the course of a complete year; and at length,
overcome by calamities, he was obliged to acknowledge God, and he cried
aloud, in the intervals of raging pain, that he would re-edify
the Church which he had demolished, and make atonement for his
misdeeds; and when he was near his end, he published an edict of the
tenor following:--
CHAP. XXXIV.
"Amongst our other regulations for the permanent
advantage of the commonweal, we have hitherto studied to reduce all
things to a conformity with the ancient laws and public discipline of
the Romans.
"It has been our aim in an especial manner, that the
Christians also, who had abandoned the religion of their forefathers,
should return to right opinions. For such wilfulness and folly had, we
know not how, taken possession of them, that instead of observing those
ancient institutions, which possibly their own forefathers had
established, they, through caprice, made laws to themselves, and drew
together into different societies many men of widely different
persuasions.
"After the publication of our edict, ordaining the
Christians to betake themselves to the observance of the ancient
institutions, many of them were subdued through the fear of danger, and
moreover many of them were exposed to jeopardy; nevertheless, because
great numbers still persist in their opinions, and because we
have perceived that at present they neither pay reverence and due
adoration to the gods, nor yet worship their own God, therefore we,
from our wonted clemency in bestowing pardon on all, have judged it fit
to extend our indulgence to those men, and to permit them again to be
Christians, and to establish the places of their religious assemblies;
yet so as that they offend not against good order.
"By another mandate we purpose to signify unto
magistrates how they ought herein to demean themselves.
"Wherefore it will be the duty of the Christians, in
consequence of this our toleration, to pray to their God for our
welfare, and for that of the public, and for their own; that the
commonweal may continue safe in every quarter, and that they themselves
may live securely in their habitations."
CHAP. XXXV.
This edict was promulgated at Nicomedia on the day
preceding the kalends of May,(1) in the eighth consulship of Galerius,
and the second of Maximin Daia. Then the prison-gates having been
thrown open, you, my best beloved Donatus,(2) together with the other
confessors for the faith, were set at liberty from a jail, which had
been your residence for six years. Galerius, however, did not, by
publication of this edict, obtain the divine forgiveness. In a few days
after he was consumed by the horrible disease that had brought on an
universal putrefaction. Dying, he recommended his wife and son to
Licinius, and delivered them over into his hands. This event was known
at Nicomedia before the end of the month.(3) His vicennial anniversary
was to have been celebrated on the ensuing kalends of March.(4)
CHAP. XXXVI.
Daia, on receiving this news, hasted with relays of
horses from the East, to seize the dominions of Galerius, and, while
Licinius lingered in Europe, to arrogate to himself all the country as
far as the narrow seas of Chalcedon. On his entry into Bithynia, he,
with the view of acquiring immediate popularity, abolished Galerius'
tax, to the great joy of all. Dissension arose between the two
emperors, and almost an open war. They stood on the opposite shores
with their armies. Peace, however, and amity were established under
certain conditions. Licinius and Daia met on the narrow sees, concluded
a treaty, and in token of friendship joined hands. Then Daia, believing
all things to be in security, returned (to Nicomedia), and was in his
new dominions what he had been in Syria and Egypt. First of all, he
took away the toleration and general protection granted by Galerius to
the Christians, and, for this end, he secretly procured addresses from
different cities, requesting that no Christian church might be built
within their walls; and thus he meant to make that which was his own
choice appear as if extorted from him by importunity. In compliance
with those addresses, he introduced a new mode of government in things
respecting religion, and for each city he created a high priest, chosen
from among the persons of most distinction. The office of those men was
to make daily sacrifices to all their gods, and, with the aid of the
former priests, to prevent the Christians from erecting churches, or
from worshipping God either publicly or in private; and he authorized
them to compel the Christians to sacrifice to idols, and,
316
on their refusal, to bring them before the civil magistrate; and, as if
this had not been enough, in every province he established a
superintendent priest, one of chief eminence in the state; and he
commanded that all those priests newly instituted should appear in
white habits, that being the most honourable distinction of dress.(1)
And as to the Christians, he purposed to follow the course that he had
followed in the East, and, affecting the show of clemency, he forbade
the slaying of God's servants, but he gave command that they should be
mutilated. So the confessors for the faith had their ears and nostrils
slit, their hands and feet lopped off, and their eyes dug out of the
sockets.
CHAP. XXXVII.
While occupied in this plan, he received letters
from Constantine which deterred him from proceeding in its execution,
so for a time he dissembled his purpose; nevertheless any Christian
that fell within his power was privily thrown into the sea. Neither did
he cease from his custom of sacrificing every day in the palace. It was
also an invention of his to cause all animals used for food to be
slaughtered, not by cooks, but by priests at the altars.; so that
nothing was ever served up, unless foretasted, consecrated, and
sprinkled with wine, according to the rites of paganism; and whoever
was invited to an entertainment must needs have returned from it impure
and defiled. In all things else he resembled his preceptor Galerius.
For if aught chanced to have been left untouched by Diocles and
Maximian, that did Daia greedily and shamelessly carry off. And now the
granaries, of each individual were shut, anti all warehouses sealed up,
and taxes, not yet due, were levied by anticipation. Hence
famine, from neglect of cultivation, and the prices of all things
enhanced beyond measure. Herds and flocks were driven from their
pasture for the daily sacrifice. By gorging his soldiers with the flesh
of sacrifices, he so corrupted them, that they disdained their wonted
pittance in corn, and wantonly threw it away. Meanwhile Daia
recompensed his bodyguards, who were very numerous, with costly raiment
and gold medals, made donatives in silver to the common soldiers and
recruits, and bestowed every sort of largess on the barbarians who
served in his army. As to grants of the property of living persons,
which he made to his favourites whenever they chose to ask what
belonged to another, I know not whether the same thanks might not be
due to him that are given to merciful robbers, who spoil without
murdering.
CHAP. XXXVIII.
But that which distinguished his character, and in
which he transcended all former emperors, was his desire of debauching
women. What else can I call it but a blind and headstrong passion? Yet
such epithets feebly express my indignation in reciting his enormities.
The magnitude of the guilt overpowers my tongue, and makes it unequal
to its office. Eunuchs and panders made search everywhere, and no
sooner was any comely face discovered, than husbands and parents were
obliged to withdraw. Matrons of quality and virgins were stripped of
their robes, and all their limbs were inspected, lest any part should
be unworthy of the bed of the emperor. Whenever a woman resisted, death
by drowning was inflicted on her; as if, under the reign of this
adulterer, chastity had been treason. Some men there were, who,
beholding the violation of wives whom for virtue and fidelity they
affectionately loved, could not endure their anguish of mind, and so
killed themselves. While this monster ruled, it was singular deformity
alone which could shield the honour of any female from his savage
desires. At length he introduced a custom prohibiting marriage unless
with the imperial permission; and he made this an instrument to serve
the purposes of his lewdness. After having debauched freeborn maidens,
he gave them for wives to his slaves. His conflicts also imitated the
example of the emperor, and violated with impunity the beds of their
dependants. For who was there to punish such offences? As for the
daughters of men of middle rank, any who were inclined took them by
force. Ladies of quality, who could not be taken by force, were
petitioned for, and obtained from the emperor by way of free gift. Nor
could a father oppose this; for the imperial warrant having been once
signed, he had no alternative bat to die, or to receive some barbarian
as his son-in-law. For hardly was there any person in the lifeguard
except of those people, who, having been driven from their habitations
by the Goths in the twentieth year of Diocletian, yielded themselves to
Galerius. and entered into his service. It was ill for humankind, that
men who had fled from the bondage of barbarians should thus come to
lord it over the Romans. Environed by such guards, Daia oppressed and
insulted the Eastern empire.
CHAP. XXXIX.
Now Daia, in gratifying his libidinous desires, made
his own will the standard of right; and therefore he would not refrain
from soliciting the widow of Galerius, the Empress Valeria, to whom he
had lately given the appellation of mother. After the death of her
husband, she
317
had repaired to Daia, because she imagined that she might live with
more security in his dominions than elsewhere, especially as he was a
married man; but the flagitious creature became instantly inflamed with
a passion for her. Valeria was still in weeds, the time of her mourning
not being yet expired. He sent a message to her proposing marriage, and
offering, on her compliance, to put away his wife. She frankly returned
an answer such as she alone could dare to do: first, that she would not
treat of marriage while she was in weeds, and while the ashes of
Galerius, her husband, and, by adoption, the father of Daia, were yet
warm; next, that he acted impiously, in proposing to divorce a faithful
wife to make room for another, whom in her turn he would also cast off;
and, lastly, that it was indecent, unexampled, and unlawful for a woman
of her title and dignity to engage a second time in wedlock.(1) This
bold answer having been reported to Daia, presently his desires changed
into rage and furious resentment. He pronounced sentence of forfeiture
against the princess, seized her goods, removed her attendants,
tortured her eunuchs to death, and banished her and her mother Prisca:
but he appointed no particular place for her residence while in
banishment; and hence he insultingly expelled her from every abode that
she took in the course of her wanderings; and, to complete all,
he condemned the ladies who enjoyed most of her friendship and
confidence to die on a false accusation of adultery.
CHAP. XL.
There was a certain matron of high rank who already
had grandchildren by more than one son. Her Valeria loved like a second
mother, and Daia suspected that her advice had produced that refusal
which Valeria gave to his matrimonial offers; and therefore he charged
the president Eratineus to have her put to death in a way that might
injure her fame. To her two others, equally noble, were added.
One of them, who had a daughter a Vestal virgin at Rome, maintained an
intercourse by stealth with the banished Valeria. The other, married to
a senator, was; intimately connected with the empress. Excellent beauty
and virtue proved the cause of their death. They were dragged to the
tribunal, not of an upright judge, but of a robber. Neither indeed was
there any accuser, until a certain Jew, one charged with other
offences, was induced, through hope of pardon, to give false evidence
against the innocent. The equitable and vigilant magistrate conducted
him out of the city under a guard, lest the populace should have stoned
him. This tragedy was acted at
Nicaea. The Jew was ordered to the torture till he should speak as he
had been instructed, while the torturers by blows prevented the women
from speaking in their own defence. The innocent were condemned to die.
Then there arose wailing and lamentation, not only of the senator, who
attended on his well-deserving consort, but amongst the spectators
also, whom this proceeding, scandalous and unheard of, had brought
together; and, to prevent the multitude from violently rescuing the
condemned persons out of the hands of the executioners, military
commanders followed with light infantry and archers. And thus, under a
guard of armed soldiers, they were led to punishment. Their domestics
having been forced to flee, they would have remained without burial,
had not the compassion of friends interred them by stealth. Nor was the
promise of pardon made good to the feigned adulterer, for he was fixed
to a gibbet, and then he disclosed the whole secret contrivance; and
with his last breath he protested to all the beholders that the women
died innocent.
CHAP. XLI.
But the empress, an exile in some desert region of
Syria, secretly informed her father Diocletian of the calamity that had
befallen her. He despatched messengers to Daia, requesting that his
daughter might be sent to him. He could not prevail. Again and again he
entreated; yet she was not sent. At length he employed a relation of
his, a military man high in power and authority, to implore Daia by the
remembrance of past favours. This messenger, equally unsuccessful in
his negotiation as the others. reported to Diocletian that his prayers
were vain.
CHAP. XLII.
At this time, by command of Constantine, the statues
of Maximian Herculius were thrown down, and his portraits removed; and,
as the two old emperors were generally delineated in one piece, the
portraits of both were removed at the same time. Thus Diocletian lived
to see a disgrace which no former emperor had ever seen, and, trader
the double load of vexation of spirit and bodily maladies, he resolved
to die. Tossing to and fro, with his soul agitated by grief, he could
neither eat nor take rest. He sighed, groaned, and wept often, and
incessantly threw himself into various postures, now on his couch, and
now on the ground. So he, who for twenty years was the most prosperous
of emperors, having been cast down into the obscurity of a private
station, treated in the most contumelious manner, and compelled to
abhor life, became incapable of receiving nourishment, and, worn out
with anguish of mind, expired.
318
CHAP. XLIII.
Of the adversaries of God there still remained one,
whose overthrow and end I am now to relate.
Daia had entertained jealousy and ill-will against
Licinius from the time that the preference was given to him by
Galerius; and those sentiments still subsisted, notwithstanding the
treaty of peace lately concluded between them. When Daia heard that the
sister of Constantine was betrothed to Licinius, he apprehended
that the two emperors, by contracting this affinity, meant to league
against him; so he privily sent ambassadors to Rome, desiring a
friendly alliance with Maxentius: he also wrote to him in terms of
cordiality. The ambassadors were received courteously, friendship
established, and in token of it the effigies of Maxentius and Daia were
placed together in public view. Maxentius willingly embraced this, as
if it had been an aid from heaven; for he had already declared war
against Constantine, as if to revenge the death of his father Maximian.
From this appearance of filial piety a suspicion arose, that the
detestable old man had but feigned a quarrel with his son that he might
have an opportunity to destroy his rivals in power, and so make way for
himself and his son to possess the whole empire. This conjecture,
however, had no foundation; for his true purpose was to have destroyed
his son and the others, and then to have reinstated himself and
Diocletian in sovereign authority.
CHAP. XLIV.
And now a civil war broke out between Constantine
and Maxentius. Although Maxentius kept himself within Rome, because the
soothsayers had foretold that if he went out of it he should perish,
yet he conducted the military operations by able generals. In forces he
exceeded his adversary; for he had not only his father's army, which
deserted from Severus, but also his own, which he had lately drawn
together out of Mauritania and Italy. They fought, and the troops of
Maxentius prevailed. At length Constantine, with steady courage and a
mind prepared for every event, led his whole forces to the
neighbourhood of Rome, and encamped them opposite to the Milvian
bridge. The anniversary of the reign of Maxentius approached, that is,
the sixth of the kalends of November,(1) and the fifth year of his
reign was drawing to an end.
Constantine was directed in a dream to cause the
heavenly sign to be delineated on the shields of his soldiers, and so
to proceed to battle. He did as he had been commanded, and he marked on
their shields the letter X, with a perpendicular line drawn through it
and turned round thus at the top, being the cipher of CHRIST. Having
this sign, his troops stood to arms. The enemies advanced, but without
their emperor, and they crossed the bridge. The armies met, and fought
with the utmost exertions of valour, and firmly maintained their
ground. In the meantime a sedition arose at Rome, and Maxentius was
reviled as one who had abandoned all concern for the safety of the
commonweal; and suddenly, while he exhibited the Circensian games on
the anniversary of his reign, the people cried with one voice,
"Constantine cannot be overcome!" Dismayed at this, Maxentius burst
from the assembly, and having called some senators together, ordered
the Sibylline books to be searched. In them it was found that:--
"On the same day the enemy of the Romans should perish."
Led by this response to the hopes of victory, he went to the field. The
bridge in his rear was broken down. At sight of that the battle grew
hotter. The hand of the Lord prevailed, and the forces of Maxentius
were routed. He fled towards the broken bridge; but the multitude
pressing on him, he was driven headlong into the Tiber.
This destructive war being ended, Constantine was
acknowledged as emperor, with great rejoicings, by the senate and
people of Rome. And now he came to know the perfidy of Daia; for he
found the letters written to Maxentius, and saw the statues and
portraits of the two associates which had been set up together. The
senate, in reward of the valour of Constantine, decreed to him the
title of Maximus (the Greatest), a title which Daia had always
arrogated to himself. Daia, when he heard that Constantine was
victorious and Rome freed, expressed as much sorrow as if he himself
had been vanquished; but afterwards, when he heard of the decree of the
senate, he grew outrageous, avowed enmity towards Constantine, and made
his title of the Greatest a theme of abuse and raillery.
CHAP. XLV.
Constantine having settled all things at Rome, went
to Milan about the beginning of winter. Thither also Licinius came to
receive his wife Constantia. When Daia understood that they were busied
in solemnizing the nuptials, he moved out of Syria in the depth of a
severe winter, and by forced marches he came into Bithynia with an army
much impaired; for he lost all his beasts of burden, of whatever kind,
in consequence of excessive rains and snow, miry ways, cold and
fatigue. Their carcases, scattered about the
319
roads, seemed an emblem of the calamities of the impending war, and the
presage of a like destruction that awaited the soldiers. Daia did not
halt in his own territories; but immediately crossed the Thracian
Bosphorus, and in a hostile manner approached the gates of Byzantium.
There was a garrison in the city, established by Licinius to check any
invasion that Daia might make. At first Daia attempted to entice the
soldiers by the promise of donatives, and then to intimidate them by
assault and storm. Yet neither promises nor force availed aught. After
eleven days had elapsed, within which time Licinius might have learned
the state of the garrison, the soldiers surrendered, not through
treachery, but because they were too weak to make a longer resistance.
Then Daia moved on to Heraclea (otherwise called Perinthus), and by
delays of the like nature before that place lost some days. And now
Licinius by expeditious marches had reached Adrianople, but with forces
not numerous. Then Daia, having taken Perinthus by capitulation, and
remained there for a short space, moved forwards eighteen miles to the
first station. Here his progress was stopped; for Licinius had already
occupied the second station, at the distance also of eighteen miles.
Licinius, having assembled what forces he could from the neighbouring
quarters, advanced towards Daia rather indeed to retard his operations
than with any purpose of fighting, or hope of victory: for Daia had an
army of seventy thousand men, while he himself had scarce thirty
thousand; for his soldiers being dispersed in various regions, there
was not time, on that sudden emergency, to collect all Of them together.
CHAP. XLVI.
The armies thus approaching each other, seemed on
the eve of a battle. Then Daia made this vow to Jupiter, that if he
obtained victory he would extinguish and utterly efface the name of the
Christians. And on the following night an angel of the Lord seemed to
stand before Licinius while he was asleep, admonishing him to arise
immediately, and with his whole army to put up a prayer to the Supreme
God, and assuring him that by so doing he should obtain victory.
Licinius fancied that, hearing this, he arose, and that his monitor,
who was nigh him, directed how be should pray, and in what words.
Awaking from sleep, he sent for one of his secretaries, and dictated
these words exactly as he had heard them:--
"Supreme God, we beseech Thee; Holy God, we beseech Thee; unto Thee we
commend all right; unto Thee we commend our safety; unto Thee we
commend our empire. By Thee we live, by Thee we are victorious and
happy. Supreme Holy God, hear our prayers; to Thee we stretch forth our
arms. Hear, Holy Supreme God."
Many copies were made of these words, and distributed amongst the
principal commanders, who were to teach them to the soldiers under
their charge. At this all men took fresh courage, in the confidence
that victory bad been announced to them from heaven. Licinius resolved
to give battle on the kalends of May;(1) for precisely eight years
before Daia had received the dignity of Caesar, and Licinius chose that
day in hopes that Daia might be vanquished on the anniversary of his
reign, as Maxentius had been on his. Daia, however, purposed to give
battle earlier, to fight on the day before those kalends,(2) and to
triumph on the anniversary of his reign. Accounts came that Daia was in
motion; the soldiers of Licinius armed themselves; and advanced. A
barren and open plain, called Campus Serenus, lay between the two
armies. They were now in sight of one another. The soldiers of Licinius
placed their shields on the ground, took off their helmets, and,
following the example of their leaders, stretched forth their hands
towards heaven. Then the emperor uttered the prayer, and they all
repeated it after him. The host, doomed to speedy destruction, heard
the murmur of the prayers of their adversaries. And now, the ceremony
having been thrice performed, the soldiers of Licinius became full of
courage, buckled on their helmets again, and resumed their
shields. The two emperors advanced to a conference: but Daia could not
be brought to peace; for he held Licinius in contempt, and imagined
that the soldiers would presently abandon an emperor parsimonious in
his donatives, and enter into the service of one liberal even to
profusion. And indeed it was on this notion that he began the war. He
looked for the voluntary surrender of the armies of Licinius; and, thus
reinforced, he meant forthwith to have attacked Constantine.
CHAP. XLVII.
So the two armies drew nigh; the trumpets ave the
signal; the military ensigns advanced; the troops of Licinius charged.
But the enemies, panic-struck, could neither draw their swords nor yet
throw their javelins. Daia went about, and, alternately by entreaties
and promises, attempted to seduce the soldiers of Licinius. But he was
not hearkened to in any quarter, and they drove him back. Then were the
troops of Daia slaughtered, none making resistance; anti such numerous
legions, and forces so mighty, were mowed down by an inferior enemy. No
one called to mind his reputation, or former valour, or the honourable
rewards which had been conferred on him. The Supreme God did so place
their necks under the sword of their
320
foes, that they seemed to have entered the field, not as combatants,
but as men devoted to death. After great numbers had fallen, Daia
perceived that everything went contrary to his hopes; and therefore he
threw aside the purple, and having put on the habit of a slave, hasted
across the Thracian Bosphorus. One half of his army perished in battle,
and the rest either surrendered to the victor or fled; for now that the
emperor himself had deserted, there seemed to be no shame in desertion
Before the expiration of the kalends of May, Daia arrived at Nicomedia,
although distant one hundred and sixty miles from the field of battle.
So in the space of one day and two nights he performed that journey.
Having hurried away with his children and wife, and a few officers of
his court, he went towards Syria; but having been joined by some troops
from those quarters, and having collected together a part of his
fugitive forces, he halted in Cappadocia, and then he resumed the
imperial garb.
CHAP. XLVIII.
Not many days after the victory, Licinius, having
received part of the soldiers of Daia into his service, and properly
distributed them, transported his army into Bithynia, and having made
his entry into Nicomedia, he returned thanks to God, through whose aid
he had overcome; and on the ides of June,(1) while he and
Constantine were consuls for the third time, he commanded the following
edict for the restoration of the Church, directed to the president of
the province, to be promulgated:--
"When we, Constantine and Licinius, emperors, had an
interview at Milan, and conferred together with respect to the good and
security of the commonweal, it seemed to us that, amongst those things
that are profitable to mankind in general, the reverence paid to the
Divinity merited our first and chief attention, and that it was proper
that the Christians and all others should have liberty to follow that
mode of religion which to each of them appeared best; so that that God,
who is seated in heaven, might be benign and propitious to us, and to
every one under our government. And therefore we judged it a salutary
measure, and one highly consonant to right reason, that no man should
be denied leave of attaching himself to the rites of the Christians, or
to whatever other religion his mind directed him, that thus the supreme
Divinity, to whose worship we freely devote ourselves, might continue
to vouchsafe His favour and beneficence to us. And accordingly we give
you to know that, without regard to any provisos in our former orders
to you concerning the Christians, all who choose that religion are
to be permitted, freely and absolutely, to remain in it, and not to be
disturbed any ways, or molested. And we thought fit to be thus special
in the things committed to your charge, that you might understand that
the indulgence which we have granted in matters of religion to the
Christians is ample and unconditional; and perceive at the same tithe
that the open and free exercise of their respective religions is
granted to all others, as well as to the Christians. For it befits the
well-ordered state and the tranquillity of our times that each
individual be allowed, according to his own choice, to worship the
Divinity; and we mean not to derogate aught from the honour due to any
religion or its votaries. Moreover, with respect to the Christians, we
formerly gave certain orders concerning the places appropriated for
their religious assemblies; but now we will that all persons who have
purchased such places, either from our exchequer or from any one else,
do restore them to the Christians, without money demanded or price
claimed, and that this be performed peremptorily and unambiguously; and
we will also, that they who have obtained any right to such places by
form of gift do forthwith restore them to the Christians: reserving
always to such persons, who have either purchased for a price, or
gratuitously acquired them, to make application to the judge of the
district, if they look on themselves as entitled to any equivalent from
our beneficence.
"All those places are, by your intervention, to be
immediately restored to the Christians. And because it appears that,
besides the places appropriated to religious worship, the Christians
did possess other places, which belonged not to individuals, but to
their society in general, that is, to their churches, we comprehend all
such within the regulation aforesaid, and we will that you cause them
all to be restored to the society or churches, and that without
hesitation or controversy: Provided always, that the persons making
restitution without a price paid shall be at liberty to seek
indemnification from our bounty. In furthering all which things for the
behoof of the Christians, you are to use your utmost diligence, to the
end that our orders be speedily obeyed, and our gracious purpose in
securing the public tranquillity promoted. So shall that divine favour
which, in affairs of the mightiest importance, we have already
experienced, continue to give success to us, and in our successes make
the commonweal happy. And that the tenor of this our gracious ordinance
may be made known unto all, we will that you cause it by your authority
to be published everywhere."
Licinius having issued this ordinance, made an
harangue, in which he exhorted the Christians to rebuild their
religious edifices.
And thus, from the overthrow of the Church
321
until its restoration, there was a space of ten years and about four
months.
CHAP. XLIX.
While Licinius pursued with his army, the fugitive
tyrant retreated, and again occupied the passes of mount Taurus; and
there, by erecting parapets and towers, attempted to stop the march of
Licinius. But the victorious troops, by an attack made on the right,
broke through all obstacles, and Daia at length fled to Tarsus. There,
being hard pressed both by sea and land, he despaired of finding any
place for refuge; and in the anguish and dismay of his mind, he
sought death as the only remedy of those calamities that God had heaped
on him. But first he gorged himself with food, and large draughts of
wine, as those are wont who believe that they eat and drink for the
last time; and so he swallowed poison. However, the force of the
poison, repelled by his full stomach, could not immediately operate,
but it produced a grievous disease, resembling the pestilence; and his
life was prolonged only that his sufferings might be more severe. And
now the poison began to rage, and to burn up everything within him, so
that he was driven to distraction with the intolerable pain; and during
a fit of frenzy, which lasted four days, he gathered handfuls of earth,
and greedily devoured it. Having undergone various and excruciating
torments, he dashed his forehead against the wall, and his eyes started
out of their sockets. And now, become blind, he imagined that he saw
God, with His servants arrayed in white robes, sitting in judgment on
him. He roared out as men on the rack are wont, and exclaimed that not
he, but others, were guilty. In the end, as if he had been racked into
confession, he acknowledged his own guilt, and lamentably implored
Christ to have mercy upon him. Then, amidst groans, like
those of one burnt alive, did he breathe out his guilty soul in
the most horrible kind of death.
CHAP. L.
Thus did God subdue all those who persecuted His
name,so that neither root nor branch of for Licinius, as soon as
he was established in sovereign authority, commanded that Valeria
should be put to death. Daia, although exasperated against her, never
ventured to do this, not even after his discomfiture and flight, and
when he knew that his end approached. Licinius commanded that
Candidianus also should be put to death. He was the son of Galerius by
a concubine, and Valeria, having no children, had adopted him. On the
news of the death of Daia, she came in disguise to the court of
Licinius, anxious to observe what might befall Candidianus. The youth,
presenting himself at Nicomedia, had an outward show of honour paid to
him, and, while he suspected no harm, was killed. Hearing of this
catastrophe, Valeria immediately fled. The Emperor Severus left a son,
Severianus, arrived at man's estate, who accompanied Daia in his flight
from the field of battle. Licinius caused him to be condemned and
executed, under the pretence that, on the death of Daia, he had
intentions of assuming the imperial purple. Long before this time,
Candidianus and Severianus, apprehending evil from Licinius, had chosen
to remain with Daia; while Valeria favoured Licinius, and was willing
to bestow on him that which she had denied to Daia, all rights accruing
to her as the widow of Galerius. Licinius also put to death Maximus,
the son of Daia, a boy eight years old, and a daughter of Daia, who was
seven years old, and had been betrothed to Candidianus. But before
their death, their mother had been thrown into the Orontes, in which
river she herself had frequently commanded chaste women to be drowned.
So, by the unerring and just judgment of God, all the implores received
according to the deeds that they had done.
CHAP. LI.
Valeria, too, who for fifteen months had wandered
under a mean garb from province to province, was at length discovered
in Thessalonica, was apprehended, together with her mother Prisca, and
suffered capital punishment. Both the ladies were conducted to
execution; a fall from grandeur which moved the pity of the multitude
of beholders that the strange sight had gathered together. They were
beheaded, and their bodies cast into the sea. Thus the chaste demeanour
of Valeria, and the high rank of her and her mother, proved fatal to
both of them.(1)
CHAP. LII.
I relate all those things on the authority of
well-informed persons; and I thought it proper to commit them to
writing exactly as they happened, lest the memory of events so
important should perish, and lest any future historian of the
persecutors should corrupt the truth, either by suppressing their
offences against God, or the judgment of God against them. To His
everlasting mercy ought we to render thanks, that, having at length
looked on the earth, He deigned to collect again and to restore His
flock, partly laid waste by ravenous wolves, and partly scattered
abroad, and to extirpate those noxious wild beasts who had trod down
its pastures, and destroyed its resting-places.(2) Where now are
322
the surnames of the Jovii and the Herculii, once so glorious and
renowned amongst the nations; surnames insolently assumed at first by
Diocles and Maximian, and afterwards transferred to their successors?
The Lord has blotted them out and erased them from the earth. Let us
therefore with exultation celebrate the triumphs of God, and oftentimes
with praises make mention of His victory; let us in our prayers, by
night and by day, beseech Him to confirm for ever that peace which,
after a warfare of ten years, He has bestowed on His own: and do you,
above all others, my best beloved Donatus, who so well deserve to be
heard, implore the Lord that it would please Him propitiously and
mercifully to continue His pity towards His servants, to protect His
people from the machinations and assaults of the devil, and to guard
the now flourishing churches in perpetual felicity.
ELUCIDATION
(On the tenth of the kalends of April, p. 301.)
SERIOUS difficulties are encountered by the learned
in reconciling Lactantius with himself, if, indeed, the fault be not
one of his copyists rather than his own. In the fourth book of the
Institutes(1) his language is thus given by Baluzius:(2)--
"Extremis temporibus Tiberii Caesaris, ut scriptum
legimus, Dominus noster Jesus Christus, a Judaeis cruciatus est post
diem decimum kalendarum Aprilis, duobus Geminis consulibus."
Lactantius was writing in Nicomedia, and may have
quoted from memory what he had read, perhaps in the report of Pilate
himself. The expression post diem decimum kalendarum Aprilis is
ambiguous: and Jarvis says, "My impression is, that it means 'after the
tenth day before the kalends of April;' that is, after the 23d of
March."(3)
But here our author says, according to the accurate
edition of Walchius(4) (A.D. 1715),--
"Exinde tetrarchas habuerunt usque ad Herodem, qui
fuit sub imperio Tiberii Caesaris: cujus anno quinto decimo, id est
duobus Geminis consulibus, ante diem septimam Calendarum Aprilium,
Judaei Christum cruci affixerunt."
But here, on the authority of forty manuscripts, Du
Fresnoy reads, "ante diem decimam," which he labours to reconcile with
"post diem decimum," as above. Jarvis adheres to the reading septimam,
supported by more than fifty manuscripts, and decides for the 23d of
March.
He cites Augustine to the same effect in the noted
passage:(5)--
"Ille autem mense conceptum et passum esse Christum,
et Paschae observatio et dies ecclesiis notissimus Nativitatis ejus
ostendit. Qui enim mense nono natus est octavo kalendas Janvarias
profecto mense primo conceptus est circa octavum kalendas Aprilis, quod
tempus passionis ejus fuit."
This, Augustine considers to be "seething a kid in
mother's milk," after a mystical sense; cruelly making the cross to
coincide with the maternity of the Virgin, who beheld her Son an
innocent victim on the anniversary of her salutation by the angel.
323
FRAGMENTS OF LACTANTIUS
I. FEAR, love, joy, sadness, lust, eager desire,
anger, pity, emulation, admiration,--these motions or affections of the
mind exist from the beginning of man's creation by the Lord; and they
were usefully and advantageously introduced into human nature, that by
governing himself by these with method, and in accordance with reason,
man may be able, by acting manfully, to exercise those good qualities,
by means of which he would justly have deserved to receive from the
Lord eternal life. For these affections of the mind being restrained
within their proper limits, that is, being rightly employed, produce at
present good qualities, and in the future eternal rewards. But when
they advance(1) beyond their boundaries, that is, when they turn aside
to an evil course, then vices and iniquities come forth, and produce
everlasting punishments.(2)
II. Within our memory, also, Lactantius speaks of
metres,--the pentameter (he says) and the tetrameter.(3)
III. Firmianus, writing to Probus on the metres of
comedies, thus speaks: "For as to the question which you proposed
concerning the metres of comedies, I also know that many are of opinion
that the plays of Terence in particular have not the metre of Greek
comedy,--that is, of Menander, Philemon, and Diphilus, which consist of
trimeter verses; for our ancient writers of comedies, in the modulation
of their plays, preferred to follow Eupolis, Cratinus, and
Aristophanes, as has been before said." That there is a measure--that
is, metre(4)--in the plays of Terence and PIautus, and of the other
comic and tragic writers, let these declare: Cicero, Scaurus, and
Firmianus.(5)
IV. We will bring forward the sentiments of our
Lactantius, which he expressed in words in his third volume to Probus
on this subject. The Gauls, he says, were from ancient times called
Galatians, from the whiteness of their body; and thus the Sibyl terms
them. And this is what the poet intended to signify when he said,--
"Gold collars deck their milk-white necks,"(6)
when he might have used the word white. It is plain that from this the
province was called Galatia, in which, on their arrival in it, the
Gauls united themselves with Greeks, from which circumstance that
region was called Gallograecia, and afterwards Galatia. And it is no
wonder if he said this concerning the Galatians, and related that a
people of the West, having passed over so great a distance in the
middle of the earth, settled in a region of the East.(7)
324
THE PHOENIX
BY AN UNCERTAIN AUTHOR. ATTRIBUTED TO LACTANTIUS.(1)
THERE iS a happy spot, retired(2) in the first East,
where the great gate of the eternal pole lies open. It is not, however,
situated near to his rising in summer or in winter, but where the sun
pours the day from his vernal chariot. There a plain spreads its open
tracts; nor does any mound rise, nor hollow valley open(3) itself. But
through twice six ells that place rises above the mountains, whose tops
are thought to be lofty among us. Here is the grove of the sun; a wood
stands planted with many a tree, blooming with the honour of perpetual
foliage. When the pole had blazed with the fires of Phaethon, that
place was uninjured by the flames; and when the deluge had immersed the
world in waves, it rose above the waters of Deucalion. No enfeebling
diseases, no sickly old age, nor cruel death, nor harsh fear,
approaches hither, nor dreadful crime, nor mad desire of riches, nor
Mars, nor fury, burning with the love of slaughter.(4) Bitter grief is
absent, and want clothed in rags, and sleepless cares, and violent
hunger. No tempest rages there, nor dreadful violence of the wind; nor
does the hoar-frost cover the earth with cold dew. No cloud extends its
fleecy(5) covering above the plains, nor does the turbid moisture of
water fall from on high; but there is a fountain in the middle, which
they call by the name of "living;"(6) it is clear, gentle, and
abounding with sweet waters, which, bursting forth once during the
space of each(7) month, twelve times irrigates all the grove with
waters. Here a species of tree, rising with lofty stem, bears mellow
fruits not about to fall on the ground. This grove, these woods, a
single(8) bird, the phoenix, inhabits,--single, but it lives reproduced
by its own death. It obeys and submits(9) to Phoebus, a remarkable
attendant. Its parent nature has given it to possess this office. When
at its first rising the saffron morn grows red, when it puts to flight
the stars with its rosy light, thrice and four times she plunges her
body into the sacred waves, thrice and four times she sips water from
the living stream.(10) She is raised aloft, and takes her seat on the
highest top of the lofty tree, which alone looks down upon the whole
grove; and turning herself to the fresh risings of the nascent Phoebus,
she awaits his rays and rising beam. And when the sun has thrown back
the threshold of the shining gate, and the light gleam(11) of the first
light has shone forth, she begins to pour strains of sacred song, and
to hail(12) the new light with wondrous voice, which neither the notes
of the nightingale(13) nor the flute of the Muses can equal with
Cyrrhaean(14) strains. But neither is it thought that the dying swan
can imitate it, nor the tuneful strings of the lyre of Mercury. After
that Phoebus has brought back his horses to the open heaven,(15) and
continually advancing, has displayed(16) his whole orb; she applauds
with thrice-repeated flapping of her wings, and having thrice adored
the fire-bearing head, is silent. And she also distinguishes the swift
hours by sounds not liable to error by day and night: an overseer(17)
of the groves, a venerable priestess of the wood, and alone admitted to
thy secrets, O Phoebus. And when she has
325
now accomplished the thousand years of her life, and length of days has
rendered her burdensome,(1) in order that she may renew the age which
has glided by, the fates pressing(2) her, she flees from the beloved
couch of the accustomed grove. And when she has left the sacred places,
through a desire of being born(3) again, then she seeks this world,
where death reigns. Full of years, she directs her swift flight into
Syria, to which Venus herself has given the name of Phoenice;(4) and
through trackless deserts she seeks the retired groves in the place,
where a remote wood lies concealed through the glens. Then she chooses
a lofty palm, with top reaching to the heavens, which has the
pleasing(5) name of phoenix from the bird, and where(6) no hurtful
living creature can break through, or slimy serpent, or any bird of
prey. Then AEolus shuts in the winds in hanging caverns, lest they
should injure the bright(7) air with their blasts, or lest a cloud
collected by the south wind through the empty sky should remove the
rays of the sun, and be a hindrance(8) to the bird. Afterwards she
builds for herself either a nest or a tomb, for she perishes that she
may live; yet she produces herself. Hence she collects juices and
odours, which the Assyrian gathers from the rich wood, which the
wealthy Arabian gathers; which either the Pygmaean(9) nations, or India
crops, or the Sabaean land produces from its soft bosom. Hence she
heaps together cinnamon and the odour of the far-scented amomum, and
balsams with mixed leaves. Neither the twig of the mild cassia nor of
the fragrant acanthus is absent, nor the tears and rich drop of
frankincense. To these she adds tender ears(10) of flourishing
spikenard, and joins the too pleasing pastures(11) of myrrh.
Immediately she places her body about to be changed on the strewed
nest, and her quiet limbs on such(12) a couch. Then with her mouth she
scatters juices around and upon her limbs, about to die with her own
funeral rites. Then amidst various odours she yields up(13) her life,
nor fears the faith of so great a deposit. In the meantime her body,
destroyed by death, which proves the source of life,(14) is hot, and
the heat itself produces a flame; and it conceives fire afar off from
the light of heaven: it blazes, and is dissolved into burnt ashes. And
these ashes collected in death it fuses,(15) as it were, into a mass,
and has an effect(16) resembling seed. From this an animal is said to
arise without limbs, but the worm is said to be of a milky colour. And
it suddenly increases vastly with an imperfectly formed(17) body, and
collects itself into the appearance of a well-rounded egg. After this
it is formed again, such as its figure was before, and the phoenix,
having burst her shell,(18) shoots forth, even as caterpillars(19) in
the fields, when they are fastened by a thread to a stone, are wont to
be changed into a butterfly. No food is appointed for her in our world,
nor does any one make it his business to feed her while unfledged. She
sips the delicate(20) ambrosial dews of heavenly nectar which have
fallen from the star-bearing pole. She gathers these; with these the
bird is nourished in the midst of odours, until she bears a natural
form. But when she begins to flourish with early youth, she flies forth
now about to return to her native abode. Previously, however, she
encloses in an ointment of balsam, and in myrrh and dissolved(21)
frankincense, all the remains of her own body, and the bones or ashes,
and relics(22) of herself, and with pious mouth brings it into a round
form,(23) and carrying this with her feet, she goes to the rising of
the sun, and tarrying at the altar, she draws it forth in the sacred
temple. She shows and presents herself an object of admiration to the
beholder; such great beauty is there, such great honour abounds. In the
first place, her colour is like the brilliancy(24) of that which the
seeds of the pomegranate when ripe take under the smooth rind;(25) such
colour as is contained in the leaves which the poppy produces in the
fields, when Flora spreads her garments beneath the blushing sky. Her
shoulders and beautiful breasts shine with this covering; with this her
head, with this her neck, and the upper parts of her back shine. And
her tail is extended, varied with yellow metal, in the spots of which
mingled purple blushes. Between her wings there is a bright(26) mark
above, as(27) Tris on high is wont to paint a cloud from above. She
gleams resplendent with a mingling of the green emerald, and a shining
beak(28) of pure horn opens itself. Her eyes are large;(29) you might
326
believe that they were two jacinths;(1) from the middle of which a
bright flame shines. An irradiated crown is fitted(2) to the whole of
head, resembling on high the glory of the head of Phoebus.(3) Scales
cover her thighs spangled with yellow metal, but a rosy(4) colour
paints her claws with honour. Her form is seen to blend the figure of
the peacock with that of the painted bird of Phasis.(5) The winged
creature which is produced in the lands of the Arabians, whether it be
beast or bird, can scarcely equal her magnitude.(6) She is not,
however, slow, as birds which through the greatness of their body have
sluggish motions, and a very heavy(7) weight. But she is light and
swift, full of royal beauty. Such she always shows herself(8) in the
sight of men. Egypt comes hither to such a wondrous(9) sight, and the
exulting crowd salutes the rare bird. Immediately they carve her image
on the consecrated marble, and mark both the occurrence and the day
with a new title. Birds of every kind assemble together; none is
mindful of prey, none of fear. Attended by a chorus of birds, she flies
through the heaven, and a crowd accompanies her, exulting in the pious
duty. But when she has arrived at the regions of pure ether, she
presently returns;(10) afterwards she is concealed in her own regions.
But oh, bird of happy lot and fate,(11) to whom the god himself granted
to be born from herself! Whether it be female, or male, or neither, or
both, happy she, who enters into(12) no compacts of Venus. Death is
Venus to her; her only pleasure is in death: that she may be born, she
desires previously to die. She is an offspring to herself, her own
father and heir, her own nurse, and always a foster-child to herself.
She is herself indeed, but not the same, since she is herself, and not
herself, having gained eternal life by the blessing of death.
327
A POEM ON THE PASSION OF THE LORD
FORMERLY ASCRIBED TO LACTANTIUS.
WHOEVER you are who approach, and are entering the
precincts[1] of the middle of the temple, stop a little and look upon
me, who, though innocent, suffered for your crime; lay me up in your
mind, keep me in your breast. I am He who, pitying the bitter
misfortunes of men, came hither as a messenger[2] of offered peace, and
as a full atonement[3] for the fault of men.[4] Here the brightest
light from above is restored to the earth; here is the merciful image
of safety; here I am a rest to you, the right way, the true redemption,
the banner[5] of God, and a memorable sign of fate. It was on account
of you and your life that I entered the Virgin's womb, was made man,
and suffered a dreadful death; nor did I find rest anywhere in the
regions of the earth, but everywhere threats, everywhere labours. First
of all a wretched dwelling[6] in the land of Judged was a shelter for
me at my birth, and for my mother with me: here first, amidst the
outstretched sluggish cattle, dry grass gave me a bed in a narrow
stall. I passed my earliest years in the Pharian[7] regions, being an
exile in the reign of Herod; and after my return to Judaea I spent the
rest of my years, always engaged[8] in fastings, and the extremity of
poverty itself, and the lowest circumstances; always by healthful
admonitions applying the minds of men to the pursuit of genial
uprightness, uniting with wholesome teaching many evident miracles: on
which account impious Jerusalem, harassed by the raging cares of envy
and cruel hatred, and blinded by madness, dared to seek for me, though
innocent, by deadly punishment, a cruel death on the dreadful cross.
And if you yourself wish to discriminate these things more fully,[9]
and if it delights you to go through all my groans, and to experience
griefs with me, put together[10] the designs and
plots, and the impious price of my innocent blood; and the pretended
kisses of a disciple,[11] and the insults and strivings of the cruel
multitude; and, moreover, the blows, and tongues prepared[12] for
accusations. Picture to your mind both the witnesses, and the
accursed[13] judgment of the blinded Pilate, and the immense
cross pressing my shoulders and wearied back, and my painful steps to a
dreadful death. Now survey me from head to foot, deserted as I am, and
lifted up afar from my beloved mother. Behold and see my locks clotted
with blood, and my blood-stained neck under my very hair, and my head
drained[14] with cruel thorns, and pouring down like rain[15] from all
sides a stream[16] of blood over my divine face. Survey my compressed
and sightless eyes, and my afflicted cheeks; see my parched tongue
poisoned with gall, and my countenance pale with death. Behold my hands
pierced with nails, and my arms drawn out, and the great wound in my
side; see the blood streaming from it, and my perforated[17] feet, and
blood-stained limbs. Bend your knee, and with lamentation adore the
venerable wood of the cross, and with lowly countenance stooping[18] to
the earth, which is wet with innocent blood, sprinkle it with rising
tears, and at times[19] bear me and my admonitions in your
devoted heart. Follow the footsteps of my life, and while you
look upon my torments and cruel death, remembering my innumerable pangs
of body and soul, learn to endure hardships,[20] and to watch over your
own safety. These memorials,[21] if at any time you find pleasure in
thinking over them, if in your mind there is any confidence to bear
anything like my suffer-
328
ings),[1] if the piety due, and gratitude worthy of my labours shall
arise, will be incitements [2] to true virtue, and they will be shields
against the snares of an enemy, aroused[3] by which you will be safe,
and as a conqueror bear off the palm in every contest. If these
memorials shall turn away your senses, which are devoted to a
perishable[4] world, from the fleeting shadow of earthly beauty, the
result will be, that you will not venture,[5] enticed by empty hope, to
trust the frail[6] enjoyments of fickle fortune, and to place your hope
in the fleeting years of life. But, truly, if you thus regard this
perishable world,[7] and through your love of a better country deprive
yourself[8] of earthly riches and the enjoyment of present things,[9]
the prayers of the pious will bring you up[10] in sacred habits, and in
the hope of a happy life, amidst severe punishments, will cherish you
with heavenly dew, and feed you with the sweetness of the promised
good. Until the great favour of God shall recall your happy" soul to
the heavenly regions,[12] your body being left after the fates of
death. Then freed from all labour, then joyfully beholding the angelic
choirs, and the blessed companies of saints in perpetual bliss, it
shall reign with me in the happy abode of perpetual peace.
GENERAL NOTE.
There is no Ms. authority for ascribing the above to
Lactantius. "It does not, in the leash come up to the purity and
eloquence of his style," says Dupin; and the same candid author notes
the "adoration of the cross" as fatal to any such claim.[1]
Of the following poem, on Easter, Dupin says: "It is
attributed to Venantius upon the testimony of some MSS. in the Vatican
Library." This writer became known to Gregory of Tours, who died about
A.D. 595, and seems to have succeeded him as bishop, dying soon after.
Bede quotes his verse on St. Alban,[2] --
"Albanum egregium fecunda Britannia profert,"
but styles him "presbyter Fortunatus." He was the author of a poem on
St. Martin, and another, In Laude Virginum. His works were edited by
Brouverius, a Jesuit.
329
POEM OF VENANTIUS HONORIUS[1] CLEMENTIANUS FORTUNATUS, ON
EASTER
The seasons blush varied with the flowery, fair
weather,[2] and the gate of the pole lies open with greater light. His
path in the heaven raises the fire-breathing[3] sun higher, who goes
forth on his course,[4] and enters the waters of the ocean. Armed
with rays traversing the liquid elements, in this[5] brief night
he stretches out the day in a circle. The brilliant firmament[6] puts
forth its clear countenance, and the bright stars show their joy.
The fruitful earth pours forth its gifts with varied increase,[7] when
the year has well returned I its vernal riches.[8] Soft beds of violets
paint the purple plain; the meadows are green with plants,[9] and the
plant shines with its leaves. By degrees gleaming brightness of the
flowers[10] comes forth; all the herbs smile with their blossoms.[11]
The seed being deposited, the corn springs up far and wide[12] in the
fields, promising to be able to overcome the hunger of the husbandman.
Having deserted its stem, the vine-shoot bewails its joys; the vine
gives water only from the source from which it is wont to give wine.
The swelling bud, rising with tender down from the back of its mother,
prepares its bosom for bringing forth. Its foliage[13] having been torn
off in the wintry season, the verdant grove now renews its leafy
shelter. Mingled together, the willow, the fir, the hazel, the
osier,[14] the elm, the maple, the walnut, each tree applauds,
delightful with its leaves. Hence the bee, about to construct its comb,
leaving the hive, humming over the flowers, carries off honey with its
leg. The bird
which, having closed its song, was dumb, sluggish with the wintry cold,
returns to its strains. Hence Philomela attunes her notes with her own
instruments,[15] and the air becomes sweeter with the re-echoed melody.
Behold, the favour of the reviving world bears witness that all gifts
have returned together with its Lord. For in honour of Christ rising
triumphant after His descent to the gloomy Tartarus, the grove on every
side with its leaves expresses approval, the plants with their flowers
express approval.[16] The light, the heaven, the fields, and the sea
duly praise the God ascending above the stars, having crushed the laws
of hell. Behold, He who was crucified reigns as God over all things,
and all created objects offer prayer to their Creator. Hail, festive
day, to be reverenced throughout the world,[17] on which God has
conquered hell, and gains the stars! The changes of the year and of the
months, the bounteous light of the days, the splendour of the hours,
all things with voice applaud.[18] Hence, in honour of you, the wood
with its foliage applauds; hence the vine, with its silent shoot, gives
thanks. Hence the thickets now resound with the whisper of birds;
amidst these the sparrow sings with exuberant[19] love. O Christ, Thou
Saviour of the world, merciful Creator and Redeemer, the only offspring
from the Godhead of the Father, flowing in an indescribable[20] manner
from the heart of Thy Parent, Thou self-existing Word, and powerful
from the mouth of Thy Father, equal to Him, of one mind with Him, His
fellow, coeval with the Father, from whom at first[21] the world
derived its origin! Thou
330
dost suspend the firmament,[1] Thou heapest together the soil, Thou
dost pour forth the seas, by whose[2] government all things which are
fixed in their places flourish. Who seeing that the human race was
plunged in the depth[3] of misery, that Thou mightest rescue man, didst
Thyself also become man: nor wert Thou willing only to be born with a
body,[4] but Thou becamest flesh, which endured to be born and to die.
Thou dost undergo[5] funeral obsequies, Thyself the author of life and
framer of the world, Thou dost enter[6] the path of death, in giving
the aid of salvation. The gloomy chains of the infernal law yielded,
and chaos feared to be pressed by the presence[7] of the light.
Darkness perishes, put to flight by the brightness of Christ; the think
pall of eternal[8] night falls. But restore the promised[9] pledge, I
pray Thee, O power benign! The third day has returned; arise, my buried
One; it is not becoming that Thy limbs should lie in the lowly
sepulchre, nor that worthless stones should press that which is the
ransom[10] of the world. It is unworthy that a stone should shut in
with a confining[11] rock, and cover Him in whose fist[12] all things
are enclosed. Take away the linen clothes, I pray; leave the napkins in
the tomb: Thou art sufficient for us, and without Thee there is
nothing. Release the chained shades of the infernal prison, and recall
to the upper regions[13] whatever sinks to the lowest depths. Give back
Thy face, that the world may see the light; give back the day which
flees from us at Thy death. But returning, O holy conqueror! Thou didst
altogether fill the heaven![14] Tartarus lies depressed, nor retains
its rights. The ruler of the lower regions, insatiably opening his
hollow jaws, who has always been a spoiler, becomes[15] a prey to Thee.
Thou rescuest an innumerable people from the prison of death, and they
follow in freedom to the place whither their leader[16] approaches. The
fierce monster in alarm vomits forth the multitude whom he had
swallowed up, and the Lamb[17] withdraws the sheep from the jaw of the
wolf. Hence re-seeking the tomb from the lower regions,[18] having
resumed Thy flesh, as a warrior Thou carriest back ample trophies to
the heavens. Those whom chaos held in punishment[19] he[20] has now
restored; and those whom death might seek, a new life holds, Oh, sacred
King, behold a great part of Thy triumph shines forth, when the sacred
layer blesses pure souls! A host, clad in white,[21] come forth from
the bright waves, and cleanse their old[22] fault in a new stream. The
white garment also designates bright souls, and the shepherd has
enjoyments from the snow-white flock. The priest Felix is added
sharing[23] in this reward, who wishes to give double talents to his
Lord. Drawing those who wander in Gentile error to better things, that
a beast of prey may not carry them away, He guards the fold of God.
Those whom guilty Eve had before infected, He now restores, fed[24]
with abundant milk at the bosom of the Church. By cultivating rustic
hearts with mild conversations, a crop is produced from a briar by the
bounty of Felix. The Saxon, a fierce nation, living as it were after
the manner of wild beasts, when you, 0 sacred One! apply a remedy, the
beast of prey resembles[25] the sheep. About to remain with you through
an age with the return[26] of a hundred-fold, you fill the barns with
the produce of an abundant harvest. May this people, free from stain,
be strengthened[27] in your arms, and may you bear to the stars a pure
pledge to God. May one crown be bestowed on you from on high gained
from yourself,[28] may another flourish gained from your people.
GENERAL NOTE.
A fine passage illustrating the gush of early
Christian devotion at Easter, "breaking into all the heavenly joy of
the new creation," will be found in Professor Milligan's remarkable
work on The Resurrection of our Lord (London, Macmillan, 1884). The
author is "professor of divinity and biblical criticism in the
University of Aberdeen."
ASTERIUS URBANUS
333
335
THE EXTANT WRITINGS OF ASTERIUS
URBANUS(1)
I. THE EXORDIUM.
HAVING now for a very long and surely a very
sufficient period had the charge pressed upon me by thee, my dear
Avircius(2) Marcellus, to write some sort of treatise against the
heresy that bears the name of Miltiades,(3) I have somehow been very
doubtfully disposed toward the task up till now; not that I felt any
difficulty in refuting the falsehood, and in bearing my testimony to
the truth, but that I was apprehensive and fearful lest I should appear
to any to be adding some new word or precept(4) to the doctrine of the
Gospel of the New Testament, with respect to which indeed it is not
possible for one who has chosen to have his manner of life in
accordance with the Gospel itself, either to add anything to it or to
take away anything from
Being recently, however, at Ancyra, a town of
Galatia, and finding the church in Pontus(5) greatly agitated(6) by
this new prophecy, as they call it, but which should rather be called
this false prophecy, as shall be shown presently, I discoursed to the
best of my ability, with the help of God, for many days in the church,
both on these subjects and on various others(7) which were brought
under my notice by them. And this I did in such manner that the church
rejoiced and was strengthened in the truth, while the adversaries(8)
were forthwith routed, and the opponents put to grief. And the
presbyters of
the place accordingly requested us to leave behind us some memorandum
of the things which we alleged in opposition to the adversaries of the
truth, there being present also our fellow-presbyter Zoticus
Otrenus.(9) This, however, we did not; but we promised, if the Lord
gave us opportunity, to write down the matters here, and send them to
them with all speed.
II. FROM BOOK I.
Now the attitude of opposition(10) which they have
assumed, and this new heresy of theirs which puts them in a position of
separation from the Church, had their origin in the following manner.
There is said to be a certain village called Ardaba(11) in the Mysia,
which touches Phrygia.(12) There, they say, one of those who had been
but recently converted to the faith, a person of the name of Montanus,
when Gratus was proconsul of Asia, gave the adversary entrance against
himself by the excessive lust of his soul after taking the lead. And
this person was carried away in spirit;(13) and suddenly being seized
with a kind of frenzy and ecstasy, he raved, and began to speak and to
utter strange things, and to prophesy in a manner contrary to the
custom of the Church, as handed down from early times and preserved
thenceforward in a continuous succession. And among those who were
present on that occasion, and heard those spurious utterances, there
were some who were indignant, and rebuked him as one frenzied, and
under the power of demons, and possessed by the spirit of delusion, and
agitating the multitude, and debarred him from speaking any more; for
they were mindful of the Lord's
336
distinction(1) and threatening, whereby He warned them to be on their
guard vigilantly against the coming of the false prophets. But there
were others too, who, as if elated by the Holy Spirit and the prophetic
gift, and not a little puffed up, and forgetting entirely the Lord's
distinction, challenged the maddening and insidious and seductive
spirit, being themselves cajoled and misled by him, so that there was
no longer any checking him to silence.(2) And thus by a kind of
artifice, or rather by such a process of craft, the devil having
devised destruction against those who were disobedient to the Lord's
warning, and being unworthily honoured by them, secretly excited and
inflamed their minds that had already left the faith which is according
to truth, in order to play the harlot with error.(3) For he stirred up
two others also, women, and filled them with the spurious spirit, so
that they too spoke in a frenzy and unseasonably, and in a strange
manner, like the person already mentioned, while the spirit called them
happy as they rejoiced and exulted proudly at his working, and puffed
them up by the magnitude of his promises; while, on the other hand, at
times also he condemned them skilfully and plausibly, in order that he
might seem to them also to have the power of reproof.(4) And those few
who were thus deluded were Phrygians. But the same arrogant spirit
taught them to revile the Church universal under heaven, because that
false spirit of prophecy found neither honour from it nor entrance into
it. For when the faithful throughout Asia met together often and in
many places of Asia for deliberation on this subject, and subjected
those novel doctrines to examination, and declared them to be spurious,
and rejected them as heretical, they were in consequence of that
expelled from the Church and debarred from communion.(5)
III. FROM BOOK II.
Wherefore, since they stigmatized us as slayers of
the prophets(6) because we did not receive their loquacious(7)
prophets,--for they say that these are they whom the Lord promised to
send to the people,--let them answer us in the name of God, and tell
us, O friends, whether there is any one among those who began to speak
from Montanus and the women onward that was persecuted by the Jews or
put to death by the wicked? There is not one. Not even one of them is
there who was seized and crucified for the name(8) of Christ. No;
certainly not. Neither assuredly was there one of these women who was
ever scourged in the synagogues of the Jews, or stoned. No; never
anywhere. It is indeed by another kind of death that Montanus and
Maximillia are said to have met their end. For the report is, that by
the instigation of that maddening spirit both of them hung themselves;
not together indeed, but at the particular time of the death of each(9)
as the common story goes. And thus they died, and finished their life
like the traitor Judas. Thus, also, the general report gives it that
Theodotus--that astonishing person who was, so to speak, the first
procurator(10) of their so-called prophecy, and who, as if he were
sometime taken up and received into the heavens, fell into spurious
ecstasies,(11) and gave himself wholly over to the spirit of
delusion--was at last tossed by him(12) into the air, and met his end
miserably. People say then that this took place in the way we have
stated. But as we did not see(13) them ourselves, we do not presume to
think that we know any of these things with certainty. And it may
therefore have been in this way perhaps, and perhaps in some other way,
that Montanus and Theodotus and the woman mentioned above perished.
IV.
And let not the spirit of Maximilla say (as it is
found in the same book of Asterius Urbanus(14)), "I am chased like a
wolf from the sheep; I am no wolf. I am word, and spirit, and power."
But let him clearly exhibit and prove the power in the spirit. And by
the spirit let him constrain to a confession those who were present at
that time for the very purpose of trying and holding converse with the
talkative spirit--those men so highly reputed as men and
bishops--namely, Zoticus of the village of Comana,(15) and Julian
337
of Apamea, whose mouths Themison(1) and his followers bridled, and
prevented the false and seductive spirit from being confuted by them.
V.
And has not the falsity of this also been made
manifest already? For it is now upwards of thirteen years since the
woman died, and there has arisen neither a partial nor a universal war
in the world. Nay, rather there has been steady and continued peace to
the Christians by the mercy of God.
VI. FROM BOOK III.
But as they have been refuted in all their
allegations, and are thus at a loss what to say, they try to take
refuge in their martyrs. For they say that they have many martyrs, and
that this is a sure proof of the power of their so-called prophetic
spirit. But this allegation as it seems, carries not a whit more truth
with it than the others. For indeed some of the other heresies have
also a great multitude of martyrs; but yet certainly we shall not on
that account agree with them, neither shall we acknowledge that they
have truth in them. And those first heretics, who from the heresy of
Marcion are called Marcionites, allege that they have a great multitude
of martyrs for Christ. But yet they do not confess Christ Himself
according to truth.
VII.
Hence, also, whenever those who have been called to
martyrdom for the true faith by the Church happen to fall in with any
of those so-called martyrs of the Phrygian heresy, they always separate
from them, and die without having fellowship with them, because they do
not choose to give their assent to the spirit of Montanus and the
women. And that this is truly the case, and that it has actually taken
place in our own times at Apamea, a town on the Maeander, in
the case of those who suffered martyrdom with Caius(2) and Alexander,
natives of Eumenia, is clear to all.
VIII.
As I found these things in a certain writing of
theirs directed against the writing of our brother Alcibiades,(3) in
which he proves the impropriety of a prophet's speaking in ecstasy, I
made an abridgment of that work.
IX.
But the false prophet falls into a spurious ecstasy,
which is accompanied by a want of all shame and fear. For beginning
with a voluntary (designed) rudeness, he ends with an involuntary
madness of soul, as has been already stated. But they will never be
able to show that any one of the Old Testament prophets, or any one of
the New, was carried away in spirit after this fashion. Nor will they
be able to boast that Agabus, or Judas, or Silas, or the daughters of
Philip, or the woman Ammia in Philadelphia, or Quadratus, or indeed any
of the others who do not in any respect belong to them, were moved in
this way.
X.
For if, after Quadratus and the woman Ammia in
Philadelphia, as they say, the women who attached themselves to
Montanus succeeded to the gift of prophecy, let them show us which of
them thus succeeded Montanus and his women. For the apostle deems that
the gift of prophecy should abide in all the Church up to the time of
the final advent. But they will not be able to show the gift to be in
their possession even at the present time, which is the fourteenth year
only from the death of Maximilla.(4)
338
ELUCIDATION
(Aviricius Marcellus, p. 335, supra.)
LIKE his great predecessor in Patristic research
(Bishop Pearson), the learned and indefatigable Bishop Lightfoot will
leave us gold-dust in the mere sweepings of his literary work. His
recent voluminous edition of the Apostolic Fathers(1) is encyclopedic
in its treatment of the subject; and I had hardly corrected the last
proofs of the fragments ascribed to Asterius Urbanus when I discovered,
in one of his notes on Polycarp, a most brilliant elucidation of a
matter which I had supposed involved in twofold obscurity. Asterius is
a mere name embedded in Eusebius, and in his fragments there preserved
is embedded the yet obscurer name of Aviricius Marcellus, which the
reader will find, with its various spellings, in one of the
translator's notes.(2) Who could have supposed that even the learning
and ingenuity of Lightfoot could fish out of very dark waters such
shining booty as fills the network about "Abercius of Hierapolis?"
While he does not even name Asterius, the mere nominis umbra of
Aviricius Marcellus is material for a truly remarkable dissertation
covering nine pages of fine print, and enabling us to conclude that
this Aviricius is none other than the same "bishop of Hierapolis" about
whom there is such a long story in the Bollandist Acta Sanctorum.(3)
The story is a silly legend, but Lightfoot understands the art ex fumo
dare lucem; and any one who enjoys following up such elaborations will
find most curious and delightful reading in the pages to which I have
referred. Our Aviricius, then, was bishop of "Hieropolis of Lesser
Phrygia," not of Hierapolis on the Maeander, and flourished about A.D.
163, during the reign of M. Aurelius. This date, therefore, must
correct the conjecture of Tillemont and the date which I had accepted
from him on the authority of Dr. Lardner.(4)
341
ON THE CREATION OF THE WORLD(1)
To me, as I meditate and consider in my mind
concerning the creation of this world in which we are kept enclosed,
even such is the rapidity of that creation; as is contained in the book
of Moses, which he wrote about its creation, and which is called
Genesis. God produced that entire mass for the adornment of His majesty
in six days; on the seventh to which He consecrated it ... with a
blessing. For this reason, therefore, because in the septenary number
of days both heavenly and earthly things are ordered, in place of the
beginning I will consider of this seventh day after the principle of
all matters pertaining to the number of seven; and as far as I shall be
able, I will endeavour to portray the day of the divine power to that
consummation.
In the beginning God made the light, and divided it
in the exact measure of twelve hours by day and by night, for this
reason, doubtless, that day might bring over the night as an occasion
of rest for men's labours; that, again, day might overcome, and thus
that labour might be refreshed with this alternate change of rest, and
that repose again might be tempered by the exercise of day. "On the
fourth day He made two lights in the heaven, the greater and the
lesser, that the one might rule over the day, the other over the
night,"(2)--the lights of the sun and moon and He placed the rest of
the stars in heaven, that they might shine upon the earth, and by their
positions distinguish the seasons, and years, and months, and days, and
hours.
Now is manifested the reason of the truth why the
fourth day is called the Tetras, why we fast even to the ninth hour, or
even to the evening, or why there should be a passing over even to the
next day. Therefore this world of ours is composed of four
elements--fire, water, heaven, earth. These four elements, therefore,
form the quaternion of times or seasons. The
sun, also, and the moon constitute throughout the space of the year
four seasons--of spring, summer, autumn, winter; and these seasons make
a quaternion. And to proceed further still from that principle, lo,
there are four living creatures before God's throne,(3) four Gospels,
four rivers flowing in paradise;(4) four generations of people from
Adam to Noah, from Noah to Abraham, from Abraham to Moses, from Moses
to Christ the Lord, the Son of God; and four living creatures, viz., a
man, a calf, a lion, an eagle; and four rivers, the Pison, the Gihon.
the Tigris, and the Euphrates. The man Christ Jesus, the originator of
these things whereof we have above spoken, was taken prisoner by wicked
hands, by a quaternion of soldiers. Therefore on account of His
captivity by a quaternion, on account of the majesty of His
works,--that the seasons also, wholesome to humanity, joyful for the
harvests, tranquil for the tempests, may roll on,--therefore we make
the fourth day a station or a supernumerary fast.
On the fifth day the land and water brought forth
their progenies. On the sixth day the things that were wanting were
created; and thus God raised up man from the soil, as lord of all the
things which He created upon the earth and the water. Yet He created
angels and archangels before He created man, placing spiritual beings
before earthly ones. For light was made before sky and the earth. This
sixth day is called parasceve,(5) that is to say, the preparation of
the kingdom. For He perfected Adam, whom He made after His image and
likeness. But for this reason He completed His works before He created
angels and fashioned man, lest perchance they should falsely assert
that they had been His helpers. On this day also. on account of the
passion of the Lord Jesus Christ, we make either a station to God, or a
fast. On the seventh day He rested from all His works, and blessed it,
and sanctified it. On the former day we are accustomed to fast
rigorously, that on the Lord's day we may go forth
342
to our bread with giving of thanks. And let the parasceve become a
rigorous fast, lest we should appear to observe any Sabbath with the
Jews, which Christ Himself, the Lord of the Sabbath, says by His
prophets that "His soul hateth;"(1) which Sabbath He in His body
abolished, although, nevertheless, He had formerly Himself commanded
Moses that circumcision should not pass over the eighth day, which day
very frequently happens on the Sabbath, as we read written in the
Gospel.(2) Moses, foreseeing the hardness of that people, on the
Sabbath raised up his hands, therefore, and thus figuratively fastened
himself to a cross.(3) And in the battle they were sought for by the
foreigners on the Sabbath-day, that they might be taken captive, and,
as if by the very strictness of the law, might be fashioned to the
avoidance of its teaching.(4)
And thus in the sixth Psalm for the eighth day,(5)
David asks the Lord that He would not rebuke him in His anger, nor
judge him in His fury; for this is indeed the eighth day of that future
judgment, which will pass beyond the order of the sevenfold
arrangement. Jesus also, the son of Nave, the successor of Moses,
himSelf broke the Sabbath-day; for on the Sabbath-day he commanded the
children of Israel(6) to go round the walls of the city of Jericho with
trumpets, and declare war against the aliens. Matthias(7) also, prince
of Judah, broke the Sabbath; for he slew the prefect of Antiochus the
king of Syria on the Sabbath, and subdued the foreigners by pursuing
them. And in Matthew we read, that it is written Isaiah also and the
rest of his colleagues broke the Sabbath(8)--that that true and just
Sabbath should be observed in the seventh millenary of years. Wherefore
to those seven days the Lord attributed to each a thousand years; for
thus went the warning: "In Thine eyes, O Lord, a thousand years are as
one day."(9) Therefore in the eyes of the Lord each thousand of years
is ordained, for I find that the Lord's eyes are seven.(10) Wherefore,
as I have narrated, that true Sabbath will be in the seventh millenary
of years, when Christ with His elect shall reign. Moreover, the seven
heavens agree with those days; for thus we are warned: "By the word of
the Lord were the heavens made, and all the powers of them by the
spirit of His mouth."(11) There are seven spirits. Their names are the
spirits which abode on the
Christ of God, as was intimated in Isaiah the prophet: "And there rests
upon Him the spirit of wisdom and of understanding, the spirit of
counsel and might, the spirit of wisdom(12) and of piety, and the
spirit of God's fear hath filled Him."(13) Therefore the highest heaven
is the heaven of wisdom; the second, of understanding; the third, of
counsel; the fourth, of might; the fifth, of knowledge; the sixth, of
piety; the seventh, of God's fear. From this, therefore, the thunders
bellow, the lightnings are kindled,(14) the fires are heaped together;
fiery darts(15) appear, stars gleam, the anxiety caused by the dreadful
comet is aroused.(16) Sometimes it happens that the sun and moon
approach one another, and cause those more than frightful appearances,
radiating with light in the field of their aspect. But the author of
the whole creation is Jesus. His name is the Word; for thus His Father
says: "My heart hath emitted a good word."(17) John the evangelist thus
says: "In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and
the Word was God. The same was in the beginning with God. All things
were made by Him, and without Him was nothing made that was made."(18)
Therefore, first, was made the creation; secondly, man, the lord of the
human race, as says the apostle.(19) Therefore this Word, when it made
light, is called Wisdom; when it made the sky, Understanding; when it
made land and sea, Counsel; when it made sun and moon and other bright
things, Power; when it calls forth land and sea, Knowledge; when it
formed man, Piety; when it blesses and sanctifies man, it has the name
of God's fear.
Behold the seven horns of the Lamb,(20) the seven
eyes of God(21)-- the seven eyes are the seven spirits of the Lamb;(22)
seven torches burning before the throne of God(22) seven golden
candlesticks,(23) seven young sheep,(24) the seven women in Isaiah,(25)
the seven churches in Paul,(26) seven deacons,(27) seven angels,(28)
seven trumpets,(29) seven seals to the book, seven periods of seven
days with which Pentecost is completed, the seven weeks in Daniel,(30)
also the forty-three weeks in Daniel;(31) with Noah, seven of all clean
343
things in the ark;(1) seven revenges of Cain,(2) seven years for a debt
to be acquitted,(3) the lamp with seven orifices,(4) seven pillars of
wisdom in the house of Solomon.(5)
Now, therefore, you may see that it is being told
you of the unerring glory of God in providence; yet, as far as my small
capacity shall be able, I will endeavour to set it forth. That He might
re-create that Adam by means of the week, and bring aid to His entire
creation, was accomplished by the nativity of His Son Jesus Christ our
Lord. Who, then, that is taught in the law of God, who that is filled
with the Holy Spirit, does not see in his heart, that on the same day
on which the dragon seduced Eve, the angel Gabriel brought the glad
tidings to the Virgin Mary; that on the same day the Holy Spirit
overflowed the Virgin Mary, on which He made light; that on that day He
was incarnate in flesh, in which He made the land and water; that on
the same day He was put to the breast, on which He made the stars; that
on the same day He was circumcised,(6) on which the land and water
brought forth their offspring; that on the same day He was incarnated,
on which He formed man out of the ground; that on the same day Christ
was born, on which He formed man; that on that day He
suffered, on which Adam fell; that on the same day He rose again from
the dead, on which He created light? He, moreover, consummates His
humanity in the number seven: of His nativity, His infancy, His
boyhood, His youth, His young-manhood, His mature age, His death. I
have also set forth His humanity to the Jews in these manners: since He
is hungry, is thirsty; since He gave food and drink; since He walks,
and retired; since He slept upon a pillow;(7) since, moreover, He
walks upon the stormy seas with His feet, He commands the winds, He
cures the sick and restores the lame, He raises the blind by His
speech,(8)--see ye that He declares Himself to them to be the Lord.
The day, as I have above related, is divided into
two parts by the number twelve--by the twelve hours of day and night;
and by these hours too, months, and years, and seasons, and ages are
computed. Therefore, doubtless, there are appointed also twelve angels
of the day and twelve angels of the night, in accordance, to wit, with
the number of hours. For these are the twenty-four witnesses of the
days and nights(9) which sit before the throne of God, having golden
crowns on their heads, whom the Apocalypse of John the apostle and
evangelist calls elders, for the reason that they are older both than
the other angels and than men.
344
COMMENTARY ON THE
APOCALYPSE OF THE BLESSED JOHN
FROM THE FIRST CHAPTER.
1. "THE Revelation of Jesus Christ, which God gave
to Him, and showed unto His servants things which must shortly come to
pass, and signified it. Blessed are they who read and hear the words of
this prophecy, and keep the things which are written."] The beginning
of the book promises blessing to him that reads and hears and keeps,
that he who takes pains about the reading may thence learn to do works,
and may keep the precepts.
4. "Grace unto you, and peace, from Him which is,
and which was, and which is to come."] He is, because He endures
continually; He was, because with the Father He made all things, and
has at this time taken a beginning from the Virgin; He is to come,
because assuredly He will come to judgment. "And from the seven
spirits which are before His throne."] We read of a sevenfold spirit in
Isaiah,(1)--namely, the spirit of wisdom and of understanding, the
spirit of counsel and might, of knowledge and of piety, and the spirit
of the fear of the Lord.
5. "And from Jesus Christ, who is the faithful
witness, the first-begotten of the dead."] In taking upon Him manhood,
He gave a testimony in the world, wherein also having suffered, He
freed us by His blood from sin; and having vanquished hell, He was the
first who rose from the dead and "death shall have no more dominion
over Him,"(2) but by His own reign the kingdom of the world is
destroyed.
6. "And He made us a kingdom and priests unto God
and His Father."] That is to say, a Church of all believers; as also
the Apostle Peter says: "A holy nation, a royal priesthood."(3)
7. "Behold, He shall come with clouds, and every eye
shall see Him."] For He who at first came hidden in the manhood that He
had undertaken, shall after a little while come to judgment
manifest in majesty and glory. And what saith He?
12. "And I turned, and saw seven golden
candlesticks; and in the midst of the seven golden candlesticks one
like unto the Son of man."] He says that He was like Him after His
victory over death, when He had ascended into the heavens, after the
union in His body of the power which He received from the Father with
the spirit of His glory.
13. "As it were the Son of man walking in the midst
of the golden candlesticks."] He says, in the midst of the churches, as
it is said in Solomon, "I will walk in the midst of the paths of the
just,"(4) whose antiquity is immortality, and the fountain of majesty.
"Clothed with a garment down to the ankles."] In the
long, that is, the priestly garment, these words very plainly
deliver the flesh which was not corrupted in death, and has the
priesthood through suffering.
"And He was girt about the paps with a golden
girdle."] His paps are the two testaments, and the golden girdle is the
choir of saints, as gold tried in the fire. Otherwise the golden girdle
bound around His breast indicates the enlightened conscience, and the
pure and spiritual apprehension that is given to the
churches.
14. "And His head and His hairs were
white as it were white wool, and as it were snow."] On the head the
whiteness is shown; "but the head of Christ is God."(5) in the white
hairs is the multitude of abbots(6) like to wool, in respect of simple
sheep; to snow, in respect of the innumerable crowd of candidates
taught from heaven.
"His eyes were as a flame of fire."] God's preceipts
are those which minister light to believers, but to unbelievers burning.
16. "And in His face was brightness as the sun."]
That which He called brightness was
345
the appearance of that in which He spoke to men face to face. But the
glory of the sun is less than the glory of the Lord. Doubtless on
account of its rising and setting, and rising again, that He was born
and suffered and rose again, therefore the Scripture gave this
similitude, likening His face to the glory of the sun.
15. "His feet were like unto yellow brass, as if
burned in a furnace."] He calls the apostles His feet, who, being
wrought by suffering, preached His word in the whole world; for He
rightly named those by whose means the preaching went forth, feet.
Whence also the prophet anticipated this, and said: "We will worship in
the place where His feet have stood."(1) Because where they first of
all stood and confirmed the Church, that is, in Judea, all the saints
shall assemble together, and will worship their Lord.
16. "And out of His mouth was issuing a sharp
two-edged sword."] By the twice-sharpened sword going forth out of His
mouth is shown, that it is He Himself who has both now declared
the word of the Gospel, and previously by Moses declared the knowledge
of the law to the whole world. But because from the same word, as well
of the New as of the Old Testament, He will assert Himself upon the
whole human race, therefore He is spoken of as two-edged. For the sword
arms the soldier, the sword slays the enemy, the sword punishes the
deserter. And that He might show to the apostles that He was announcing
judgment, He says: "I came not to send peace, but a sword."(2) And
after He had completed His parables, He says to them: "Have ye
understood all these things? And they said, We have. And He added,
Therefore is every scribe instructed in the kingdom of God like unto a
man that is a father of a family, bringing forth from his treasure
things new and old,"(3)--the new, the evangelical words of
the apostles; the old, the precepts of the law and the prophets:
and He testified that these proceeded out of His mouth. Moreover, He
also says to Peter: "Go thou to the sea, and cast a hook, and take up
the fish that shall first come up; and having opened its mouth, thou
shalt find a stater (that is, two denarii), and thou shalt give it for
me and for thee."(4) And similarly David says by the Spirit: "God spake
once, twice I have heard the same."(5) Because God once decreed from
the beginning what shall be even to the end. Finally, as He Himself is
the Judge appointed by the Father. on account of His assumption of
humanity, wishing to show that men shall be judged by the word that He
had declared, He says: "Think ye that I will
judge you at the last day? Nay, but the word," says He, "which I have
spoken unto you, that shall judge you in the last day."(6) And Paul,
speaking of Antichrist to the Thessalonians, says: "Whom the Lord Jesus
will slay by the breath of His mouth."(7) And Isaiah says: "By the
breath of His lips He shall slay the wicked."(8) This, therefore, is
the two-edged sword issuing out of His mouth.
15. "And His voice as it were the voice of many
waters."] The many waters are understood to be many peoples, or the
gift of baptism that He sent forth by the apostles, saying: "Go ye,
teach all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father, and of the
Son, and of the Holy Ghost."(9)
16. "And He had in His right hand seven stars."] He
said that in His right hand He had seven stars, because the Holy Spirit
of sevenfold agency was given into His power by the Father. As Peter
exclaimed to the Jews: "Being at the right hand of God exalted, He hath
shed forth this Spirit received from the Father, which ye both see and
hear."(10) Moreover, John the Baptist had also anticipated this, by
saying to his disciples: "For God giveth not the Spirit by measure unto
Him. The Father," says he, "loveth the Son, and hath given all things
into His hands."(11) Those seven stars are the seven churches, which he
names in his addresses by name, old calls them to whom he wrote
epistles. Not that they are themselves the only, or even the principal
churches; but what he says to one, he says to all. For they are in no
respect difent, that on that ground any one should prefer them to the
larger number of similar small ones. In the whole world Paul taught
that all the churches are arranged by sevens, that they are called
seven, and that the Catholic Church is one. And first of all, indeed,
that he himself also might maintain the type of seven churches, he did
not exceed that number. But he wrote to the Romans, to the Corinthians,
to the Galatians, to the Ephesians, to the Thessalonians, to the
Philippians, to the Colossians; afterwards he wrote to individual
persons, so as not to exceed the number of seven churches. And
abridging in a short space his announcement, he thus says to
Timothy: "That thou mayest know how thou oughtest to behave thyself in
the Church of the living God."(12) We read also that this typical
number is announced by the Holy Spirit by the month of Isaiah: "Of
seven women which took hold of one man."(13) The one man is
346
Christ, not born of seed; but the seven women are seven churches,
receiving His bread, and clothed with his apparel, who ask that
their reproach should be taken away, only that His name should be
called upon them. The bread is the Holy Spirit, which nourishes
to eternal life, promised to them, that is, by faith. And His
garments wherewith they desire to be clothed are the glory of
immortality, of which Paul the apostle says: "For this corruptible must
put on incorruption, and this mortal must put on mortality."(1)
Moreover, they ask that their reproach may be taken away--that is, that
they may be cleansed from their sins: for the reproach is the original
sin which is taken away in baptism, and they begin to be called
Christian men, which is, "Let thy name be called upon us." Therefore in
these seven churches, of one Catholic Church are believers, because it
is one in seven by the quality of faith and election. Whether writing
to them who labour in the world, and live(2) of the frugality of their
labours, and are patient, and when they see certain men in the Church
wasters, and pernicious, they hear them, lest there should become
dissension, he yet admonishes them by love, that in what respects their
faith is deficient they should repent; or to those who dwell in cruel
places among persecutors, that they should continue faithful; or to
those who, under the pretext of mercy, do unlawful sins in the Church,
and make them manifest to be done by others; or to those that are at
ease in the Church; or to those who are negligent, and Christians only
in name; or to those who are meekly instructed, that they may bravely
persevere in faith; or to those who study the Scriptures, and labour to
know the mysteries of their announcement, and are unwilling to do God's
work that is mercy and love: to all he urges penitence, to all he
declares judgment.
FROM THE SECOND CHAPTER.
2. "I know thy works, and thy labour, and thy
patience."] In the first epistle He speaks thus: I know that thou
sufferest and workest, I see that thou art patient; think not that I am
staying long from thee.
"And that thou canst not bear them that are evil,
and who say that they are Jews and are not, and thou has found them
liars, and thou hast patience for My name's sake."] All these things
tend to praise, and that no small praise; and it behoves such men, and
such a class, and such elected persons, by all means to be admonished,
that they may not be defrauded of such privileges granted to them of
God. These few things He said that He had against them.
4, 5. "And thou hast left thy first love: remember
whence thou hast fallen."] He who falls, falls from a height: therefore
He said whence: because, even to the very last, works of love must be
practised; and this is the principal commandment. Finally, unless this
is done, He threatened to remove their candlestick out of its place,
that is, to disperse the congregation.
6. "This thou hast also, that thou hatest the deeds
of the Nicolaitanes."] But because thou thyself hatedst those who hold
the doctrines of the Nicolaitanes, thou expectest praise. Moreover, to
hate the works of the Nicolaitanes, which He Himself also hated, this
tends to praise. But the works of the Nicolaitanes were in that time
false and troublesome men, who, as ministers under the name of
Nicolaus, had made for themselves a heresy, to the effect that what had
been offered to idols might be exorcised and eaten, and that whoever
should have committed fornication might receive peace on the eighth
day. Therefore He extols those to whom He is writing; and to these men,
being such and so great, He promised the tree of life, which is in the
paradise of His God.
The following epistle unfolds the mode of life and
habit of another order which follows. He proceeds to say:--
9. "I know thy tribulation and thy poverty, but thou
art rich."] For He knows that with such men there are riches hidden
with Him, and that they deny the blasphemy of the Jews, who say that
they are Jews and are not; but they are the synagogue of Satan, since
they are gathered together by Antichrist; and to them He says:--
10. "Be thou faithful unto death."] That they should
continue to be faithful even unto death.
11. "He that shall overcome, shall not be hurt by
the second death."] That is, he shalt not be chastised in hell.
The third order of the saints shows that they are
men who are strong in faith, and who are not afraid of persecution; but
because even among them there are some who are inclined to unlawful
associations, He says:--
14-16. "Thou hast there some who hold the doctrine
of Balaam, who taught in the case of Balak that he should put a
stumbling-block before the children of Israel, to eat and to commit
fornication. So also hast thou them who hold the doctrine of the
Nicolaitanes; but I will fight with them with the sword of my mouth."]
That is, I will say what I shall command, and I will tell you what you
shall do. For Balaam,(3) with his doctrine, taught Balak to cast a
stumbling-block before the eyes of the children of Israel, to eat what
was sacrificed to idols, and to
347
commit fornication,--a thing which is known to have happened of old.
For he gave this advice to the king of the Moabites, and they caused
stumbling to the people. Thus, says He, ye have among you those who
hold such doctrine; and under the pretext of mercy, you would corrupt
others.
17. "To him that overcometh I will give the hidden
manna, and I will give him a white stone."] The hidden manna is
immortality; the white gem is adoption to be the son of God; the new
name written on the stone is "Christian."
The fourth class intimates the nobility of the
faithful, who labour daily, and do greater works. But even among them
also He shows that there are men of an easy disposition to grant
unlawful peace, and to listen to new forms of prophesying; and He
reproves and warns the others to whom this is not pleasing, who know
the wickedness opposed to them: for which evils He purposes to bring
upon the head of the faithful both sorrows and dangers; and therefore
He says:--
24. "I will not put upon you any other burden."]
That is, I have not given you laws, observances, and duties, which is
another burden.
25, 26. "But that which ye have, hold fast until I
come; and he that overcometh, to him will I give power over all
peoples."] That is, him I will appoint as judge among the rest of
the saints.
28. "And I will give him the morning star."] To wit,
the first resurrection. He promised the morning star, which drives away
the night, and announces the light, that is, the beginning of day.
FROM THE THIRD CHAPTER.
The fifth class, company, or association of saints,
sets forth men who are careless, and who are carrying on in the world
other transactions than those which they ought--Christians only in
name. And therefore He exhorts them that by any means they should be
turned away from negligence, and be saved; and to this effect He says:--
2. "Be watchful, and strengthen the other things
which were ready to die; for I have not found thy works perfect before
God."] For it is not enough for a tree to live and to have no fruit,
even as it is not enough to be called a Christian and to confess
Christ, but not to have Himself in our work, that is, not to do His
precepts.
The sixth class is the mode of life of the best
election. The habit of saints is set forth; of those, to wit, who are
lowly in the world, and unskilled in the Scriptures, and who hold the
faith immoveably, and are not at all broken down by any chance, or
withdrawn from the faith by any fear. Therefore He says to them:--
8. "I have set before thee an open door, because
thou hast kept the word of my patience."] In such little strength.
10. "And I will keep thee from the hour of
temptation."] That they may know His glory to be of this kind, that
they are not indeed permitted to be given over to temptation.
12. "He that overcometh shall be made a pillar in
the temple of God."] For even as a pillar is an ornament of the
building, so he who perseveres shall obtain a nobility in the Church.
Moreover, the seventh association of the Church
declares that they are rich men placed in positions of dignity, but
believing that they are rich, among whom indeed the Scriptures are
discussed in their bedchamber, while the faithful are outside; and they
are understood by none, although they boast themselves, and say that
they know all things,--endowed with the confidence of learning, but
ceasing from its labour. And thus He says:--
15. "That they are neither cold nor hot."] That is,
neither unbelieving nor believing, for they are all things to all men.
And because he who is neither cold nor hot, but lukewarm, gives nausea,
He says:--
16. "I will vomit thee out of My mouth."] Although
nausea is hateful, still it hurts no one; so also is it with men of
this kind when they have been cast forth. But because there is time of
repentance, He says:--
18. "I persuade thee to buy of Me gold tried in the
fire."] That is, that in whatever manner you can, you should suffer for
the Lord's name tribulations and passions.
"And anoint thine eyes with eye-salve."] That what
you gladly know by the Scripture, you should strive also to do the work
of the same. And because, if in these ways men return out of great
destruction to great repentance, they are not only useful to
themselves, but they are able also to be of advantage to many, He
promised them no small reward,--to sit, namely, on the throne of
judgment.
FROM THE FOURTH CHAPTER.
"After this, I beheld, and, lo, a door was opened in
heaven."] The new testament is announced as an open door in heaven.
"And the first voice which I heard was, as it were,
of a trumpet talking with me, saying, Come up hither."] Since the door
is shown to be opened, it is manifest that previously it had been
closed to men. And it was sufficiently and fully laid open when Christ
ascended with His body to the Father into heaven. Moreover, the first
348
voice which he had heard when he says that it spoke with him, without
contradiction condemns those who say that one spoke in the prophets,
another in the Gospel; since it is rather He Himself who comes, that is
the same who spoke in the prophets. For John was of the
circumcision, and all that people which had heard the announcement of
the Old Testament was edified with his word.
"That very same voice," said he, "that I had heard,
that said unto me, Come up hither."] That is the Spirit, whom a little
before he confesses that he had seen walking as the Son of man in the
midst of the golden candlesticks. And he now gathers from Him what had
been foretold in similitudes by the law, and associates with this
scripture all the former prophets, and opens up the Scriptures.
And because our Lord invited in His own name all believers into heaven,
He forthwith poured out the Holy Spirit, who should bring them to
heaven. He says:--
2. "Immediately I was in the Spirit."] And since the
mind of the faithful is opened by the Holy Spirit, and that is
manifested to them which was also foretold to the fathers, he
distinctly says:--
"And, behold, a throne was set in heaven."] The
throne set: what is it but the throne of judgment and of the King?
3. "And He that sate upon the throne was, to look
upon, like a jasper and a sardine stone."] Upon the throne he says that
he saw the likeness of a jasper and a sardine stone. The jasper is of
the colour of water, the sardine of fire. These two are thence
manifested to be placed as judgments upon God's tribunal until the
consummation of the world, of which judgments one is already completed
in the deluge of water, and the other shall be completed by fire.
"And there was a rainbow about the throne."]
Moreover, the rainbow round about the throne has the same colours. The
rainbow is called a bow from what the Lord spake to Noah and to
his sons,(1) that they should not fear any further deluge in the
generation of God, but fire. For thus He says: I will place my
bow in the clouds, that ye may now no longer fear water,
but fire.
6. "And before the throne there was, as it
were, a sea of glass like to crystal."] That is the gift of
baptism which He sheds forth through His Son in time of
repentance, before He executes judgment. It is therefore before the
throne, that is, the judgment. And when he says a sea of glass
like to crystal, he shows that it is pure water, smooth, not agitated
by the wind, not flowing down as on a slope, but given to be immoveable
as the house of God.
"And round about the throne were four living
creatures."] The four living creatures are the four Gospels.
7-10. "The first living creature was like to a lion,
and the second was like to a calf, and the third had a face like to a
man, and the fourth was like to a flying eagle; and they had six wings,
and round about and within they were full of eyes; and they had no
rest, saying, Holy, holy, holy, Lord Omnipotent. And the four and
twenty elders, failing down before the throne, adored God."] The four
and twenty elders are the twenty-four books of the prophets and
of the law, which give testimonies of the judgment. Moreover, also,
they are the twenty-four fathers--twelve apostles and twelve
patriarchs. And in that the living creatures are different in
appearance, this is the reason: the living creature like to a lion
designates Mark, in whom is heard the voice of the lion roaring in the
desert. And in the figure of a man, Matthew strives to
declare to us the genealogy of Mary, from whom Christ took flesh.
Therefore, in enumerating from Abraham to David, and thence to Joseph,
he spoke of Him as if of a man: therefore his announcement sets forth
the image of a man. Luke, in narrating the priesthood of Zacharias as
he offers a sacrifice for the people, and the angel that appears to him
with respect of the priesthood, and the victim in the same description
bore the likeness of a calf. John the evangelist, like to an eagle
hastening on uplifted wings to greater heights, argues about the Word
of God. Mark, therefore, as an evangelist thus beginning, "The
beginning of the Gospel of Jesus Christ, as it is written in Isaiah the
prophet;"(2) The voice of one crying in the wilderness,"(3)--has the
effigy of a lion. And Matthew, "The hook of the generation of Jesus
Christ, the son of David, the son of Abraham:"(4) this is the form of a
man. But Luke said, "There was a priest, by name Zachariah, of the
course of Abia, and his wife was of the daughters of Aaron:"(5) this is
the likeness of a calf. But John, when he begins, "In the beginning was
the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God,"(6) sets
forth the likeness of a flying eagle. Moreover, not only do the
evangelists express their four similitudes in their respective openings
of the Gospels, but also the Word itself of God the Father Omnipotent,
which is His Son our Lord Jesus Christ, bears the same likeness in the
time of His advent. When He preaches to us, He is, as it were, a lion
and a lion's whelp. And when for man's salvation He was made man to
overcome death, and to set all men free, and that He offered
349
Himself a victim to the Father on our behalf, He was called a calf. And
that He overcame death and ascended into the heavens, extending His
wings and protecting His people, He was named a flying eagle. Therefore
these announcements, although they are four, yet are one, because it
proceeded from one mouth. Even as the river in paradise, although it is
one, was divided into four heads. Moreover, that for the announcement
of the New Testament those bring creatures had eyes within and without,
shows the spiritual providence which both looks into the secrets of the
heart, and beholds the things which are coming after that are within
and without.
8. "Six wings."] These are the testimonies of the
books of the Old Testament. Thus, twenty and four make as many as there
are elders sitting upon the thrones. But as an animal cannot fly unless
it have wings, so, too, the announcement of the New Testament gains no
faith unless it have the fore-announced testimonies of the Old
Testament, by which it is lifted from the earth, and flies. For in
every case, what has been told before, and is afterwards found to have
happened, that begets an undoubting faith. Again, also, if wings be not
attached to the living creatures, they have nothing whence they may
draw their life. For unless what the prophets foretold had been
consummated in Christ, their preaching was vain. For the Catholic
Church holds those things which were both before predicted and
afterwards accomplished. And it flies, because the living animal is
reasonably lifted up from the earth. But to heretics who do not avail
themselves of the prophetic testimony, to them also there are present
living creatures; but they do not fly, because they are of the earth.
And to the Jews who do not receive the announcement of the New
Testament there are present wings; but they do not fly, that is, they
bring a vain prophesying to men, not adjusting facts to their words.
And the books of the Old Testament that are received are twenty-four,
which you will find in the epitomes of Theodore. But, moreover (as we
have said), four and twenty elders, patriarchs and apostles, are to
judge His people. For to the apostles, when they asked, saying, "We
have forsaken all that we had, and followed Thee: what shall we have?"
our Lord replied, "When the Son of man shall sit upon the throne of His
glory, ye also shall sit upon twelve thrones, judging the twelve tribes
of Israel."(1) But of the fathers also who should judge, says the
patriarch Jacob, "Dan also himself shall judge his people among his
brethren, even as one of the tribes in lsrael."(2)
5. "And from the throne proceeded lightnings, and
voices, and thunders, and seven torches of fire burning."] And the
lightnings, and voices, and thunders proceeding from the throne of God,
and the seven torches of fire burning, signify announcements, and
promises of adoption, and threatenings. For lightnings signify the
Lord's advent, and the voices the announcements of the New Testament,
and the thunders, that the words are from heaven. The burning torches
of fire signify the gift of the Holy Spirit, that it is given by the
wood of the passion. And when these things were doing, he says that all
the elders fell down and adored the Lord; while the living
creatures--that is, of course, the actions recorded in the Gospels and
the teaching of the Lord--gave Him glory and honour.(3) In that they
had fulfilled the word that had been previously foretold by them, they
worthily and with reason exult, feeling that they have ministered the
mysteries and the word of the Lord. Finally, also, because He had come
who should remove death, and who alone was worthy to take the crown of
immortality, all for the glory of His most excellent doing had crowns.
10. "And they cast their crowns under His feet."]
That is, on account of the eminent glory of Christ's victory, they cast
all their victories under His feet. This is what in the Gospel the Holy
Spirit consummated by showing, For when about finally to suffer, our
Lord had come to Jerusalem, and the people had gone forth to meet
Him, some strewed the road with palm branches cut down, others threw
down their garments, doubtless these were setting forth two
peoples--the one of the patriarchs, the other of the prophets; that is
to say, of the great men who had any kind of palms of their victories
against sin, and cast them under the feet of Christ, the victor of all.
And the palm and the crown signify the same things, and these are
not given save to the victor.
FROM THE FIFTH CHAPTER.
1. "And I saw in the right hand of Him that sate
upon the throne, a book written within and without, sealed with seven
seals."] This book signifies the Old Testament, which has been given
into the hands of our Lord Jesus Christ, who received from the Father
judgment.
2, 3. "And I saw an angel full of strength
proclaiming with a loud voice, Who is worthy to open the book, and to
loose the seals thereof? And no one was found worthy, neither in the
earth nor under the earth, to open the book."] Now to open the book is
to overcome death for man.
350
4. "There was none found worthy to do this."]
Neither among the angels of heaven, nor among men in earth, nor among
the souls of the saints in rest, save Christ the Son of God alone, whom
he says that he saw as a Lamb standing as it were slain, having seven
horns. What had not been then announced, and what the law had
contemplated for Him by its various oblations and sacrifices, it
behoved Himself to fulfil. And because He Himself was the testator, who
had overcome death, it was just that Himself should be appointed the
Lord's heir, that He should possess the substance of the dying man,
that is, the human members.
5. "Lo, the Lion of the tribe of Judah, the root of
David, hath prevailed."] We read in Genesis that this lion of the tribe
of Judah hath conquered, when the patriarch Jacob says, "Judah, thy
brethren shall praise thee; thou hast lain down and slept, and hast
risen up again as a lion, and as a lion's whelp."(1) For He is called a
lion for the overcoming of death; but for the suffering for men He was
led as a lamb to the slaughter. But because He overcame death, and
anticipated the duty of the executioner, He was called as it were
slain. He therefore opens and seals again the testament, which He
Himself had sealed. The legislator Moses intimating this, that it
behoved Him to be sealed and concealed, even to the advent of His
passion, veiled his face, and so spoke to the people; showing that the
words of his announcement were veiled even to the advent of His time.
For he himself, when he had read to the people, having taken the wool
purpled with the blood of the calf, with water sprinkled the whole
people, saying, "This is the blood of His testament who hath purified
you."(2) It should therefore be observed that the Man is accurately
announced, and that all things combine into one. For it is not
sufficient that that law is spoken of, but it is named as a testament.
For no law is called a testament, nor is any thing else called a
testament, save what persons make who are about to die. And whatever is
within the testament is sealed, even to the day of the testator's
death. Therefore it is with reason that it is only sealed by the Lamb
slain, who, as it were a lion, has broken death in pieces, and has
fulfilled what had been foretold; and has delivered man, that is, the
flesh, from death, and has received as a possession the substance of
the dying person, that is, of the human members; that as by one body
all men had fallen under the obligation of its death, also by one body
all believers should be born again unto life, and rise again.
Reasonably, therefore, His face is opened and unveiled to Moses; and
therefore He is called Apocalypse, Revelation. For now His book is
unsealed--now the offered victims are perceived--now the fabrication of
the priestly chrism; moreover the testimonies are openly understood.
8, 9. "Twenty-four elders and four living creatures,
having harps and phials, and singing a new song."] The proclamation of
the Old Testament associated with the New, points out the Christian
people singing a new song, that is, bearing their confession publicly.
It is a new thing that the Son of God should become man. It is a
new thing to ascend into the heavens with a body. It is a new thing to
give remission of sins to men. It is a new thing for men to be sealed
with the Holy Spirit. It is a new thing to receive the priesthood of
sacred observance, and to look for a kingdom of unbounded promise. The
harp, and the chord stretched on its wooden frame, signifies the flesh
of Christ linked with the wood of the passion. The phial signifies the
Confession,(3) and the race of the new Priesthood. But it is the praise
of many angels, yea, of all, the salvation of all, and the testimony of
the universal creation, bringing to our Lord thanksgiving for the
deliverance of men from the destruction of death. The unsealing of the
seals, as we have said, is the opening of the Old Testament, and the
foretelling of the preachers of things to come in the last times,
which, although the prophetic Scripture speaks by single seals, yet by
all the seals opened at once, prophecy takes its rank.
FROM THE SIXTH CHAPTER.
1, 2. "And when the Lamb had opened one of the seven
seals, I saw, and heard one of the four living creatures saying, Come
and see. And, lo, a white horse, and He who sate upon him
had a bow." ] The first seal being opened, he says that he saw a white
horse, and a crowned horseman having a bow. For this was at first done
by Himself. For after the Lord ascended into heaven and opened all
things, He sent the Holy Spirit, whose words the preachers sent forth
as arrows reaching to the human heart, that they might overcome
unbelief. And the crown on the head is promised to the preachers by the
Holy Spirit. The other three horses very plainly signify the wars,
famines, and pestilences announced by our Lord in the Gospel. And thus
he says that one of the four living creatures said (because all four
are one), "Come and see." "Come" is said to him that is invited to
faith; "see" is said to him who saw not. Therefore the white horse is
the word of preaching with the Holy Spirit sent into the world. For the
Lord says, "This Gospel shall be preached
351
throughout the whole world for a testimony to all nations, and then
shall come the end."(1)
3, 4. "And when He had opened the second seal, I
heard the second living creature saying, Come and see. And there went
out another horse that was red, and to him that sate upon him was given
a great sword."] The red horse, and he that sate upon him, having a
sword, signify the coming wars, as we read in the Gospel: "For nation
shall rise against nation, and kingdom against kingdom; and there shall
be great earthquakes in divers places."(2) This is the ruddy horse.
5. "And when He had opened the third seal. I heard
the third living creature saying, Come and see. And, lo, a black horse;
and he who sate upon it had a balance in his hand."] The black horse
signifies famine, for the Lord says, "There shall be famines in divers
places;" but the word is specially extended to the times of Antichrist,
when there shall be a great famine, and when all shall be injured.
Moreover, the balance in the hand is the examining scales,
wherein He might show forth the merits of every individual. He then
says:--
6. "Hurt not the wine and the oil."] That is, strike
not the spiritual man with thy inflictions. This is the black horse.
7, 8. "And when He had opened the fourth seal, I
heard the fourth living creature saying, Come and see. And, lo, a pale
horse; and he who sate upon him was named Death."] For the pale
horse and he who sate upon him bore the name of Death. These same
things also the Lord had promised among the rest of the coming
destructions--great pestilences and deaths; since, moreover, he says:--
"And hell followed him."] That is, it was waiting
for the devouring of many unrighteous souls. This is the pale horse.
9. "And when He had opened the fifth seal, I saw
under the altar the souls of them that were slain."] He relates that he
saw under the altar of God, that is, under the earth, the souls of them
that were slain. For both heaven and earth are called God's altar, as
saith the law, commanding in the symbolical form of the truth two
altars to be made,--a golden one within, and a brazen one without. But
we perceive that the golden altar is thus called heaven, by
the testimony that our Lord bears to it; for He says, "When thou
bringest thy gift to the altar" (assuredly our gifts are the prayers
which we offer), "and there rememberest that thy brother hath ought
against thee, leave there thy gift before the altar."(3)
Assuredly prayers ascend to heaven. Therefore heaven is understood to
be the golden altar which was within; for the priests also were
accustomed to enter once in the year--as they who had the anointing--to
the golden altar, the Holy Spirit signifying that Christ should do this
once for all. As the golden altar is acknowledged to be heaven, so also
by the brazen altar is understood the earth, under which is the
Hades,--a region withdrawn from punishments and fires, and a place of
repose for the saints, wherein indeed the righteous are seen and heard
by the wicked, but they cannot be carried across to them. He who sees
all things would have us to know that these saints, therefore-- that
is, the souls of the slain--are asking for vengeance for their blood,
that is, of their body, from those that dwell upon the earth; but
because in the last time, moreover, the reward of the saints will be
perpetual, and the condemnation of the wicked shall come, it was told
them to wait. And for a solace to their body, there were given unto
each of them white robes. They received, says he, white robes, that is,
the gift of the Holy Spirit.
12. "And I saw, when he had opened the sixth seal, there was a
great earthquake."] In the sixth seal, then, was a great earthquake:
this is that very last persecution.
"And the sun became black as sackcloth of hair."]
The sun becomes as sackcloth; that is, the brightness of
doctrine will be obscured by
unbelievers.
"And the entire moon became as blood."] By the moon
of blood is set forth the Church of the saints as pouring out her blood
for Christ.
13. "And the stars fell to the earth."] The falling
of the stars are the faithful who are troubled for Christ's sake.
"Even as a fig-tree casteth her untimely figs."] The
fig-tree, when shaken, loses its untimely figs--when men are separated
from the Church by persecution.
14. "And the heaven withdrew as a scroll that is
rolled up."] For the heaven to be rolled away, that is, that the Church
shall be taken away.
"And every mountain and the islands were moved from
their places."] Mountains and islands removed from their places
intimate that in the last persecution all men departed from their
places; that is, that the good will be removed, seeking to avoid the
persecution.
FROM THE SEVENTH CHAPTER.
2. "And I saw another angel ascending from the east, having the seal of
the living God" He speaks of Elias the prophet,who is the precursor of
the times of Antichrist, for the restoration and establishment of the
churches from the great and intolerable persecution. We read
352
that these things are predicted in the opening of the Old and New
Testament; for He says by Malachi: "Lo, I will send to you Elias the
Tishbite, to turn the hearts of the fathers to the children, according
to the time of calling, to recall the Jews to the faith of the people
that succeed them."(1) And to that end He shows, as we have said, that
the number of those that shall believe, of the Jews and of the nations,
is a great multitude which no man was able to number. Moreover, we read
in the Gospel that the prayers of the Church are sent from
heaven by an angel, and that they are received against wrath, and
that the kingdom of Antichrist is cast out and extinguished by holy
angels; for He says: "Pray that ye enter not into temptation: for there
shall be a great affliction, such as has not been from the beginning of
the world; and except the Lord had shortened those days, no flesh
should be saved."(2) Therefore He shall send these seven great
archangels to smite the kingdom of Antichrist; for He Himself also thus
said: "Then the Son of man shall send His messengers; and they shall
gather together His elect from the four corners of the wind, from the
one end of heaven even to the other end thereof."(3) For, moreover, He
previously says by the prophet: "Then shall there be peace for our
land, when there shall arise in it seven shepherds and eight attacks of
men; and they shall encircle Assur," that is, Antichrist, "in the
trench of Nimrod,"(4) that is, in the nation of the devil, by the
spirit of the Church. Similarly when the keepers of the house
shall be moved. Moreover, the Lord Himself, in the parable to the
apostles, when the labourers had come to Him and said, "Lord, did not
we sow good seed in Thy field? whence, then, hath it tares? answered
them, An enemy hath done this. And they said to Him, Lord, wilt Thou,
then, that we go and root them up? And He said, Nay, but let both grow
together until the harvest; and in the time of the harvest I will say
to the reapers, that they gather the tares and make bundles of them,
and burn them with fire everlasting, but that they gather the wheat
into my barns."(5) The Apocalypse here shows, therefore, that these
reapers, and shepherds, and labourers, are the angels. And the trumpet
is the word of power. And although the same thing recurs in the phials,
still it is not said as if it occurred twice, but because what is
decreed by the Lord to happen shall be once for all; for this cause it
is said twice. What, therefore, He said too little in the trumpets, is
here found in the phials. We must not regard the order of what is said,
because frequently the Holy Spirit, when He has traversed even to the
end of the last times, returns again to the same times, and fills up
what He had before failed to say.(6) Nor must we look for order in the
Apocalypse; but we must follow the meaning of those things which are
prophesied. Therefore in the trumpets and phials is signified either
the desolation of the plagues that are sent upon the earth, or the
madness of Antichrist himself, or the cutting off of the peoples, or
the diversity of the plagues, or the hope in the kingdom of the saints,
or the ruin of states, or the great overthrow of Babylon, that is, the
Roman state.
9. "After this I beheld, and, lo, a great multitude,
which no man was able to number, of every nation, tribe, and people,
and tongue, clothed with white robes."] What the great multitude out of
every tribe implies, is to show the number of the elect out of all
believers, who, being cleansed by baptism in the blood of the Lamb,
have made their robes white, keeping the grace which they have received.
FROM THE EIGHTH CHAPTER.
1. "And when He had opened the seventh seal, there
was silence in heaven for about half an hour."] Whereby is signified
the beginning of everlasting rest; but it is described as partial,
because the silence being interrupted, he repeats it in order. For if
the silence had continued, here would be an end of his narrative.
13 "And I saw an angel flying through the midst of
heaven."] By the angel flying through the midst of heaven is signified
the Holy Spirit beating witness in two of the prophets that a great
wrath of plagues was imminent. If by any means, even in the last times,
any one should be willing to be converted, any one might even still be
saved.
FROM THE NINTH CHAPTER.
13, 14. "And I heard a voice from the four horns of
the golden altar which is in the presence of God, saying to the sixth
angel which had the trumpet, Loose the four angels."] That is, the four
corners of the earth which hold the four winds.
"Which are bound in the great river Euphrates."] By
the corners of the earth, or the four winds across the river Euphrates,
are meant four nations, because to every nation is sent an angel; as
said the law, "He determined them by the number of the angels of
God,"(7) until the number of the saints should be filled up. They do
not overpass their bounds, because at the last they shall come with
Antichrist.
353
FROM THE TENTH CHAPTER.
1, 2. "I saw another mighty angel coming down from
heaven, clothed with a cloud; and a rainbow was upon his head, and his
face was as it were the sun, and his feet as pillars of fire: and he
had in his hand an open book: and he set his right foot upon the sea,
and his left foot upon the earth."] He signifies that that mighty ngel
who, he says, descended from heaven, clothed with a cloud, is our Lord,
as we have above narrated.
"His face was as it were the sun."] That is, with
respect to the resurrection.
"Upon his head was a rainbow."] He points to the
judgment which is executed by Him, of shall be.
"An open book."] A revelation of works in the future
judgment, or the Apocalypse which John received.
"His feet,"] as we have said above, are the
apostles. For that both things in sea and land are trodden under foot
by Him, signifies that all things are placed under His feet. Moreover,
he calls Him an angel, that is, a messenger, to wit, of the Father; for
He is called the Messenger of great counsel. He says also that He cried
with a loud voice. The great voice is to tell the words of the
Omnipotent God of heaven to men, and to bear witness that after
penitence is closed there will be no hope subsequently.
3. "Seven thunders uttered their voices."] The seven
thunders uttering their voices signify, the Holy Spirit of sevenfold
power, who through the prophets announced all things to come, and by
His voice John gave his testimony in the world; but because he says
that he was about to write the things which the thunders had uttered,
that is, whatever things had been obscure in the announcements of the
Old Testament; he is forbidden to write them, but he was charged to
leave them sealed, because he is an apostle, nor was it fitting that
the grace of the subsequent stage should be given in the first. "The
time," says he, "is at hand."(1) For the apostles, by powers, by signs,
by portents, and by mighty works, have overcome unbelief. After them
there is now given to the same completed Churches the comfort of having
the prophetic Scriptures subsequently interpreted, for I said that
after the apostles there would be interpreting prophets.
For the apostle says: "And he placed in the Church
indeed, first, apostles; secondly, prophets; thirdly, teachers,"(2) and
the rest. And in another place he says: "Let the prophets speak two or
three, and let the others judge."(3) And he says: "Every woman that
prayeth or prophesieth with her head uncovered, dishonoureth her
head"(4) And when he says, "Let the prophets speak two or three, and
let the others judge," he is not speaking in respect of the Catholic
prophecy of things unheard and unknown, but of things both announced
and known. But let them judge whether or not the interpretation is
consistent with the testimonies of the prophetic utterance.(5) It is
plain, therefore, that to John, armed as he was with superior virtue,
this was not necessary, although the body of Christ, which is the
Church, adorned with His members, ought to respond to its position.
10. "I took the book from the hand of the angel, and
ate it up."] To take the book and eat it up, is, when exhibition of a
thing is made to one, to commit it to memory.
"And it was in my mouth as sweet as honey."] To be
sweet in the mouth is the reward of the preaching of the speaker, and
is most pleasant to the hearers; but it is most bitter both to those
that announce it, and to those that persevere in its commandments
through suffering.
11. "And He says unto me, Thou must again prophesy
to the peoples, and to the tongues, and to the nations, and to many
kings."] He says this, because when John said these things he was in
the island of Patmos, condemned to the labour of the mines by Caesar
Domitian. There, therefore, he saw the Apocalypse; and when grown old,
he thought that he should at length receive his quittance by suffering,
Domitian being killed, all his judgments were discharged. And John
being dismissed from the mines, thus subsequently delivered the same
Apocalypse which he had received from God. This, therefore, is what He
says: Thou must again prophesy to all nations, because thou seest the
crowds of Antichrist rise up; and against them other crowds shall
stand, and they shall fall by the sword on the one side and on the
other.
FROM THE ELEVENTH CHAPTER.
1. "And there was shown unto me a reed like unto a
rod: and the angel stood, saying, Rise, and measure the temple of God,
and the altar, and them that worship therein."] A reed was shown like
to a rod. This itself is the Apocalypse which he subsequently
exhibited to the churches; for the Gospel of the complete faith he
subsequently wrote for the sake of our salvation. For when Valentinus,
and Cerinthus, and Ebion, and others of the school of Satan, were
scattered abroad throughout the world, there assembled together
to him from the neighbouring provinces all the bishops, and
compelled
354
him himself also to draw up his testimony. Moreover, we say that the
measure of God's temple is the command of God to confess the Father
Almighty, and that His Son Christ was begotten by the Father before the
beginning of the world, and was made man in very soul and flesh, both
of them having overcome misery and death; and that, when received with
His body into heaven by the Father, He shed forth the Holy Spirit, the
gift and pledge of immortality, that He was announced by the prophets,
He was described by the law, He was God's hand, and the Word of the
Father from God, Lord over all, and founder of the world: this is the
reed and the measure of faith; and no one worships the holy altar save
he who confesses this faith.
2. "The court which is within the temple leave
out."] The space which is called the court is the empty altar within
the walls: these being such as were not necessary, he commanded to be
ejected from the Church.
"It is given to be trodden down by the Gentiles."]
That is, to the men of this world, that it may be trodden under foot by
the nations, or with the nations. Then he repeats about the destruction
and slaughter of the last time, and says:--
3. "They shall tread the holy city down for forty
and two months; and I will give to my two witnesses, and they shall
predict a thousand two hundred and threescore days clothed in
sackcloth."] That is, three years and six months: these make forty-two
months. Therefore their preaching is three years and six months, and
the kingdom of Antichrist as much again.
5. "If any man will hurt them, fire proceedeth out
of their mouth, and devoureth their enemies."] That fire proceedeth out
of the mouth of those prophets against the adversaries, bespeaks the
power of the world. For all afflictions, however many there are, shall
be sent by their messengers in their word. Many think that there is
Elisha, or Moses, with Elijah; but both of these died; while the death
of Elijah is not heard of, with whom all our ancients have believed
that it was Jeremiah. For even the very word spoken to him testifies to
him, saying, "Before I formed thee in the belly I knew thee; and before
thou camest forth out of the womb I sanctified thee, and I ordained
thee a prophet unto the nations."(1) But he was not a prophet unto the
nations; and thus the truthful word of God makes it necessary, which it
has promised to set forth, that he should be a prophet to the nations.
4. "These are the two candlesticks standing before
the Lord of the earth."] These two
candlesticks and two olive trees He has to this end spoken of, and
admonished you that if, when you have read of them elsewhere, you have
not understood, you may understand here. For in Zechariah, one of the
twelve prophets, it is thus written: "These are the two olive trees and
two candlesticks which stand in the presence of the Lord of the
earth;"(2) that is, they are in paradise. Also, in another sense,
standing in the presence of the lord of the earth, that is, in the
presence of Antichrist. Therefore they must be slain by Antichrist.
7. "And the beast which ascendeth from the abyss."]
After many plagues completed in the world, in the end he says that a
beast ascended from the abyss. Bat that he shall ascend from the abyss
is proved by many testimonies; for he says in the thirty-first chapter
of Ezekiel: "Behold, Assur was a cypress in Mount Lebanon." Assur,
deeply rooted, was a lofty and branching cypress--that is, a numerous
people--in Mount Lebanon, in the kingdom of kingdoms, that is, of the
Romans. Moreover, that he says he was beautiful in offshoots, he says
he was strong in armies. The water, he says, shall nourish him, that
is, the many thousands of men which were subjected to him; and the
abyss increased him, that is, belched him forth. For even Isaiah speaks
almost in the same words; moreover, that he was in the kingdom of the
Romans, and that he was among the Caesars. The Apostle Paul also bears
witness, for he says to the Thessalonians: "Let him who now restraineth
restrain, until he be taken out of the way; and then shall appear that
Wicked One, even he whose coining is after the working of Satan, with
signs and lying wonders."(3) And that they might know that he should
come who then was the prince, he added: "He already endeavours after
the secret of mischief"(4)--that is, the mischief which he is about to
do he strives to do secretly; but he is not raised up by his own
power, nor by that of his father, but by command of God, of
which thing Paul says in the same passage: "For this cause, because
they have not received the love of God, He will send upon them a spirit
of error, that they all may be persuaded of a lie, who have not been
persuaded of the truth."(5) And Isaiah saith: "While they waited for
the light, darkness arose upon them."(6) Therefore the Apocalypse sets
forth that these prophets are killed by the same, and on the fourth day
rise again, that none might be found equal to God.
8. "And their dead bodies shall lie in the streets
of the great city, which spiritually is called
355
Sodom and Egypt."] But He calls Jerusalem Sodom and Egypt, since it had
become the heaping up of the persecuting people. Therefore it behoves
us diligently, and with the utmost care, to follow the prophetic
announcement, and to understand what the Spirit from the Father both
announces and anticipates, and how, when He has gone forward to the
last times, He again repeats the former ones. And now, what He will do
once for all, He sometimes sets forth as if it were done; and unless
you understand this, as sometimes done, and sometimes as about to
be done, you will fall into a great confusion. Therefore the
interpretation of the following sayings has shown therein, that not the
order of the reading, but the order of the discourse, must be
understood.
19. "And the temple of God was opened which is in
heaven."] The temple opened is a manifestation of our Lord. For the
temple of God is the Son, as He Himself says: "Destroy this temple, and
in three days I will raise it up." And when the Jews said, "Forty and
six years was this temple in building," the evangelist says, "He spake
of the temple of His body."
"And there was seen in His temple the ark of the
Lord's testament."] The preaching of the Gospel and the forgiveness of
sins, and all the gifts whatever that came with Him, he says, appeared
therein.
FROM THE TWELFTH CHAPTER.
1. "And there was seen a great sign in heaven. A
woman clothed with the sun, and the moon under her feet, and on her
head a crown of twelve stars. And being with child, she cried out
travailing, and bearing torments that she might bring forth."] The
woman clothed with the sun, and having the moon under her feet, and
wearing a crown of twelve stars upon her head, and travailing in her
pains, is the ancient Church of fathers, and prophets, and saints, and
apostles,(2) which had the groans and torments of its longing until it
saw that Christ, the fruit of its people according to the flesh long
promised to it, had taken flesh out of the selfsame people. Moreover,
being clothed with the sun intimates the hope of resurrection and the
glory of the promise. And the moon intimates the fall of the
bodies of the saints under the obligation of death, which never can
fail. For even as life is diminished, so also it is increased. Nor is
the hope of those that sleep extinguished absolutely,
as some think, but they have in their darkness a light such as
the moon. And the crown of twelve stars signifies the choir of fathers,
according to the fleshly birth, of whom Christ was to take flesh.
3. "And there appeared another sign in heaven; and
behold a red dragon, having seven heads."] Now, that he says that this
dragon was of a red colour--that is, of a purple colour--the result of
his work gave him such a colour. For from the beginning (as the Lord
says) he was a murderer; and he has oppressed the whole of the human
race, not so much by the obligation of death, as, moreover, by the
various forms of destruction and fatal mischiefs. His seven heads were
the seven kings of the Romans, of whom also is Antichrist, as we have
said above.
"And ten horns."] He says that the ten kings in the
latest times are the same as these, as we shall more fully set forth
there.
4. "And his tail drew the third part of the stars of
heaven, and cast them upon the earth."] Now, that he says that the
dragon's tail drew the third part of the stars of heaven, this may be
taken in two ways. For many think that he may be able to seduce the
third part of the men who believe.(3) But it should more truly be
understood, that of the angels that were subject to him, since he was
still a prince when he descended from his estate, he seduced the third
part; therefore what we said above, the Apocalypse says.
"And the dragon stood before the woman who was
beginning to bring forth, that, when she had brought forth, he might
devour her child."] The red dragon standing and desiring to devour her
child when she had brought him forth, is the devil,--to wit, the
traitor angel, who thought that the perishing of all men would be alike
by death; but He, who was not born of seed, owed nothing to death:
wherefore he could not devour Him--that is, detain Him in death--for on
the third day He rose again. Finally, also, and before He suffered, he
approached to tempt Him as man; but when he found that He was not what
he thought Him to be, he departed from Him, even till the time. Whence
it is here said:--
5. "And she brought forth a son, who begins to rule
all nations with a rod of iron."] The rod of iron is the sword of
persecution.
"I saw that all men withdrew from his abodes."] That
is, the good will be removed, flying from persecution.(4)
"And her son was caught up to God, and to His
throne."] We read also in the Acts of the Apostles that He was caught
up to God's throne, just as speaking with the disciples He was caught
up to heaven.
6. "But the woman fled into the wilderness, and
there were given to her two great eagle's
356
wings."] The aid of the great eagle's wings--to wit, the gift of
prophets--was given to that Catholic Church, whence in the last times a
hundred and forty-four thousands of men should believe on the preaching
of Elias; but, moreover, he here says that the rest of the people
should be found alive on the coming of the Lord. And the Lord says in
the Gospel: "Then let them which are in Judea flee to the
mountains;"(1) that is, as many as should be gathered together in
Judea, let them go to that place which they have ready, and let them be
supported there for three years and six months from the presence of the
devil.
14. "Two great wings"] are the two prophets--Elias,
and the prophet who shall be with him.
15. "And the serpent cast out of his mouth after the
woman water as a flood, that he might carry her away with the flood."]
He signifies by the water which the serpent cast out of his mouth, the
people who at his command would persecute her.
16. "And the earth helped the woman, and opened her
mouth, and swallowed up the flood which the dragon cast out of his
mouth."] That the earth opened her month and swallowed up the waters,
sets forth the vengeance for the present troubles. Although, therefore,
it may signify this woman bringing forth, it shows her afterwards
flying when her offspring is brought forth, because both things did not
happen at one time; for we know that Christ was born, but that the time
should arrive that she should flee from the face of the serpent: (we do
not know) that this has happened as yet. Then he says:--
7-9. "There was a battle in heaven: Michael and his
angels fought with the dragon; and the dragon warred, and his angels,
and they prevailed not; nor was their place found any more in heaven.
And that great dragon was cast forth, that old serpent: he was cast
forth into the earth."] This is the beginning of Antichrist yet
previously Elias must prophesy, and there must be times of peace. And
afterwards, when the three years and six months are completed in the
preaching of Elias, he also must be cast down from heaven, where up
till that time he had had the power of ascending; and all the apostate
angels, as well as Antichrist, must be roused up from hell. Paul the
apostle says: "Except there come a falling away first, and
the man of sin shall appear, the son of perdition; and the adversary
who exalted himself above all which is called God, or which is
worshipped."(2)
FROM THE THIRTEENTH CHAPTER.(3)
1. "And I saw a beast rising up from the sea,
like unto a leopard."] This signifies the kingdom of that time of
Antichrist, and the people mingled with the variety of nations.
2. "His feet were as the feet of a bear."] A strong
and most unclean beast, the feet are to be understood as his leaders.
"And his mouth as the mouth of a lion."] That is,
his mouth armed for blood is his bidding, and a tongue which will
proceed to nothing else than to the shedding of blood.
*
*
*
*
*
*
* *
18. "His number is the name of a man, and his number
is Six hundred threescore and six."] As they have it reckoned from the
Greek characters, they thus find it among many to be
<greek>teitan</greek>, for
<greek>teitan</greek> has this number, which the
Gentiles call Sol and Phoebus; and it is reckoned in Greek thus:
<greek>t</greek> three hundred,
<greek>e</greek> five, <greek>i</greek> ten,
<greek>t</greek> three hundred,
<greek>a</greek> one, <greek>t</greek>
fifty,--which taken together become six hundred and sixty-six. For as
far as belongs to the Greek letters, they fill up this number and name;
which name if you wish to turn into Latin, it is understood by the
antiphrase DICLUX, which letters are reckoned in this manner: since D
figures five hundred, I one, C a hundred, L fifty, V five, X
ten,--which by the reckoning up of the letters makes similarly six
hundred and sixty-six, that is, what in Greek gives
<greek>teitan</greek>, to wit, what in Latin is called
DICLUX; by which name, expressed by anti-phrases, we understand
Antichrist, who, although he be cut off from the supernal light, and
deprived thereof, yet transforms himself into an angel of light, daring
to call himself light.(4) Moreover, we find in a certain Greek codex
<greek>antemos</greek>, which letters being reckoned up,
you will find to give the number as above: <greek>a</greek>
one, <greek>n</greek> fifty, <greek>t</greek>
three hundred, <greek>e</greek> five,
<greek>m</greek> forty, <greek>o</greek>
seventy, <greek>s</greek> two hundred,--which together
makes six hundred and sixty-six, according to the Greeks. Moreover,
there is another name in Gothic of him, which will be evident of
itself, that is,
<greek>genshrikos</greek>, which in the same way you will
reckon in Greek letters: <greek>g</greek> three,
<greek>e</greek> five, <greek>n</greek> fifty,
<greek>s</greek> two hundred, <greek>h</greek>
eight, <greek>r</greek> a hundred,
<greek>i</greek> ten, <greek>k</greek> twenty,
seventy, <greek>s</greek> also two hundred, which, as has
been said above, make six hundred and sixty-six.
11. "And I saw another beast coming up out of the
earth."] He is speaking of the great and false prophet who is to do
signs, and portents, and falsehoods before him in the presence of men.
"And he had two horns like a lamb--that is, the
appearance within of a man--and he spoke like a dragon."] But the devil
speaks full of malice; for he shall do these things in the presence of
men, so that even the dead appear to rise again.
357
13. "And he shall make fire come down from heaven in
the sight of men."] Yes (as I also have said), in the sight of men.
Magicians do these things, by the aid of the apostate angels, even to
this day. He shall cause also that a golden image of Antichrist shall
be placed in the temple at Jerusalem, and that the apostate angel
should enter, and thence utter voices and oracles. Moreover, he himself
shall contrive that his servants and children should receive as a mark
on their foreheads, or on their right hands, the number of his name,
lest any one should buy or sell them. Daniel had previously predicted
his contempt and provocation of God. "And he shall place," says he,
"his temple within Samaria, upon the illustrious and holy mountain that
is at Jerusalem, an image such as Nebuchadnezzar had made."(1) Thence
here he places, and by and by here he renews, that of which the Lord,
admonishing His churches concerning the last times and their dangers,
says: "But when ye shall see the contempt which is spoken of by Daniel
the prophet standing in the holy place, let him who readeth
understand."(2) It is called a contempt when God is provoked, because
idols are worshipped instead of God, or when the dogma of heretics is
introduced in the churches. But it is a turning away because stedfast
men, seduced by false signs and portents, are turned away from their
salvation.
FROM THE FOURTEENTH CHAPTER.
6. "And I saw an angel flying through the midst of
heaven."] The angel flying through the midst of heaven, whom he says
that he saw, we have already treated of above, as being the same Elias
who anticipates the kingdom of Anti-christ in his prophecy.
8. "And another angel following him."] The other
angel following, he speaks of as the same prophet who is the associate
of his prophesying.
But that he says,--
15. "Thrust in thy sharp sickle, and gather in the
grapes of the vine,"] he signifies it of the nations that should perish
on the advent of the Lord. And indeed in many forms he shows this same
thing, as if to the dry harvest, and the seed for the coming of the
Lord, and the consummation of the world, and the kingdom of Christ, and
the future appearance of the kingdom of the blessed.
19, 20. "And the angel thrust in the sickle, and
reaped the vine of the earth, and cast it into the wine-press of the
wrath of God. And the wine-press of His fury was trodden
down without the city."] In that he says that it was cast into
the wine-press of the wrath of God,
and trodden down without the city, the treading of the wine-press is
the retribution on the sinner.
"And blood went out from the wine-press, even unto
the horse-bridles."] The vengeance of shed blood as was before
predicted, "In blood thou hast sinned, and blood shall follow thee."(3)
"For a thousand and six hundred furlongs."] That is,
through all the four parts of the world: for there is a quadrate put
together by fours, as in four faces and four appearances, and wheels by
fours; for forty times four is one thousand six hundred. Repeating the
same persecution, the Apocalypse says:--
FROM THE FIFTEENTH CHAPTER.
1. "And I saw another great and wonderful sign,
seven angels having the seven last plagues; for in them is completed
the indignation of God."] For the wrath of God always strikes the
obstinate people with seven plagues, that is, perfectly, as it is said
in Leviticus; and these shall be in the last time, when the Church
shall have gone out of the midst.
2. "Standing upon the sea of glass, having harps."]
That is, that they stood stedfastly in the faith upon their baptism,
and having their confession in their mouth, that they shall exult in
the kingdom before God. But let us return to what is set before us.
FROM THE SEVENTEENTH CHAPTER.
1-6. "There came one of the seven angels, which have
the seven bowls, and spake with me, saying, Come, I will show thee the
judgment of that great whore who sitteth upon many waters. And I saw
the woman drunk with the blood of the saints, and with the blood of the
martyrs."] The decrees of that senate are always accomplished against
all, contrary to the preaching of the true faith; and now already mercy
being cast aside, itself here gave the decree among all nations.
3. "And I saw the woman herself sitting upon the
scarlet-coloured beast, full of names of blasphemy."] But to sit upon
the scarlet beast, the author of murders, is the image of the devil.
Where also is treated of his captivity, concerning which we have fully
considered. I remember, indeed, that this is called Babylon also in the
Apocalypse, on account of confusion; and in Isaiah also; and Ezekiel
called it Sodom. In fine, if you compare what is said against Sodom,
and what Isaiah says against Babylon, and what the Apocalypse says, you
will find that they are all one.(4)
9. "The seven heads are the seven hills, on
358
which the woman sitteth."] That is, the city of Rome.
10. "And there are seven kings: five have fallen,
and one is, and the other is not yet come; and when he is come, he will
be for a short time."] The time must be understood in which the written
Apocalypse was published, since then reigned Caesar Domitian; but
before him had been Titus his brother, and Vespasian, Otho, Vitellius,
and Galba. These are the five who have fallen. One remains, under whom
the Apocalypse was written--Domitian, to wit. "The other has not yet
come," speaks of Nerva; "and when he is come, he will be for a short
time," for he did not complete the period of two years.
11. "And the beast which thou sawest is of the
seven."] Since before those kings Nero reigned.
"And he is the eighth."] He says only when this
beast shall come, reckon it the eighth place, since in that is the
completion. He added:-- "And shall go into
perdition."(3) For that ten kings received royal power when he shall
move from the east, he says. He shall be sent from the city of Rome
with his armies. And Daniel sets forth the ten horns and the ten
diadems. And that these are eradicated from the former ones,--that is,
that three of the principal leaders are killed by Antichrist: that the
other seven give him honour and wisdom and power, of whom he says:--
16. "These shall hate the whore, to wit, the city,
and shall burn her flesh with fire."] Now that one of the heads was, as
it were, slain to death, and that the stroke of his death was directed,
he speaks of Nero. For it is plain that when the cavalry sent by the
senate was pursuing him, he himself cut his throat. Him therefore, when
raised up, God will send as a worthy king, but worthy in such a way as
the Jews merited. And since he is to have another name, He shall also
appoint another name, that so the Jews may receive him as if he were
the Christ. Says Daniel: "He shall not know the lust of women, although
before he was most impure, and he shall know no God of his fathers: for
he will not be able to seduce the people of the circumcision, unless he
is a judge of the law."(1) Finally, also, he will recall the saints,
not to the worship of idols, but to undertake circumcision, and, if he
is able, to seduce any; for he shall so conduct himself as to be called
Christ by them. But that he rises again from hell, we have said above
in the word of Isaiah: "Water shall nourish him, and hell hath
increased him;" who, however, must come with name unchanged, and doings
unchanged, as says the Spirit.
FROM THE NINETEENTH CHAPTER.
11. "And I saw heaven opened, and behold a white
horse; and he that sate upon him was called Faithful and True."] The
horse, and He that sits upon him, sets forth our Lord coming to His
kingdom with the heavenly army. Because from the sea of the north,
which is the Arabian Sea, even to the sea of Phoenice, and even to the
ends of the earth, they will command these greater parts in the
coming of the Lord Jesus, and all the souls of the nations will be
assembled to judgment.
FROM THE TWENTIETH CHAPTER.
1-3. "And I saw an angel come down from heaven,
having the key of the abyss, and a chain in his hand. And he held the
dragon, that old serpent, which is called the Devil and Satan, and
bound him for a thousand years, and cast him into the abyss, and shut
him up, and set a seal upon him, that he should deceive the nations no
more, till the thousand years should be finished: after this he must be
loosed a little season."] Those years wherein Satan is bound are in the
first advent of Christ, even to the end of the age; and they are called
a thousand, according to that mode of speaking, wherein a part is
signified by the whole, just as is that passage, "the word which He
commanded for a thousand generations,"(2) although they are not a
thousand. Moreover that he says, "and he cast him into the abyss," he
says this, because the devil, excluded from the hearts of believers,
began to take possession of the wicked, in whose hearts, blinded day by
day, he is shut up as if in a profound abyss. And he shut him up, says
he, and put a seal upon him, that he should not deceive the nations
until the thousand years should be finished. "He shut the door
upon him," it is said, that is, he forbade and restrained his seducing
those who belong to Christ. Moreover, he put a seal upon him, because
it is hidden who belong to the side of the devil, and who to that of
Christ. For we know not of those who seem to stand whether they shall
not fall, and of those who are down it is uncertain whether they may
rise. Moreover, that he says that he is bound and shut up, that he may
not seduce the nations, the nations signify the Church, seeing that of
them it itself is formed, and which being seduced, he previously held
until, he says, the thousand years should be completed, that is, what
is left of the sixth day, to wit, of the sixth age, which subsists for
a thousand years; after this he must be loosed for a little season. The
little season signifies three years and six months, in which with all
his power the devil will avenge himself trader Anti-
359
christ against the Church. Finally, he says, after that the devil shall
be loosed, and will seduce the nations in the whole world, and will
entice war against the Church, the number of whose foes shall be as the
sand of the sea.(1)
4, 5. "And I saw thrones, and them that sate upon
them, and judgment was given unto them; and I saw the souls of them
that were slain on account of the testimony of Jesus, and for the word
of God, and which had not worshipped the beast nor his image, nor have
received his writing on their forehead or in their hand; and they
reigned with Christ for a thousand years: the rest of them lived not
again until the thousand years were finished. This is the first
resurrection."] There are two resurrections. But the first resurrection
is now of the souls that are by the faith, which does not permit men to
pass over to the second death. Of this resurrection the apostle says:
"If ye have risen with Christ, seek those things which are above."(2)
6. "Blessed and holy is he who has part in this
resurrection: on them the second death shall have no power, but they
shall be priests of God and Christ, and they shall reign with Him a
thousand years."] I do not think the reign of a thousand years is
eternal; or if it is thus to be thought of, they cease to reign when
the thousand years are finished. But I will put forward what my
capacity enables me to judge. The tenfold number signifies the
decalogue, and the hundredfold sets forth the crown of virginity: for
he who shall have kept the undertaking of virginity completely, and
shall have faithfully fulfilled the precepts of the decalogue, and
shall have destroyed the untrained nature or impure thoughts within the
retirement of the heart, that they may not rule over him, this is the
true priest of Christ, and accomplishing the millenary number
thoroughly, is thought to reign with Christ; and truly in his case the
devil is bound. But he who is entangled in the vices and the dogmas of
heretics, in his case the devil is loosed. But that it says that when
the thousand years are finished he is loosed, so the number of the
perfect saints being completed, in whom there is the glory of virginity
in body and mind, by the approaching advent of the kingdom of the
hateful one, many, seduced by that love of earthly things, shall be
overthrown, and together with him shall enter the lake of fire.
8-10. "And they went up upon the breadth of the
earth, and compassed the camp of the saints about, and the beloved
city; and fire came down from God out of heaven, and devoured them. And
the devil who seduced them was cast into the take of fire and
brimstone, where both the beast and the false prophet shall be
tormented day and night for ever and ever."] This belongs
to the last judgment. And after a little time the earth was made holy,
as being at least that wherein lately had reposed the bodies of the
virgins, when they shall enter upon an eternal kingdom with an immortal
King, as they who are not only virgins in body, but, moreover, with
equal inviolability have protected themselves, both in tongue and
thought, from wickedness; and these, it shows, shall dwell in rejoicing
for ever with the Lamb.
FROM THE TWENTY-FIRST AND TWENTY-SECOND
CHAPTERS.
16. "And the city is placed in a square."] The city
which he says is squared, he says also is resplendent with gold and
precious stones, and has a sacred street, and a river through the midst
of it, and the tree of life on either side, bearing twelve manner of
fruits throughout the twelve months; and that the light of the sun is
not there, because the Lamb is the light of it; and that its gates were
of single pearls; and that there were three gates on each of the four
sides, and that they could not be shut. I say, in respect of the square
city, he shows forth the united multitude of the saints, in whom the
faith could by no means waver. As Noah is commanded to make the ark of
squared beams,(3) that it might resist the force of the deluge, by the
precious stones he sets forth the holy men who cannot waver in
persecution, who could not be moved either by the tempest of
persecutors, or be dissolved from the true faith by the force of the
rain, because they are associated of pure gold, of whom the city of the
great King is adorned. Moreover, the streets set forth their hearts
purified from all uncleanness, transparent with glowing light, that the
Lord may justly walk up and down in them. The river of life sets forth
that the grace of spiritual doctrine flowed through the minds of the
faithful, and that manifold flourishing forms of odours germinated
therein. The tree of life on either bank sets forth the Advent of
Christ, according to the flesh, who satisfied the peoples wasted with
famine, that received life from One by the wood of the Cross,
with the announcement of God's word. And in that he says that the sun
is not necessary in the city, he shows, evidently, that the Creator as
the immaculate light shines in the midst of it, whose brightness no
mind has been able to conceive, nor tongue to tell.
In that he says there are three gates placed on each
of the four sides, of single pearls, I think that these are the four
virtues,(4) to wit, prudence, fortitude, justice, temperance, which are
associated with one another. And, being involved
360
together, they make the number twelve. But the twelve gates we believe
to be the number of the apostles, who, shining in the four virtues as
precious stones, manifesting the light of their doctrine among
the saints, cause it to enter the celestial city, that by
intercourse with them the choir of angels may be gladdened. And that
the gates cannot be shut, it is evidently shown that the doctrine of
the apostles can be separated from rectitude by no tempest of
contradiction. Even though the floods of the nations and the vain
superstitions of heretics should revolt against their true faith, they
are overcome, and shall be dissolved as the foam, because Christ is the
Rock(1) by which, and on which, the Church is founded.(2) And thus it
is overcome by no traces of maddened men. Therefore they are not to be
heard who assure themselves that there is to be an earthly reign of a
thousand years; who think, that is to say, with the heretic
Cerinthus.(3) For the kingdom of Christ is now eternal in the saints,
although the glory of the saints shall be manifested after the
resurrection.
365
AGAINST THE SABELLIANS(1)
1. Now truly it would be just to dispute against
those who, by dividing and rending the monarchy, which is the most
august announcement of the Church of God, into, as it were, three
powers, and distinct substances (hypostases), and three deities,
destroy it.(2) For I have heard that some who preach and teach the word
of God among you are teachers of this opinion, who indeed
diametrically, so to speak, are opposed to the opinion of Sabellius.
For he blasphemes in saying that the Son Himself is the Father, and
vice versa; but these in a certain manner announce three gods, in that
they divide the holy unity into three different substances, absolutely
separated from one another. For it is essential that the Divine Word
should be united to the God of all, and that the Holy Spirit should
abide and dwell in God; and thus that the Divine Trinity should be
reduced and gathered into one, as if into a certain head--that is, into
the omnipotent God of all. For the doctrine of the foolish Marcion,
which Gilts and divides the monarchy into three elements, is assuredly
of the devil, and is not of Christ's true disciples, or of those to
whom the Saviour's teaching is agreeable. For these indeed rightly know
that the Trinity is declared in the divine Scripture, but that the
doctrine that there are three gods is, neither taught in the Old nor in
the New Testament.
2. But neither are they less to be blamed who think
that the Son was a creation, and decided that the Lord was made just as
one of those things which really were made; whereas the divine
declarations testify that He was begotten, as is fitting and proper,
but not that He was created or made. It is therefore not a trifling,
but a very great impiety, to say that the Lord was in any wise made
with hands. For if the Son was made, there was a time when He was not;
but He always was, if, as He Himself declares,(3) He is undoubtedly in
the Father. And if Christ is the Word, the Wisdom, and the Power,--for
the divine writings tell us that Christ is these, as ye yourselves
know,--assuredly these are powers of God. Wherefore, if the Son was
made, there was a time when these were not in existence;(4) and thus
there was a time when God was without these things, which is utterly
absurd. But why should I discourse at greater length to you about these
matters, since ye are men filled with the Spirit, and especially
understanding what absurd results follow from the opinion which asserts
that the Son was made? The leaders of this view seem to me to have
given very little heed to these things, and for that reason to have
strayed absolutely, by explaining the passage otherwise than as the
divine and prophetic Scripture demands. "The Lord created me the
beginning of His ways."(5) For, as ye know, there is more than one
signification of the word "created;" and in this place "created" is the
same as "set over" the works made by Himself--made, I say, by the Son
Himself. But this "created" is not to be understood in the same manner
as "made." For to make and to create are different from one another.
"Is not He Himself thy Father, that hath possessed thee and created
thee?"(6) says Moses in the great song of Deuteronomy. And thus might
any one reasonably convict these men. Oh reckless and rash men! was
then "the first-born of every creature"(7) something made?--"He who was
begotten from the womb before the morningstar?"(8)--He who in the
person of Wisdom says, "Before all the hills He begot me?"(9) Finally,
any one may read in many parts of the divine utterances that the Son is
said to have been begotten, but never that He was made. From which
considerations, they who dare to say that His divine and
inexplicable generation was a creation, are openly convicted of
thinking that which is false concerning the generation of the Lord.
3. That admirable and divine unity, therefore,
366
must neither be separated into three divinities, nor must the dignity
and eminent greatness of the Lord be diminished by having applied to it
the name of creation, but we must believe on God the Father Omnipotent,
and on Christ Jesus His Son, and on the Holy Spirit. Moreover, that the
Word is united to the God of all, because He says, "I and the Father
are one;"(1) and, "I am in the Father, and the Father is in Me."(2)
Thus doubtless will be maintained in its integrity the doctrine of the
divine Trinity, and the sacred announcement of the monarchy.
ELUCIDATIONS. I.
THE Confession, improperly called "the Creed of
Athanasius," is acknowledged to embody the (Athanasian) doctrine of the
Nicene Council; and I append it here as an index to the state of
theology at the period which is the limit of our series. Nothing is
properly a "creed" which has never been accepted as such by the whole
Church, and the Greeks knew no other creed than that called Nicene. The
Anglo-American Church has ceased to recite this Confession in public
worship, but does not depart from it as doctrine. The "Reformed"
communion in America(1) retains it among her liturgical forms, and I
suppose the same is true of the Lutherans. It is a Western Confession,
and, like the Te Deum, is a hymn rather than a symbol, though breathing
the spirit of the Creed.
Usher adopts A.D. 447 as its date, and Beveridge
assigns it to the fourth century. Dupin gives it a later origin than
Usher, and a considerable number of eminent authorities agree with him
in the date A.D. 484.
What are called the anathemas are the enacting
clauses (so to speak), and, like the same in the Nicene Creed, may be
regarded as no part of the Confession itself. If they have disappeared
from the Great Symbol itself, as unsuitable to liturgical recitation,
why not apply the same rule here?
CONFESSION OF OUR CHRISTIAN FAITH, COMMONLY CALLED THE CREED OF
ST. ATHANASIUS.
Quicunque vult.
¶ Whosoever will be saved: before all things it is necessary that
he hold the Catholick Faith. Which Faith except everyone do keep whole
and undefiled: without doubt he shall perish everlastingly.
I.
And the Catholick Faith is this: That we worship one
God in Trinity, and Trinity in Unity;
Neither confounding the Persons: nor dividing the
Substance.
For there is one Person of the Father, another of
the Son: and another of the Holy Ghost.
But the God-head of the Father, of the Son, and of
the Holy Ghost, is all one: the Glory equal, the Majesty co-eternal.
Such as the Father is, such is the Son: and such is
the Holy Ghost. The Father un-create, the Son
un-create: and the Holy Ghost un-create.
The Father incomprehensible, the Son
incomprehensible: and the HolyGhost incomprehensible. The Father
eternal, the Son eternal: and theHoly Ghost eternal. And yet they are
not three eternal: but one eternal.
As also there are not three incomprehensible, nor
three un-created: but one un-created, and one incomprehensible.
So likewise the Father is Almighty, the Son
Almighty: and the Holy Ghost Almighty.
367
And yet they are not three Almighties: but one
Almighty.
So the Father is God, the Son is God: and the Holy
Ghost is God.
And yet they are not three Gods: but one God.
So likewise the Father is Lord, the Son is Lord: and
the Holy Ghost is Lord.
And yet not three Lords: but one Lord.
For like as we are compelled by the Christian verity: to
acknowledge every Person by Himself to be God and Lord;
So we are forbidden by the Catholick Religion: to
say, there be three Gods, or three Lords.
The Father is made of none: neither created, nor
begotten.
The Son is of the Father alone: not made, nor
created, but begotten.
The Holy Ghost is of the Father and of the Son:(1)
neither made, nor created, nor begotten, but proceeding.
So there is one Father, not three Fathers; one Son,
not three Sons: one Holy Ghost, not three Holy Ghosts.
And in this Trinity none is afore, or after other:
none is greater, or less than another;
But the whole three Persons are co-eternal together:
and co-equal.
So that in all things, as is aforesaid: the Unity in
Trinity, and the Trinity in Unity, is to be worshipped.
¶ He therefore that will be saved: must thus
think of the Trinity.
II.
Furthermore, it is necessary to everlasting
salvation: that he also believe rightly the Incarnation of our Lord
Jesus Christ.
For the right Faith is, that we believe and confess;
that our Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God, is God and Man;
God, of the Substance of the Father, begotten before
the worlds: and Man, of the Substance of His Mother, born in the world;
Perfect God, and perfect Man: of a reasonable soul
and human flesh subsisting;
Equal to the Father, as touching His God-head' and
inferior to the Father, as touching His Manhood.
Who although He be God and Man: yet He is not two,
but one Christ;
One; not by conversion of the God-head into flesh:
but by taking of the Manhood into God;
One altogether; not by confusion of Substance: but
by unity of Person.
For as the reasonable soul and flesh is one man: so
God and Man is one Christ;
Who suffered for our Salvation: descended into hell,
rose again the third day from the dead.
He ascended into heaven, He sitteth on the right hand of
the Father, God Almighty: from whence He shall come to judge the quick
and the dead.
At whose coming all men shall rise again with their
bodies: and shall give account for their own works.
And they that have done good shall go into life
everlasting: and they that have done evil into everlasting
fire.
¶ This is the Catholick
Faith: which except a man believe faithfully, he cannot be saved.
II.
It is with regret that I am forced to take exception to the most useful
Ecclesiastical History of the learned Professor Schaff, in this
connection. I quote from that work(2) as follows:--
"He, Dionysius, maintained distinctly, in (a)
controversy with Dionysius of Alexandria, at once the unity of essence
and the real personal distinction, etc., . . . and avoided tritheism,
Sabellianism, and (b) subordination, with the instinct of orthodoxy,
and also with the art of anathematizing, (c) already familiar to (d)
the popes."
Such a paragraph must convey to the youthful student
a great confusion of ideas; all the greater, because the same valuable
work elsewhere invites him to conclusions quite the reverse. Thus, (a)
there was no controversy whatever between the two Dionysii; with a holy
jealousy they entered into fraternal explanations of the same truth,
held by each, but by neither very technically elucidated. The mere
reader would probably infer that the greater of the two was guilty of
tritheism or Sabellianism, although that is not the meaning of these
unguarded expressions. But (b) the "subordinationism" which he
repudiated was the doctrine of the subjection of the Son, not of the
subordination, which orthodoxy has always maintained. Again, (c) I see
no such "anathe-
368
matizing" in the letter of Dionysius as is here charged; indeed, it
contains no anathema(1) whatever, much less the artificial cursing of
the Papacy which is thus assumed. And last, (d) what can be meant by
the expression, "already familiar to the popes?" The learned pages of
the same author sufficiently prove that there were no such things(2) as
"popes" till a much later period of history; and, as to the "art of
anathematizing," if it existed at all in those days, we find it much
more freely exemplified by the Greek Fathers than by bishops of Rome. I
say, if it existed at because the primitive anathema was a purely
scriptural enforcement of St. Paul's great canon (Gal. i. 8, 9); while
the "art of anathematizing," so justly credited to "the popes," was a
vindictive and monstrous assertion, at a later date, of prerogatives
which they impiously arrogated to themselves, against other churches.
377
THE TEACHING OF THE TWELVE APOSTLES
THE LORD'S TEACHING THROUGH THE TWELVE APOSTLES TO THE NATIONS.(1)
CHAP.
I.--THE TWO WAYS;THE FIRST COMMANDMENT.
THERE are two ways,(2) one of life and one of
death;(3) but a great difference between the two ways. The way of life,
then, is this: First, thou shalt love God(4) who made thee; second, thy
neighbour as thyself;(5) and all things whatsoever thou wouldst should
not occur to thee, thou also to another do not do.(6) And of these
sayings(7) the teaching is this: Bless them that curse you, and pray
for your enemies, and fast for them that persecute you.(8) For what
thank is there, if ye love them that love you? Do not also the Gentiles
do the same?(9) But do ye love them that hate you; and ye shall not
have an enemy.(10) Abstain thou from fleshly and worldly lusts.(11) If
one give thee a blow upon thy right cheek, turn to him the other
also;(12) and thou shalt be perfect. If one impress thee for one mile,
go with him two.(13) If one take away thy cloak, give him also thy
coat.(14) If one take from thee thine own, ask it not back? for indeed
thou art not able. Give to every one that asketh thee, and ask it not
back;(16) for the Father willeth that to all
should be given of our own blessings (free gifts).(17) Happy is he that
giveth according to the commandment; for he is guiltless. Woe to him
that receiveth; for if one having need receiveth, he is guiltless; but
he that receiveth not having need, shall pay the penalty, why he
received and for what, and, coming into straits (confinement),(18) he
shall be examined concerning the things which he hath done, and he
shall not escape thence until he pay back the last farthing.(19) But
also now concerning this, it hath been said, Let thine alms sweat(20)
in thy hands, until thou know to whom thou Shouldst give.
CHAP. II.(21)--THE SECOND COMMANDMENT: GROSS SIN FORBIDDEN.
And the second commandment of the Teaching; Thou
shalt not commit murder, thou shalt not commit adultery,(22) thou shalt
not commit paederasty,(23) thou shalt not commit fornication,
thou shalt not steal,(24) thou shalt not practise magic, thou shalt not
practise witchcraft, thou shalt not murder a child by abortion nor kill
that which is begotten.(25) Thou shalt not covet the things of thy
neighbour,(26) thou shalt not forswear thyself,(27) thou shalt not bear
false witness,(28) thou shalt not speak, evil, thou shalt bear no
grudge.(29) Thou shalt not be double-minded nor double-tongued; for to
be double-tongued is a
378
5 snare of death.(1) Thy speech shall not be false, 6
nor empty, but fulfilled by deed.(2) Thou shalt not be covetous, nor
rapacious, nor a hypocrite, nor evil disposed, nor haughty. Thou shalt
not 7 take evil counsel against thy neighbour.(3) Thou
shalt not hate any man; but some thou shalt reprove,(4) and concerning
some thou shalt pray, and some thou shalt love more than thy own
life.(5)
CHAP. III.(6)--OTHER SINS FORBIDDEN.
1 My child,(7) flee from every evil thing, and from 2
every likeness of it. Be not prone to anger, for anger leadeth the way
to murder; neither jealous, nor quarrelsome, nor of hot temper;
for 3 out of all these murders are engendered. My
child, be not a lustful one; for lust leadeth the way to fornication;
neither a filthy talker, nor of lofty eye; for out of all these
adulteries are 4 engendered. My child, be not
an observer of omens, since it leadeth the way to idolatry; neither an
enchanter, nor an astrologer, nor a purifier, nor be willing to took at
these things; 5 for out of all these idolatry is
engendered. My child, be not a liar, since a lie leadeth the way to
theft; neither money-loving, nor vainglorious, 6 for out of
all these thefts are engendered. My child, be not a murmurer, since it
leadeth the way to blasphemy; neither self-willed nor evil-minded, for
out of all these blasphemies are 7 engendered.
But be thou meek, since the meek 8 shall inherit the earth.(8) Be
long-suffering and pitiful and guileless and gentle and good and
always trembling at the words which thou hast 9 heard.(9)
Thou shalt not exalt thyself,(10) nor give over-confidence to thy
soul. Thy soul shall not be joined with lofty ones, but with just and
lowly 10 ones shall it have its intercourse.
The workings that befall thee receive as good, knowing that apart from
God nothing cometh to pass.(11)
CHAP. IV.(12)--VARIOUS PRECEPTS.
My child, him that speaketh to thee the word of God
remember night and day; and thou
shalt honour him as the Lord;(13) for in the place whence lordly rule
is uttered,(14) there is the Lord. And thou shalt seek out day by day
the faces of 2 the saints, in order that thou mayest rest
upon(15) their words. Thou shalt not long for(16) division,
3 but shalt bring those who contend to peace. Thou shalt judge
righteously, thou shalt not respect persons in reproving for
transgressions. Thou shalt not be undecided whether it shall be
4 or no.(17) Be not a stretcher forth of the hands
5 to receive and a drawer of them back to give.(18) If thou hast
aught, through thy hands thou shalt 6 give ransom for thy
sins.(19) Thou shalt not hesitate 7 to give, nor
murmur when thou givest; for thou shalt know who is the good repayer of
the hire. Thou shalt not turn away from him that 8 is in
want, but thou shalt share all things with thy brother, and shalt not
say that they are thine own; for if ye are partakers in that which is
immortal, how much more in things which are mortal?(20) Thou shalt not
remove thy hand from thy son or from thy daughter, but from their
9 youth shalt teach them the fear of God.(21) Thou
10 shalt not enjoin aught in thy bitterness upon thy bondman or
maidservant, who hope in the same God, lest ever they shall fear not
God who is over both;(22) for he cometh not to call according to
the outward appearance, but unto them whom the Spirit hath prepared.
And ye bondmen shall 11 be subject to your(23)
masters as to a type of God, in modesty and fear.(24) Thou shalt hate
all 12 hypocrisy and everything which is not pleasing to
the Lord. Do thou in no wise forsake the 13
commandments of the Lord; but thou shalt keep what thou hast received,
neither adding thereto nor taking away therefrom.(25) In the
church(26) 14 thou shalt acknowledge thy transgressions,
and thou shalt not come near for thy prayer(27) with an evil
conscience.(28) This is the way of life.(29)
379
CHAP. V.(1)--THE WAY OF DEATH.
1 And the way of death(2) is this: First of all it is
evil and full of curse:(3) murders,(4) adulteries, lusts, fornications,
thefts, idolatries, magic arts, witchcrafts, rapines, false
witnessings, hypocrisies, double-heartedness, deceit, haughtiness,
depravity, self-will, greediness, filthy talking, jealousy,
2 over-confidence, loftiness, boastfulness; persecutors of
the good,(5) hating truth, loving a lie, not knowing a reward for
righteousness, not cleaving(6) to good nor to righteous judgment,
watching not for that which is good, but for that which is evil; from
whom meekness and endurance are far, loving vanities, pursuing
requital, not pitying a poor man, not labouring for the afflicted, not
knowing Him that made them, murderers of children, destroyers of the
handiwork of God, turning away from him that is in want afflicting him
that is distressed, advocates of the rich, lawless judges of the poor,
utter sinners.(7) Be delivered, children, from all these.(8)
CHAP. VI.(9)--AGAINST FALSE TEACHERS, AND FOOD
OFFERED TO IDOLS.
1 See that no one cause thee to err(10) from this way
of the Teaching, since apart from God it 2 teacheth thee.
For if thou art able to bear all the yoke(11) of the Lord, thou wilt be
perfect; but if thou art not able, what thou art able that do.
3 And concerning food,(12) bear what thou art able; but against
that which is sacrificed to idols(13) be exceedingly on thy guard; for
it is the service of dead gods.(14)
CHAP. VII.--CONCERNING BAPTISM.
And concerning baptism,(15) thus baptize
ye:(16) 1 Having first said all these things, baptize into
the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit,(17) in
living water.(18) But if thou 2 have not living water,
baptize into other water; and if thou 3 canst not in cold,
in warm. But if thou have not either, pour out water thrice(19) upon
the head into the name of Father and Son and Holy Spirit. But before
the baptism let the 4 baptizer fast, and the
baptized, and whatever others can; but thou shalt order the baptized to
fast one or two days before.(20)
CHAP. VIII.(21)--CONCERNING FASTING AND PRAYER (THE LORD'S
PRAYER).
But let not your fasts be with the
hypocrites;(22) 1 for they fast on the second and fifth day
of the week; but do ye fast on the fourth day and the
Preparation(Friday).(23) Neither pray as the 2
hypocrites; but as the Lord commanded in His Gospel,(24) thus pray: Our
Father who art in heaven, hallowed be Thy name. Thy kingdom come. Thy
will be done, as in heaven, so on earth. Give us to-day our daily
(needful) bread,(25) and forgive us our debt as we also forgive our
debtors. And bring us not into temptation, but deliver us from the evil
one (or, evil); for Thine is the power and the glory for ever.(26)
Thrice in the day thus pray.(27) 3
CHAP. IX.(28)--THE
THANKSGIVING (EUCHARIST).
Now concerning the Thanksgiving (Eucharist),
1 thus give thanks. First, concerning the 2
380
cup:(1) We thank thee, our Father, for the holy vine of David Thy
servant,(2) which Thou madest known to us through Jesus Thy Servant; to
Thee 3 be the glory for ever. And concerning the
broken bread:(3) We thank Thee, our Father, for the life and knowledge
which Thou modest known to us through Jesus Thy Servant; to Thee be the
glory 4 for ever. Even as this broken bread was scattered
over the hills,(4) and was gathered together and became one, so let Thy
Church be gathered together from the ends of the earth into Thy
kingdom;(5) for Thine is the glory and the power 5 through
Jesus Christ for ever. But let no one eat or drink of your Thanksgiving
(Eucharist), but they who have been baptized into the name of the
Lord; for concerning this also the Lord hath said, Give not that which
is holy to the dogs.(6)
CHAP. X.(7)--PRAYER AFTER COMMUNION.
1 But after ye are filled,(8) thus give thanks:
2 We thank Thee, holy Father, for Thy holy name which Thou didst
cause to tabernacle in our hearts, and for the knowledge and faith and
immortality, which Thou modest known to us through Jesus Thy Servant;
to Thee be the glory 3 for ever. Thou, Master almighty,
didst create all things for Thy name's sake; Thou gavest food and drink
to men for enjoyment, that they might give thanks to Thee; but to us
Thou didst freely give spiritual food and drink 4 and life
eternal through Thy Servant.(9) Before all things we thank Thee that
Thou art mighty; to 5 Thee be the glory for ever. Remember,
Lord, Thy Church, to deliver it from all evil and to make it perfect in
Thy love, and gather it from the four winds, sanctified for Thy kingdom
which Thou hast prepared for it;(10) for Thine is the 6
power and the glory for ever. Let grace come,
and let this world pass away.(11) Hosanna to the God(Son) (12) of
David! If any one is holy, let him come; if any one is not so, let him
repent.(13) Maranatha.(14) Amen. But permit the prophets 7
to make Thanksgiving as much as they desire.(15)
CHAP. XI. 16--CONCERNING TEACHERS, APOSTLES, AND
PROPHETS.
Whosoever, therefore, cometh and teacheth 1 you all these things
that have been said before, receive him.(17) But if the teacher himself
turn(18) 2 and teach another doctrine to the destruction of
this, hear him not; but if he teach so as to increase righteousness and
the knowledge of the Lord, receive him as the Lord. But
concerning 3 the apostles and prophets, according to the
decree of the Gospel, thus do. Let every apostle 4 that
cometh to you be received as the Lord.(19) But he shall not remain
except one day; but if 5 there be need, also the next; but
if he remain three days, he is a false prophet. And when the
6 apostle goeth away, let him take nothing but bread until he
lodgeth;(20) but if he ask money, he is a false prophet. And every
prophet that 7 speaketh in the Spirit(21) ye shall neither
try nor judge; for every sin shall be forgiven, but this sin shall not
be forgiven.(22) But not every one 8 that speaketh in the
Spirit is a prophet; but only if he hold the ways of the Lord.
Therefore from their ways shall the false prophet and the prophet be
known. And every prophet who ordereth a 9 meal(23) in the
Spirit eateth not from it, except indeed he be a false prophet; and
every prophet 10 who teacheth the truth, if he do not what
he teacheth, is a false prophet. And every prophet, 11
proved true,(24) working unto the mystery of the Church in the
world,(25) yet not teaching others to
381
do what he himself doeth, shall not be judged among you, for with God
he hath his judgment; for so did also the ancient prophets. But whoever
saith in the Spirit, Give me money, or something else, ye shall not
listen to him; but if he saith to you to give for others' sake who are
in need, let no one judge him.
CHAP. XII.(1)--RECEPTION OF CHRISTIANS.
1 But let every one that cometh in the name of the
Lord be received,(2) and afterward ye shall prove and know him; for ye
shall have understanding 2 right and left. If he who cometh
is a wayfarer, assist him as far as ye are able; but he shall not
remain with you, except for two or 3 three days, if need
be. But if he willeth to abide with you, being an artisan, let him work
and eat;(3) 4 but if he hath no trade, according to your
understanding see to it that, as a Christian,(4) he shall 5
not live with you idle. But if he willeth not
to do, he is a Christ-monger.(5) Watch that ye keep aloof from such.
CHAP. XIII.(6)--SUPPORT OF PROPHETS.
1 But every true prophet that willeth to abide
2 among you(7) is worthy of his support.(8) So also a true
teacher is himself worthy, as the workman, 3 of his
support.(9) Every first-fruit, therefore, of the products of wine-press
and threshing-floor, of oxen and of sheep, thou shalt take and give to
the prophets, for they are your high priests.(10) 4 But if
ye have not a prophet, give it to the poor. 5 If thou
makest a batch of dough, take the first-fruit and give according to the
commandment.
So also when thou openest a jar of wine or of 6 oil, take
the first-fruit and give it to the prophets; and of money (silver) and
clothing and every 7 possession, take the first-fruit, as
it may seem good to thee, and give according to the commandment.
yCHAP. XIV.(11)--CHRISTIAN ASSEMBLY ON
THE LORD'S DAY.
But every Lord's day(12) do ye gather
yourselves 1 together, and break bread, and give
thanksgiving after having confessed your transgressions,(13) that your
sacrifice may be pure.(14) But let no one that 2 is at
variance(15) with his fellow come together with you, until they be
reconciled, that your sacrifice may not be profaned. For this is
that 3 which was spoken by the Lord: In every place and
time offer to me a pure sacrifice;(16) for I am a great King, saith the
Lord, and my name is wonderful among the nations.(17)
CHAP. XV.(18)--BISHOPS AND
DEACONS; CHRISTIAN REPROOF.
Appoint, therefore, for yourselves, bishops
and 1 deacons worthy of the Lord, men meek, and not lovers
of money,(19) and truthful and proved; for they also render to you the
service(20) of prophets and teachers. Despise them not therefore,
for 2 they are your honoured ones, together with the
prophets and teachers. And reprove one another, 3 not in
anger, but in peace, as ye have it in the Gospel;(21) but to every one
that acts amiss(22) against another, let no one speak, nor let him hear
aught from you until he repent. But your prayers and 4 alms
and all your deeds so do, as ye have it in the Gospel of our Lord.(23)
382
CHAP. XVI.(1)--WATCHFULNESS; THE
COMING OF THE LORD.
1 Watch for your life's sake.(2) Let not your lamps be
quenched, nor your loins unloosed;(3) but be ye ready, for ye know not
the hour in
2 which our Lord cometh.(4) But often shall ye come
together, seeking the things which are befitting to your souls: for the
whole time of your faith will not profit you,(5) if ye be not
made 3 perfect in the last time. For in the last days(6)
false prophets and corrupters shall be multiplied, and the sheep shall
be turned into wolves, and love 4 shall be turned into
hate;(7) for when lawlessness increaseth, they shall hate and persecute
and betray one another,(8) and then shall appear the world-deceiver(9)
as Son of God,(10) and shall do signs and wonders,(11) and the earth
shall be delivered into his hands, and he shall do iniquitous things
which have never yet come to pass since 5 the beginning.
Then shall the creation of men come into the fire of trial,(12) and
many shall be
made to stumble and shall perish; but they that endure in their faith
shall be saved(13) from under the curse itself.(14) And then shall
appear the 6 signs of the truth;(15) first, the sign of an
out-spreading(16) in heaven; then the sign of the sound of the trumpet;
and the third, the resurrection of the dead; yet not of all, but as it
is 7 said: The Lord shall come and all His saints with
Him.(17) Then shall the world see the 8 Lord coming upon
the clouds of heaven.(18)
ELUCIDATIONS
I
(Thus baptize ye, p. 379.)
IF we compare this chapter with the corresponding
one in the Apostolic Constitutions, the Teaching seems to me to be a
somewhat abridged form of a common original. This being designed for
the catechumens, there is an omission of what they are afterwards to
know. A form originally drawn up for clergy and people has been very
inartificially expurgated for the instruction of young disciples. This
appears from the ninth chapter (p. 380), where only certain receptive
or responsive forms are given. The liturgy of the Apostolic
Constitutions, book viii., embodies what was studiously kept from all
but the <greek>teleios</greek>, i.e., those "of full age."
383
II.
(Concerning apostles, p. 380, note 16.)
The reference to "apostles," probably itinerant, in
Rev. ii. 2, corresponds with this. There were officers known in the
Apostolic day (compare 2 Cor. viii. 23, Greek) as
<greek>apostoloi</greek>
<greek>ekklhsiwn</greek>, for the pseud-apostles of the
Apocalypse could not have pretended what they did had it been
otherwise. Neither would it have been needful to "try those who said
they were apostles," in that case: the mere assertion of such a
pretence would have sufficiently convicted them.
The very childish directions (suited to mere
catechumens) given in the text illustrates Rev ii. 2, and is, so far,
evidence of the very early origin of the Teaching.
The name apostles was made technical by Christ
Himself: "He named them Apostles" (Luke vi. 13). And the word is never
used in the loose way which Bishop Lightfoot hazardously suggests, as I
must venture to believe.
III.
(Incipient fanaticism, p. 381, note 25.)
Unquestionably, for even in St. Paul's day his
admonitions imply nothing less. See 1 Cor. cap. xiv., passim. But, as
in the Introductory Notice(1) I hinted my suspicions of incipient
Montanism in the Teaching, so I am strengthened in this idea by the
learned critic to whose note I venture to append this remark for the
purpose of asking a reference to my annotations of Hermas in vol. ii.
of this series. May I also ask a reference to the same volume, pp. 4,
5, and 6? The "meal" (note 23, p. 380) of the Teaching is doubtless the
Agape, which had been abused at so early a day, that St. Peter(2)
himself was forced to denounce the "false prophets" who polluted this
feast of charity.
387
INTRODUCTORY NOTICE
TO
CONSTITUTIONS OF THE HOLY APOSTLES
HAVING learned from the erudite Beveridge what I
long supposed to be a just view of the Constitutions, I have found in
the recent literature of the subject not a little to increase my
confidence in the generaI conclusions to which he was led by all that
could be known in his times. The treatise of Krabbe guided me to some
results of more modern investigations; and Dr. Bunsen, though not apart
from his critics, has enabled me still further to correct some of my
impressions. But, in connection with the late discovery of Bryennios,
the field of discussion and inquiry has been so much enlarged, that I
have felt it due to the readers and students of this republication to
invoke the aid of Professor Riddle, who is able to enrich the work with
the results of genuine learning and much patient research. Whatever may
be my own convictions on some subordinate points, I have been glad to
secure the judgment of a critical scholar who, I am persuaded, aims to
shed upon the subject the colourless light of scientific investigation.
This is all I can desire, anxious only to see facts clearly established
and historic truth illustrated, no matter to what results they may seem
to point. Where the professor's decisions coincide with my own
impressions, I am naturally gratified by his valued and independent
corroboration: where the case is otherwise, I am hardly less gratified
to present my indulgent readers with opinions deserving of their
highest respect, and by which they will be stimulated, as well as
influenced, in forming convictions for themselves.
The Constitutions are so full of material on which
it is well for one in my position not to speak very freely in such a
work as this, that I rejoice all the more to confide the task of
annotation almost exclusively to another and to one from whom American
Christians must ever be glad to hear on subjects requiring in an almost
equal degree the skill of an expert critic and the candour of a
conscientious Christian.
I prefix Professor Riddle's PREFACE tO the
Introductory Notice of the Edinburgh editor, as follows:--
NEW interest has been awakened in the Apostolic
Constitutions by the discovery of an ancient manuscript in
Constantinople.(1) While it does not contain the Constitutions, it
affords much material for discussion respecting the sources and
authorship of this compilation. The so-called Teaching of the Twelve
Apostles, found in the Codex at Constantinople, and published by
Bryennios in 1883, is recognised as the basis of the seventh book of
the Constitutions. The verbal coincidences, the order of topics, and
other obvious phenomena, leave little room for reasonable doubt on this
point. That the reader may be in possession of the main facts, the
corresponding portions have been indicated both in book vii. of the
Constitutions and in the version of the Teaching inserted in this
volume. This literary connection has some bearing on
388
the discussion as to the age of the Constitutions. If the Teaching is
substantially the early work bearing that name, then some of the
references by early writers which have been applied to the larger work
must now be regarded as pointing to the Teaching; still, this only
bears against the theory of a date as early as the third century. The
new critical material furnished by the Bryennios manuscript for the
Ignatian controversy has a bearing on the question respecting the work
before us. The opinion has been strengthened (see below), that the same
hand enlarged the Ignatian Epistles and adapted earlier matter (such as
the Teaching) for the Apostolic Constitutions.
We may accept as established the following
positions:--
1. The Apostolic Constitutions are a compilation, the
material being derived from sources differing in age.
2. The first six books are the oldest; the seventh, in its
present form, somewhat later, but, from its connection with the
Teaching, proven to contain matter of a very ancient date. The eighth
book is of latest date.
3. It now seems to be generally admitted that the entire
work is not later than the fourth century, although the usual allowance
must be made for later textual changes, whether by accident or design.
Dr. Von Drey(1) regards the first six books as of Eastern
origin (mainly Syrian), and to be assigned to the second half of the
third century. The seventh and eighth were more recent, he thinks, but
united with the others before A.D. 325. With this, Schaff (in his
Church History, vol. ii, rev. ed., p. 185) substantially agreed; but,
in his later work on the Teaching, seems to assign the completion of
the compilation to a date somewhat later. This is the view of Harnack,
who, "by a critical analysis and comparison, comes to the conclusion(2)
that pseudo-Clement, alias pseudo-Ignatius, was a Eusebian, a
semi-Arian, and rather worldly-minded anti-ascetic Bishop of Syria, a
friend of the Emperor Constantius between (340) and (360); that he
enlarged and adapted the Didascalia of the third and the Didache of the
second century, as well as the Ignatian Epistles, to his own view of
morals, worship, and discipline, and clothed them with Apostolic
authority."(3)
This is, at all events, a more reasonable view than
that of Krabbe, who assigns the first six books to the end of the third
century, and the eighth to the beginning of the fifth. The latter, it
is true, he regards a compilation from older sources. The purpose of
the whole, in his view, was to confirm the episcopal hierarchy, and to
establish the unity of the Catholic Church on the basis of the unity of
the priesthood, etc. But it is now generally held that the purpose of
the compilation was merely to present a manual of instruction, worship,
polity, and usage for both clergy and laity. Had it been designed to
further some ecclesiastical tendency, it would be far less valuable,
since it would less fairly reproduce the ecclesiastical life of the age
or ages in which it originated. Bishop Beveridge at first attributed
the Constitutions to Clemens Alexandrinus (end of second century), but
afterwards accepted the third century as the more probable date. The
views now prevalent do full justice to his opinions, but seem to be
better sustained in detail.
The collection of Canons at the close of the
Constitutions is undoubtedly a compilation. Some are evidently much
more ancient than others, and there is every evidence that various
collections or recensions existed. That of Dionysius (about A.D. 500),
in Latin, contained fifty canons; that of John (Scholasticus) of
Antioch (about A.D. 565) contained eighty-five canons: and "it is
undeniable that the Greek copy which Dionysius had before him belonged
to a (differ-
389
ent family of collections from that used by John Scholasticus, for they
differ frequently, if not essentially, both in text and in the way of
numbering the canons."(1)
Bishop Beveridge sought to trace these Canons to the
synods of the first two centuries, while Daille held that the
collection was made as late as the fifth century. The latter view is
not generally accepted, though the existence of a variety of
collections tells against some of the views of Bishop Beveridge.(2) It
is impossible to enter into a full discussion here. It seemed better to
annotate the Canons from the results of Drey and Hefele, two most
candid and scholarly Roman-Catholic investigators.(3) The brief notes
indicate the sources according to these authors. The reader will at
once perceive from the views tires suggested, as well as from the
contents of the Canons, that, while some canons are presumably quite
ancient, a number belong to the fourth century, and that, as a complete
collection, they cannot antedate the compilation of the Apostolic
Constitutions. Indeed, Drey, who accepts the latter as Ante-Nicene (see
above), thinks five of the canons (30, 67, 74, 81, 83) were derived
from the canons of the Fourth OEcumenical Council at Chalcedon, A.D.
451, and quite a number of others he traces to synods and councils of
the fourth century. Hefele doubts the positions taken by Drey in regard
to most of these. He does not, however, insist that the collection is
Ante-Nicene, while he traces the origin of many of the canons to the
Apostolic Constitutions.
[The following is Dr. Donaldson's INTRODUCTORY
NOTICE:--]
THERE has always existed a great diversity of
opinion as to the author and date of the Apostolical Constitutions.
Earlier writers were inclined to assign them to the apostolic age, and
to Clement; but much discussion ensued, and the questions to which they
give rise are still unsettled.
The most peculiar opinion in regard to them is that
of Whiston, who devoted a volume (vol. iii.) of his Primitive
Christianity Revived to prove that "they are the most sacred of the
canonical books of the New Testament;" for "these sacred Christian laws
or constitutions were delivered at Jerusalem, and in Mount Sion, by our
Saviour to the eleven apostles there assembled after His resurrection."
Krabbe, who wrote an elaborate treatise on the
origin and contents of the Apostolical Constitutions, tried to show
that the first seven books were written "towards the end of the third
century." The eighth book, he thinks, must have been written at the end
of the fourth or beginning of the fifth.
Bunsen thinks that, if we expunge a few
interpolations of the fourth and fifth centuries, "we find ourselves
unmistakeably in the midst of the life of the Church of the second and
third centuries."(4) "I think," he says, "I have proved in my analysis,
more clearly than has been hitherto done, the Ante-Nicene origin of a
book, or rather books, called by an early fiction Apostolical
Constitutions, and consequently the still higher antiquity of the
materials, both ecclesiastical and literary, which they contain. I have
shown that the compilers made use of the Epistle of Barnabas,(5) which
belongs to the first half of the second century; that the eighth is an
extract or transcript of Hippolytus; and that the first six books are
so full of phrases found in the second interpolation of the Ignatian
Epistles, that their last compiler, the author of the present text,
must either have lived soon after that interpolation was made, or vice
versa, or the interpolator and compiler must have been one and the same
person.(6) This last circumstance renders it probable
390
that at least the first six books of the Greek compilation, like the
Ignatian forgeries,(1) were the produce of Asia Minor. Two points are
self-evident--their Oriental origin, and that they belong neither to
Antioch nor to Alexandria. I suppose nobody now will trace them to
Palestine."(2)
Modern critics are equally at sea in determining the
date of the collections of canons given at the end of the eighth book.
Most believe that some of them belong to the apostolic age, while
others are of a comparatively late date. The subject is very fully
discussed in Krabbe.
Bovius first gave a complete edition of the
Constitutions (Venice, 1563), but only in a Latin form. The Greek was
first edited by the Jesuit Turrianus (Venice, 1563). It was reprinted
several times. Cotelerius gave it in his Apostolical Fathers. In the
second edition of this work, as prepared by Clericus (1724), the
readings of two Vienna manuscripts were given. These V. MSS. and Oxford
MS. of book viii. are supposed by Bunsen to be nearer the original than
the others, alike in what they give and in what they omit. The
Constitutions have been edited by Ultzen (1853), and by Lagarde in
Bunsen's Analecta Ante-Nicoena, vol. ii. (1854). Lagarde has partially
introduced readings from the Syriac, Arabic, AEthiopic, and Coptic
forms of the Constitutions. Whiston devoted the second volume of his
Primitive Christianity to the Constitutions and Canons, giving both the
Greek and English. It is his translation which we have republished,
with considerable alterations. We have not deemed it necessary to give
a tithe of the various readings, but have confined ourselves to those
that seem important. We have also given no indication of the Syriac
form of the first six books. We shall give this form by itself. The
translation of Whiston was reprinted by Irah Chase, D.D., very
carefully revised, with a translation of Krabbe's Essay on the Origin
and Contents of the Constitutions, and his Dissertation an the Canons
(New York, 1848).(3)
391
CONSTITUTIONS OF THE HOLY APOSTLES(1)
BOOK I.
CONCERNING THE LAITY.
SEC. I.--GENERAL COMMANDMENTS.
THE apostles and elders to all those who from among
the Gentiles have believed in the Lord Jesus Christ; grace and peace
from Almighty God, through our Lord Jesus Christ, be multiplied unto
you in the acknowledgment of Him.
The Catholic Church is the plantation of God and His
beloved vineyard;(2) containing those who have believed in His unerring
divine religion; who are the heirs by faith of His everlasting kingdom;
who are partakers of His divine influence, and of the communication of
the Holy Spirit; who are armed through Jesus, and have received His
fear into their hearts; who enjoy the benefit of the sprinkling of the
precious and innocent blood of Christ; who have free liberty to call
Almighty God, Father; being fellow-heirs and joint-partakers of His
beloved Son: hearken to this holy doctrine, you who enjoy His promises,
as being delivered by the command of your Saviour, and agreeable to His
glorious words. Take care, ye children of God, to do all things in
obedience to God; and in all things please Christ our Lord.(3) For if
any man follows unrighteousness, and does those things that are
contrary to the will of God, such a one will be esteemed by God as the
disobedient heathen.
CONCERNING COVETOUSNESS.
I. Abstain, therefore, from all unlawful desires and
injustice. For it is written in the law, "Thou shalt not covet thy
neighbour's wife, nor his field, nor his man-servant, nor his
maid-servant, nor his ox, nor his ass, nor anything that is thy
neighbour's;"(4) for all coveting of these things is from the evil one.
For he that covets his neighbour's wife, or his man-servant, or his
maid-servant, is already in his mind an adulterer and a thief; and if
he does not repent, is condemned by our Lord Jesus Christ: through whom
s glory be to God for ever, Amen. For He says in the Gospel,
recapitulating, and confirming, and fulfilling the ten commandments of
the law: "It is written in the law, Thou shalt not commit adultery: but
I say unto you, that is, I said in the law, by Moses. But now I say
unto you myself, Whosoever shall look on his neighbour's wife to lust
after her, hath committed adultery with her already in his heart."(6)
Such a one is condemned of adultery, who covets his neighbour's wife in
his mind. But does not he that covets an ox or an ass design to steal
them to apply them to his own use, and to lead them away? Or, again,
does not he that covets a field, and continues in such a disposition,
wickedly contrive how to remove the landmarks, and to compel the
possessor to part with somewhat for nothing? For as the prophet
somewhere speaks: "Woe to those who join house to house, and lay field
to field, that they may deprive their neighbour of somewhat which was
his."(7) Wherefore he says: "Must you alone inhabit the earth? For
these things have been heard in the ears of the Lord of hosts." And
elsewhere: "Cursed be he who removeth his neighbour's landmarks: and
all the people shall say, Amen."(8) Wherefore Moses says: "Thou shalt
not remove thy neighbour's landmarks(9) which thy fathers have
set."(10) Upon this account, therefore, terrors, death, tribunals, and
condemnations follow such as these from God. But as to those who are
obedient to God, there is one law of God, simple,(10) true, living,
which is this: "Do not that to another which thou hatest another should
do to thee."(11) Thou
392
wouldst not that any one should look upon thy wife with an evil design
to corrupt her; do not thou, therefore, look upon thy neighbour's
wife with a wicked intention. Thou wouldst not that thy
garment should be taken away; do not thou therefore, take away
another's. Thou wouldst not be beaten, reproached, affronted; do not
thou, therefore, serve any other in the like manner.
THAT WE OUGHT NOT TO RETURN INJURIES, NOR REVENGE OURSELVES ON HIM THAT
DOES US WRONG.
11. But if any one curse thee, do thou bless him.
For it is written in the book of Numbers: "He that blesseth thee is
blessed, and he that curseth thee is cursed."(1) In the same manner it
is written inn the Gospel: "Bless them that curse you."(2) Being
injured, do not avenge yourselves, but bear it with patience; for the
Scripture speaks thus: "Say not thou, I will avenge myself on my enemy
for what injuries he has offered me; but acquiesce under them, that the
Lord may right thee, and bring vengeance upon him who injures thee."(3)
For so says He again in the Gospel: "Love your enemies, do good to them
that hate you, and pray for them which despitefully use you and
persecute you; and ye shall be the children of your Father which is in
heaven: for He maketh His sun to shine on the evil and on the good, and
raineth on the just and unjust."(4) Let us therefore, beloved, attend
to these commandments, that we may be found to be the children of light
by doing them. Bear, therefore, with one another, ye servants and sons
of God.
SEC. II.--COMMANDMENTS TO MEN.
CONCERNING THE ADORNMENT OF OURSELVES, AND THE SIN WHICH ARISES FROM
THENCE.
Let the husband not be insolent nor arrogant towards
his wife; but compassionate, bountiful, willing to please his own wife
alone,(5) and treat her honourably and obligingly, endeavouring to be
agreeable to her; (III.) not adorning thyself in such a manner as may
entice another woman to thee. For if thou art overcome by her, and
sinnest with her, eternal death will overtake thee from God; and thou
wilt be punished with sensible and bitter torments. Or if thou dost not
perpetrate such a wicked act, but shakest her off, and refusest her, in
this case thou art not wholly innocent, even though thou art not guilty
of the crime itself, but only in so far as through thy adorning thou
didst entice the woman to desire thee. For thou art the cause that the
woman was so affected, and by her lusting after thee was guilty of
adultery with thee: yet art thou not so guilty, because thou didst not
send to her, who was ensnared by thee; nor didst thou desire her.
Since, therefore, thou didst not deliver up thyself to her, thou shalt
find mercy with the Lord thy God, who hath said, "Thou shalt not commit
adultery," and, "Thou shalt not covet."(6) For if such a woman, upon
sight of thee, or unseasonable meeting with thee, was smitten in her
mind, and sent to thee, but thou as a religious person didst refuse
her,(7) if she was wounded in her heart by thy beauty, and youth, and
adorning, and fell in love with thee, thou wilt be found guilty of her
transgressions, as having been the occasion of scandal to her,(8) and
shalt inherit a woe.(9) Wherefore pray thou to the Lord God that no
mischief may befall thee upon this account: for thou art not to please
men, so as to commit sin; but God, so as to attain holiness of life,
and be partaker of everlasting rest. That beauty which God and nature
has bestowed on thee, do not further beautify; but modestly diminish it
before men. Thus, do not thou permit the hair of thy head to grow too
long, but rather cut it short; lest by a nice combing thy hair, and
wearing it long, and anointing thyself, thou draw upon thyself such
ensnared or ensnaring women. Neither do thou wear over-fine garments to
seduce any; neither do thou, with an evil subtilty, affect over-fine
stockings or shoes for thy feet, but only such as suit the measures of
decency and usefulness. Neither do thou put a gold ring upon thy
fingers; for all these ornaments are the signs of lasciviousness, which
if thou be solicitous about in an indecent manner, thou wilt not act as
becomes a good man: for it is not lawful for thee, a believer and a man
of God, to permit the hair of thy head to grow long, and to brush it up
together, nor to suffer it to spread abroad, nor to puff it up, nor by
nice combing and platting to make it curl and shine; since that is
contrary to the law, which says thus, in its additional precepts: "You
shall not make to yourselves curls and round rasures."(10) Nor may men
destroy the hair of their beards, and unnaturally change the form of a
man. For the law says: "Ye shall not mar your beards."(10) For God the
Creator has made this decent for women, but has determined that it is
unsuitable for men. But if thou do these things to please men, in
contradiction to the law, thou wilt be abominable with God, who created
thee after His own image.
393
If, therefore, thou wilt be acceptable to God, abstain from all those
things which He hates, and do none of those things that are unpleasing
to Him.
THAT WE OUGHT NOT TO BE OVER-CURIOUS ABOUT THOSE WHO LIVE WICKEDLY, BUT
TO BE INTENT UPON OUR OWN PROPER EMPLOYMENT.
IV. Thou shalt not be as a wanderer and gadder
abroad, rambling about the streets, without just cause, to spy out such
as live wickedly. But by minding thy own trade and employment,
endeavour to do what is acceptable to God. And keeping in mind the
oracles of Christ, meditate in the same continually. For so the
Scripture says to thee: "Thou shalt meditate in His law day and night;
when thou walkest in the field, and when thou sittest in thine house,
and when thou liest down, and when thou risest up, that thou
mayest have understanding in all things."(1) Nay, although thou beest
rich, and so dost not want a trade for thy maintenance, be not one that
gads about, and walks abroad at random; but either go to some that are
believers, and of the same religion, and confer and discourse with them
about the lively oracles of God:--
WHAT BOOKS OF SCRIPTURE WE OUGHT TO READ.
V. Or if thou stayest at home, read the books of the
Law, of the Kings, with the Prophets; sing the hymns of David; and
peruse diligently the Gospel, which is the completion of the other.
THAT WE OUGHT TO ABSTAIN FROM ALL THE BOOKS OF THOSE THAT ARE OUT OF THE
CHURCH.
VI. Abstain from all the heathen books. For what
hast thou to do with such foreign discourses, or laws, or false
prophets, which subvert the faith of the unstable? For what defect dost
thou find in the law of God, that thou shouldest have recourse to those
heathenish fables? For if thou hast a mind to read history, thou hast
the books of the Kings; if books of wisdom or poetry, thou hast those
of the Prophets, of Job, and the Proverbs, in which thou wilt find
greater depth of sagacity than in all the heathen poets and sophisters,
because these are the words of the Lord, the only wise God. If thou
desirest something to sing, thou hast the Psalms; if the origin of
things, thou hast Genesis; if laws and statutes, thou hast the glorious
law of the Lord God. Do thou therefore utterly abstain from all strange
and diabolical books. Nay, when thou readest the law, think not thyself
bound to observe the additional precepts; though not all of them, yet
some of them. Read those barely for the sake of history, in order to
the knowledge of them, and to glorify God that He has delivered thee
from such great and so many bonds. Propose to thyself to distinguish
what rules were from the law of nature, and what were added afterwards,
or were such additional rules as were introduced and given in the
wilderness to the Israelites after the making of the calf; for the law
contains those precepts which were spoken by the Lord God before the
people fell into idolatry, and made a calf like the Egyptian Apis--that
is, the ten commandments. But as to those bonds which were further laid
upon them after they had sinned, do not thou draw them upon thyself:
for our Saviour came for no other reason but that He might deliver
those that were obnoxious thereto from the wrath which was reserved far
them, that(2) He might fulfil the Law and the Prophets, and that He
might abrogate or change those secondary bonds which were superadded to
the rest of the law. For therefore did He call to us and say, "Come
unto me,(2) all ye that labour and are heavy laden, and I will dive you
rest."(3) When, therefore, thou hast read the Law, which is
agreeable to the Gospel and to the Prophets, read also the books of the
Kings, that thou mayest thereby learn which of the kings were
righteous, and how they were prospered by God, and how the promise of
eternal life continued with them from Him; but those kings which
went a--whoring from God did soon perish in their apostasy by the
righteous judgment of God, and were deprived of His life, inheriting,
instead of rest, eternal punishment. Wherefore by reading these books
thou wilt be mightily strengthened in the faith, and edified in Christ,
whose body and member thou art. Moreover, when thou walkest abroad in
public, and hast a mind to bathe, make use of that bath which is
appropriated to men, lest, by discovering thy body in an unseemly
manner to women, or by seeing a sight not seemly for men, either thou
beest ensnared, or thou ensnarest and enticest to thyself those women
who easily yield to such temptations.(2) Take care, therefore, and
avoid such things, lest thou admit a snare upon thy own soul.
CONCERNING A BAD WOMAN.
VII. For let us learn what the sacred word says in
the book of Wisdom: "My son, keep my words, and hide my commandments
with thee. Say unto Wisdom, Thou art my sister; and make understanding
familiar with thee: that she may keep thee from the strange and wicked
woman, in case such a one accost thee with sweet words.
394
For from the window of her house she looks into the street, to see if
she can espy some young man among the foolish children, without
Understanding, walking in the market-place, in the meeting of the
street near her house, and talking in the dusk of the evening, or in
the silence and darkness of the night. A woman meets him in the
appearance of an harlot, who steals away the hearts of young persons.
She rambles about and is dissolute; her feet abide not in her house
sometimes she is without, sometimes in the streets, and lieth in wait
at every corner. Then she catches him, and kisses him, and with an
impudent face says unto him, I have peace-offerings with me; this day
do I pay my vows: therefore came I forth to meet thee; earnestly
I have desired thy face, and I have found thee. I have decked my bed
with coverings; with tapestry from Egypt have I adorned it. I have
perfumed my bed with saffron, and my house with cinnamon. Come, let us
take our fill of love until the morning; come, let us solace ourselves
with love," etc. To which he adds: "With much discourse she seduced
him, with snares from her lips she forced him. He goes after her like a
silly bird."(1) And again: "Do not hearken to a wicked woman; for
though the lips of an harlot are like drops from an honey-comb, which
for a while is smooth in thy throat, yet afterwards thou wilt find her
more bitter than gall, and sharper than any two-edged sword."(2) And
again: "But get away quickly, and tarry not
fix not thine eyes upon her: for she hath thrown down many wounded;
yea, innumerable multitudes have been slain by her."(3) "If not," says
he, "yet thou wilt repent at the last, when thy flesh and thy body are
consumed, and wilt say, How have I hated instruction, and my heart has
avoided the reproofs of the righteous! I have not hearkened to the
voice of my instructor, nor inclined mine ear to my teacher. I have
almost been in all evil."(4) But we will make no more quotations; and
if we have omitted any, be so prudent as to select the most valuable
out of the Holy Scriptures, and confirm yourselves with them, rejecting
all things that are evil, that so you may be found holy with God in
eternal life.
SEC. III.--COMMANDMENTS TO WOMEN.
CONCERNING THE SUBJECTION OF A WIFE TO HER HUSBAND, AND THAT SHE MUST
BE LOVING AND MODEST.
VIII. Let the wife be obedient to her own proper
husband, because "the husband is the head of the wife."(5) But Christ
is the head of that husband who walks in the way of
righteousness; and "the head of Christ is God," even His Father.
Therefore, O wife, next after the Almighty, our God and Father, the
Lord of the present world and of the world to come, the Maker of
everything that breathes, and of every power; and after His beloved
Son, our Lord Jesus Christ, through whom(6) glory be to God, do thou
fear thy husband, and reverence him, pleasing him alone, rendering
thyself acceptable to him in the several affairs of life, that so on
thy account thy husband may be called blessed, according to the Wisdom
of Solomon, which thus speaks: "Who can find a virtuous woman? for such
a one is more precious than costly stones. The heart of her husband
doth safely trust in her, so that she shall have no need of spoil: for
she does good to her husband all the days of her life. She buyeth wool
and flax, and worketh profitable things-with her hands. She is like the
merchants ships, she bringeth her food from far. She riseth also while
it is yet night, and giveth" meat to her household, and food to her
maidens. She considereth a field, and buyeth it; with the fruit of her
hands she planteth a vineyard. She girdeth her loins with strength, and
strengtheneth her arms. She tasteth that it is good to labour; her lamp
goeth not out all the whole night. She stretcheth out her arms
for useful work, and layeth her hands to the spindle. She openeth her
hands to the needy; yea, she reacheth forth her hands to the poor. Her
husband takes no care of the affairs of his house; for all that are
with her are clothed with double garments. She maketh coats for her
husband, clothings of silk and purple. Her husband is eminent in the
gates, when he sitteth with the elders of the land. She maketh fine
linen, and selleth it to the Phoenicians, and girdles to the
Canaanites. She is clothed with glory and beauty, and she rejoices in
the last days. She openeth her mouth with wisdom and discretion, and
puts her words in order. The ways of her household are strict; she
eateth not the bread of idleness. She will open her mouth with wisdom
and caution, and upon her tongue are the laws of mercy. Her children
arise up and praise her for her riches, and her husband joins in her
praises. Many daughters have obtained wealth and done worthily, but
thou surpassest and excellest them all. May lying flatteries and the
vain beauty of a wife be far from thee. For a religious wife is
blessed. Let her praise the fear of the Lord:(7) give her of the fruits
of her lips, and let her husband be praised in the gates."(8) And
again: "A virtuous wife is a crown to her husband."(9) And
395
again: "Many wives have built an house."(1) You have learned what great
commendations a prudent and loving wife receives from the Lord God. If
thou desirest to be one of the faithful, and to please the Lord, O
wife, do not superadd ornaments to thy beauty, in order to please other
men; neither affect to wear fine broidering, garments, or shoes, to
entice those who are allured by such things. For although thou dost not
these wicked things with design of sinning thyself, but only for the
sake of ornament and beauty, yet wilt thou not so escape future
punishment, as having compelled another to look so hard at thee as to
lust after thee, and as not having taken care both to avoid sin
thyself, and the affording scandal to others. But if thou yield thyself
up, and commit the crime, thou art both guilty of thy own sin, and the
cause of the ruin of the other's soul also. Besides, when thou hast
committed lewdness with one man, and beginnest to despair, thou wilt
again turn away from thy duty, and follow others, and grow past
feeling; as says the divine word: "When a wicked man comes into the
depth of evil, he becomes a scorner, and then disgrace and reproach
come upon him."(2) For such a woman afterward being wounded, ensnares
without restraint the souls of the foolish. Let us learn, therefore,
how the divine word, triumphs over such women, saying: "I hated a woman
who is a snare and net to the heart of men worse than death; her hands
are fetters."(3) And in another passage: "As a jewel of gold in a
swine's snout, so is beauty in a wicked woman."(4) And again: "As a
worm in wood, so does a wicked woman destroy her husband."(5) And
again: "It is better to dwell in the corner of the house-top, than with
a contentious and an angry woman."(6) You, therefore, who are Christian
women, do not imitate such as these. But thou who designest to be
faithful to thine own husband, take care to please him alone. And when
thou art in the streets, cover thy head; for by such a covering thou
wilt avoid being viewed of idle persons. Do not paint thy face, which
is God's workmanship; for there is no part of thee which wants
ornament, inasmuch as all things which God has made are very good. But
the
lascivious additional adorning of what is already good is an affront to
the bounty of the Creator. Look downward when thou walkest abroad,
veiling thyself as becomes women.
THAT A WOMAN MUST NOT BATHE WITH MEN.
IX. Avoid also that disorderly practice of bathing
in the same place with men; for many are the nets of the evil one. And
let not a Christian woman bathe with an hermaphrodite; for if she is to
veil her face, and conceal it with modesty from strange men, how can
she bear to enter naked into the bath together with men? But if the
bath be appropriated to women, let her bathe orderly, modestly, and
moderately. But let her not bathe without occasion, nor much, nor
often, nor in the middle of the day, nor, if possible, every day; and
let the tenth hour of the day be the set time for such seasonable
bathing. For it is convenient that thou, who art a Christian woman,
shouldst ever constantly avoid a curiosity which has many eyes.
CONCERNING A CONTENTIOUS AND BRAWLING WOMAN.
X. But as to a spirit of contention, be sure to curb
it as to all men, but principally as to thine husband; lest, if he be
an unbeliever or an heathen, he may have an occasion of scandal or of
blaspheming God, and thou be partaker of a woe from God. For, says He,
"Woe to him by whom My name is blasphemed among the Gentiles;"(7) and
lest, if thy husband be a Christian, he be forced, from his knowledge
of the Scriptures, to say that which is written in the book of Wisdom:
"It is better to dwell in the wilderness, than with a contentious and
an angry woman."(8) You wives, therefore, demonstrate your piety by
your modesty and meekness to all without the Church, whether they be
women or men, in order to their conversion and improvement in the
faith. And since we have warned you, and instructed you briefly, whom
we do esteem our sisters, daughters, and members, as being wise
yourselves, persevere all your lives in an unblameable course of life.
Seek to know such kind of learning whereby you may arrive at the
kingdom of our Lord, and please Him, and so rest for ever and ever.
Amen.
396
CONSTITUTIONS OF THE HOLY APOSTLES
BOOK II.
OF BISHOPS, PRESBYTERS, AND DEACONS.
SEC. I.--ON EXAMINING CANDIDATES FOR THE
EPISCOPAL OFFICE.
THAT A BISHOP MUST BE WELL INSTRUCTED AND EXPERIENCED IN THE
WORD.
I. BUT concerning bishops, we have heard from our
Lord, that a pastor who is to be ordained a bishop for the churches in
every parish, must be unblameable, unreprovable, free from all kinds o
wickedness common among men, not under fifty years of age; for such a
one is in good part past youthful disorders, and the slanders of the
heathen, as well as the reproaches which are sometimes cast upon many
persons by some false brethren, who do not consider the word of God in
the Gospel: "Whosoever speaketh an idle word shall give an account
thereof to the Lord in the day of judgment."(1) And again: "By thy
words thou shalt be justified, and by thy words thou shalt be
condemned."(2) Let him therefore, if it is possible, be well educated;
but if he be unlettered, let him at any rate be(3) skilful in the word,
and of competent age. But if in a small parish one advanced in years is
not to be found,(4) let some younger person, who has a good report
among his neighbours, and is esteemed by them worthy of the office of a
bishop,--who has carried himself from his youth with meekness and
regularity, like a much elder person,--after examination, and a general
good report, be ordained in peace. For Solomon at twelve years of
age was king of Israel,(5) and Josiah at eight years of age reigned
righteously,(6) and in like manner Joash governed the people at seven
years of age.(7) Wherefore, although the person be young, let him be
meek, gentle, and
quiet. For the Lord God says by Esaias: "Upon whom will I look, but
upon him who is humble and quiet, and always trembles at my words?"(8)
In like manner it is in the Gospel also: "Blessed are the meek:
for they shall inherit the earth."(9) Let him also be merciful; for
again it is said: "Blessed are the merciful: for they shall obtain
mercy."(10) Let him also be a peacemaker; for again it is said: "
Blessed sons of God."(11) Let him also be one of a good conscience,
purified from all evil, and wickedness, and unrighteousness; for it is
said again: "Blessed are the pure in heart: for they shall see God."(12)
WHAT OUGHT TO BE THE CHARACTERS OF A BISHOP AND OF THE REST? OF THE
CLERGY.
II. Let him therefore be sober, prudent, decent,
firm, stable, not given to wine; no striker, but gentle; not a brawler,
not covetous; "not a novice, test, being puffed up with pride, be fall
into condemnation, and the snare of the devil: for every one that
exalteth himself shall be abused."(13) Such a one a bishop ought to be,
who has been the "husband of one wife,"(14) who also has herself had no
other husband, "ruling well his own house."(15) In this manner let
examination be made when he is to receive ordination, and to be placed
in his bishopric, whether he be grave, faithful, decent; whether
he hath a grave and faithful-wife, or has formerly had such a one;
whether he hath educated his children piously, and has "brought them up
in the nurture and admonition of the Lord;"(16) whether his
domestics do fear and reverence
397
him, and are all obedient to him: for if those who are immediately
about him for worldly concerns are seditious and disobedient, how will
others not of his family, when they are under his management, become
obedient to him?
IN WHAT THINGS A BISHOP IS TO BE EXAMINED BEFORE HE IS
ORDAINED.
III. Let examination also be made whether he be
unblameable as to the concerns of this life; for it is written: "Search
diligently for all the faults of him who is to be ordained for the
priesthood."(1)
SEC. II.--ON THE CHARACTER
AND TEACHING OF THE BISHOP.
On which account let him also be void of anger; for
Wisdom says: "Anger destroys even the prudent."(2) Let him also be
merciful, of a generous and loving temper; for our Lord says: "By this
shall all men know that ye are my disciples, if ye love one
another."(3) Let him be also ready to give, a lover of the widow and
the stranger; ready to serve, and minister, and attend; resolute in his
duty; and let him know who is the most worthy of his assistance.
THAT CHARITABLE DISTRIBUTIONS ARE NOT TO BE MADE TO EVERY WIDOW, BUT
THAT SOMETIMES A WOMAN WHO HAS A HUSBAND IS TO BE PREFERRED: AND THAT
NO DISTRIBUTIONS ARE TO BE MADE TO ANY ONE WHO IS GIVEN TO GLUTTONY,
DRUNKENNESS, AND IDLENESS.
IV. For if there be a widow who is able to support
herself, and another woman who is not a widow, but is needy by reason
of sickness, or the bringing up many children, or infirmity of her
hands, let him stretch out his hand in charity rather to this latter.
But if any one be in want by gluttony, drunkenness, or idleness, he
does not deserve any assistance, or to be esteemed a member of the
Church of God. For the Scripture, speaking of such persons, says: "The
slothful hideth his hand in his bosom, and is not able to bring it to
his mouth again."(4) And again: "The sluggard folds up his hands, and
eats his own flesh."(5) "For every drunkard and whoremonger shall come
to poverty, and every drowsy person shall be clothed with tatters and
rags."(6) And in another passage: "If thou give thine eyes to drinking
and cups, thou shalt afterwards walk more naked than a pestle."(7) For
certainly idleness is the mother of famine.
THAT A BISHOP MUST BE NO ACCEPTER OF PERSONS IN JUDGMENT; THAT HE MUST
POSSESS A GENTLE DISPOSITION, AND BE TEMPERATE IN HIS MODE OF LIFE.
V. A bishop must be no accepter of persons; neither
revering nor flattering a rich man contrary to what is right, nor
overlooking nor domineering over a poor man. For, says God to Moses,
"Thou shalt not accept the person of the rich, nor shalt thou pity a
poor man in his cause: for the judgment is the Lord's."(8) And again:
"Thou shalt with exact justice follow that which is right"(9) Let a
bishop be frugal, and contented with a little in his meat and drink,
that he may be ever in a sober frame, and disposed to instruct and
admonish the ignorant; and let him not be costly in his diet, a
pamperer of himself, given to pleasure, or fond of delicacies. Let him
he patient and gentle in his admonitions, well instructed himself,
meditating in and diligently studying the Lord's books, and reading
them frequently, that so he may be able carefully to interpret the
Scriptures, expounding the Gospel in correspondence with the prophets
and with the law; and let the expositions from the law and the prophets
correspond to the Gospel. For the Lord Jesus says: "Search the
Scriptures; for they are those which testify of me."(10) And again:
"For Moses wrote of 'me."(11) But, above all, let him carefully
distinguish between the original law and the additional precepts, and
show which are the laws for believers, and which the bonds for the
unbelievers, lest any should fall under those bonds. Be careful,
therefore, O bishop, to study the word, that thou mayest be able to
explain everything exactly, and that thou mayest copiously nourish thy
people with much doctrine, and enlighten them with the light of the
law; for God says: "Enlighten yourselves with the light of knowledge,
while we have yet opportunity."(12)
THAT A BISHOP MUST NOT BE GIVEN TO FILTHY LUCRE, NOR BE A SURETY NOR AN
ADVOCATE.
VI. Let not a bishop be given to filthy lucre,
especially before the Gentiles, rather suffering than offering
injuries; not covetous, nor rapacious; no purloiner; no admirer of the
rich, nor hater of the poor; no evil-speaker, nor false witness; not
given to anger; no brawler; not entangled with the affairs of this
life; not a surety for any one, nor an accuser in suits about money;
not ambitious; not double-minded, nor double-tongued; not ready to
hearken to calumny or evil-speaking; not a dissembler; not addicted to
the heathen festivals; not given to vain
398
deceits; not eager after worldly things, nor a lover of money. For all
these things are oppoSite to God, and pleasing to demons. Let the
bishop earnestly give all these precepts in charge to the laity also,
persuading them to imitate his conduct. For, says He, "Do ye make the
children of Israel pious."(1) Let him be prudent, humble, apt to
admonish with the instructions of the Lord, well-disposed, one who has
renounced all the wicked projects of this world, and all heathenish
lusts; let hint be orderly, sharp in observing the wicked, and taking
heed of them, but yet a friend to all; just, discerning; and whatsoever
qualities are commendable among men, let the bishop possess them in
himself. For if the pastor be unblameable as to any wickedness, he will
compel his own disciples, and by his very mode of life press them to
become worthy imitators of his own actions. As the prophet somewhere
says, "And it will be, as is the priest, so is the people;"(2) for our
Lord and Teacher Jesus Christ, the San(3) of God, began first to do,
and then to teach, as Luke somewhere. "which Jesus began to do and to
teach."(3) says:(4) Wherefore he says: "Whosoever shall do and teach,
he shall be called great in the kingdom of God."(5) For you bishops are
to be guides and watchmen to the people, as you yourselves have Christ
for your guide and watchman. Do you therefore become good guides and
watchmen to the people of God. For the Lord says by Ezekiel, speaking
to every one of you: "Son of man, I have given thee for a watchman to
the house of Israel; and thou shalt hear the word from my mouth, and
shalt observe, and shalt declare it from me. When t say unto the
wicked, Thou shalt surely die; if thou dost not speak to warn the
wicked from his wickedness, that wicked man shall die in his iniquity,
and his blood will I require at thine hand. But if thou warn the wicked
from his way, that he may turn from it, and he does not turn from it,
he shall die in his iniquity, and thou hast delivered thy soul."(6) "In
the same manner, if the sword of war be approaching, and the people set
a watchman to watch, and he see the same approach, and does not
forewarn them, and the sword come and take one of them, he is taken
away in his iniquity; but his blood shall be required at the watchman's
hand, because he did not blow the trumpet. But if he blew the trumpet,
and he who heard it would not take warning, and the sword come and take
him away, his blood shall be upon him, because he heard the trumpet and
took not warning. But he who took warning has delivered his soul; and
the watchman, because he gave warning, shall surely live."(7) The sword
here is the judgment; the trumpet is the holy Gospel; the watchman is
the bishop, who is set in the Church, who is obliged by his preaching
to testify and vehemently to forewarn(3) concerning that judgment. If
ye do not declare and testify this to the people, the sins of those who
are ignorant of it will be found upon you. Wherefore do you warn and
reprove the uninstructed with boldness, teach the ignorant, confirm
those that understand, bring back those that go astray. If we repeat
the very same things on the same occasions, brethren, we shall not do
amiss. For by frequent hearing it is to be hoped that some will be made
ashamed, and at least do some good action, and avoid some wicked one.
For says God by the prophet: "Testify those things to them; perhaps
they will hear thy voice."(8) And again: "If perhaps they will hear, if
perhaps they will submit."(9) Moses also says to the people: "If
hearing thou wilt hear the Lord God, and do that which is good and
fight in His eyes."(10) And again:(3) "Hear, O Israel; the Lord our God
is one Lord."(11) And our Lord is often recorded in the Gospel to have
said: "He that hath ears to hear, let him hear."(12) And wise Solomon
says: "My son, hear the instruction of thy father, and reject not the
laws of thy mother."(13) And, indeed, to this day men have not heard;
for while they seem to have heard, they have not heard aright, as
appears by their having left the one and only true God, and their being
drawn into destructive and dangerous heresies, concerning which we
shall speak again afterwards.
SEC. III.--HOW THE BISHOP IS TO TREAT THE INNOCENT, THE GUILTY, AND THE
PENITENT.
WHAT OUGHT TO BE THE CHARACTER OF THE INITIATED.
VII. Beloved, be it known to you that those who are
baptized into the death of our Lord Jesus are obliged to go on no
longer in sin; for as those who are dead cannot work wickedness any
longer, so those who are dead with Christ cannot practise wickedness.
We do not therefore believe, brethren, that any one who has received
the washing of life continues in the practice of the licentious acts of
transgressors. Now he who sins after his baptism, unless he repent and
forsake his sins, shall be condemned to hell-fire.
399
CONCERNING A PERSON
FALSELY ACCUSED, OR A PERSON CONVICTED.
VIII. But if any one be maliciously prosecuted by
the heathen, because he will not still go along with them to the same
excess of riot, let him know that such a one is blessed of God,
according as our Lord says in the Gospel: "Blessed are ye when men
shall reproach you, or persecute you, or say all manner of evil against
you falsely, for my sake. Rejoice and be exceeding glad, for your
reward is great in heaven."(1) If, therefore, any one be slandered and
falsely accused, such a one is blessed; for the Scripture says, "A man
that is a reprobate is not tried by God."(2) But if any one be
convicted as having done a wicked action, such a one not only hurts
himself, but occasions the whole body of the Church and its doctrine to
be blasphemed; as if we Christians did not practise those things that
we declare to be good and honest, and we ourselves shall be reproached
by the Lord, that "they say and do not."(3) Wherefore the bishop must
boldly reject such as these upon full conviction, unless they change
their course of life.
THAT A BISHOP OUGHT NOT TO RECEIVE BRIBES.
IX. For the bishop must not only himself give no
offence, but must be no respecter of persons; in meekness instructing
those that offend. But if he himself has not a good conscience, and is
a respecter of persons for the sake of filthy lucre, and receiving of
bribes, and spares the open offender, and permits him to continue in
the Church, he disregards the voice of God and of our Lord, which says,
"Thou shalt exactly execute right judgment."(4) "Thou shalt not accept
persons in judgment: thou shalt not justify the ungodly."(5) "Thou
shalt not receive gifts against any one's life; for gifts do blind the
eyes of the wise, and pervert the words of the righteous."(6) And
elsewhere He says: "Take away from among yourselves that wicked
person."(7) And Solomon says in his Proverbs: "Cast out a pestilent
fellow from the congregation, and strife will go out along with him."(8)
THAT A BISHOP WHO BY WRONG JUDGMENT SPARES AN OFFENDER IS HIMSELF
GUILTY.
x. But he who does not consider these things, will,
contrary to justice, spare him who deserves punishment; as Saul spared
Agag,(9) and Eli(10) his sons, "who knew not the Lord." Such a one
profanes his own dignity, and that Church of God which is in his
parish. Such a one is esteemed unjust before God and holy men, as
affording occasion of scandal to many of the newly baptized, and to the
catechumens; as also to the youth of both sexes, to whom a woe
belongs, add "a mill-stone about his neck,"(11) and drowning, on
account of his guilt. For, observing what a person their governor is,
through his wickedness and neglect of justice they will grow sceptical,
and, indulging the same disease, will be compelled to perish with him;
as was the case of the people joining with Jeroboam,(12) and those
which were in the conspiracy with Corah.(13) But if the offender sees
that the bishop and deacons are innocent and unblameable, and the flock
pure, he will either not venture to despise their authority, and to
enter into the Church of God at all, as one smitten by his own
conscience: or if he values nothing, and ventures to enter in, either
he will be convicted immediately, as Uzza(14) at the ark, when he
touched it to support it; and as Achan,(15) when he stole the accursed
thing; and as Gehazi,(16) when he coveted the money of Naaman, and so
will be immediately punished: or else he will be admonished by the
pastor, and drawn to repentance. For when he looks round the whole
Church one by one, and can spy no blemish, neither in the bishop nor in
the people who are under his care, he will be put to confusion, and
pricked at the heart, and in a peaceable manner will go his way with
shame and many tears, and the flock will remain pure. He will apply
himself to God with tears, and will repent of his sins, and have hope.
Nay, the whole flock, at the sight of his tears, will be instructed,
because a sinner avoids destruction by repentance.
HOW
A BISHOP OUGHT TO JUDGE OFFENDERS.
XI. Upon this account, therefore, O bishop,
endeavour to be pure in thy actions, and to adorn thy place and
dignity, which is that of one sustaining the character of God among
men, as being set over all men, over priests, kings, rulers, fathers,
children, teachers, and in general over all those who are subject to
thee: and so sit in the Church when thou speakest, as having authority
to judge offenders. For to you, O bishops, it is said: "Whatsoever ye
shall bind on earth shall be bound in heaven; and whatsoever ye shall
loose on earth shall be loosed in heaven."(17)
400
INSTRUCTION AS TO HOW A BISHOP OUGHT TO BEHAVE HIMSELF TO THE PENITENT.
XII. Do thou therefore, O bishop, judge with
authority like God, yet receive the penitent; for God is a God of
mercy. Rebuke those that sin, admonish those that are not converted,
exhort those that stand to persevere in their goodness, receive the
penitent; for the Lord God has promised with an oath to afford
remission to the penitent for what things they have done amiss. For He
says by Ezekiel: "Speak unto them, As I live, saith the Lord, I would
not the death of a sinner, but that the wicked turn from his evil way,
and live. Turn ye therefore front your evil ways; for why will ye die,
O house of Israel?"(1) Here the word(2) affords hope to sinners, that
if they will repent they shall have hope of salvation, lest otherwise
out of despair they yield themselves up to their transgressions; but
that, having hope of salvation, they may he converted, and may address
to God with tears, on account of their sins, and may repent from their
hearts, and so appease His displeasure towards them; so shall they
receive a pardon from Him, as from a merciful Father.
THAT WE OUGHT TO BEWARE HOW WE MAKE TRIAL OF
ANY SINFUL COURSE.
XIII. Yet it is very necessary that those who are
yet innocent should continue so, and not make an experiment what sin
is, that they may not have occasion for trouble, sorrow, and those
lamentations which are in order to forgiveness. For how dost thou know,
O man, when thou sinnest, whether thou shalt live any number of days in
this present state, that thou mayest have time to repent? For the time
of thy departure out of this world is uncertain; and if thou diest in
sin, there will remain no repentance for thee; as God says by David,
"In the grave who will confess to Thee?"(3) It behoves us, therefore.
to be ready in the doing of our duty, that so we may await our passage
into another world without sorrow. Wherefore also the Divine Word
exhorts, speaking to thee by the wise Solomon,(2) "Prepare thy works
against thy exit, and provide all beforehand in the field,"(4) lest
some of the things necessary to thy journey be wanting; as the oil of
piety was deficient in the five foolish virgins(5) mentioned in the
Gospel, when they, on account of their having extinguished their lamps
of divine knowledge, were shut out of the bride-chamber. Wherefore he
who values the security of his soul will take care to be out of danger,
by keeping free from sin, that so he may preserve the advantage
of his former good works to himself. Do thou, therefore, so judge as
executing judgment for God. For, as the Scripture says, "the judgment
is the Lord's."(6) In the first place, therefore, condemn the guilty
person with authority; afterwards try to bring him home with mercy and
compassion, and readiness to receive him, promising him salvation if he
will change his course of life, and become a penitent; and when he does
repent, and has submitted to his chastisement, receive him:
remembering that our Lord has said, "There is joy in heaven over
one sinner that repenteth."(7)
CONCERNING THOSE WHO AFFIRM THAT PENITENTS ARE NOT TO BE RECEIVED INTO
THE CHURCH. THAT A RIGHTEOUS PERSON, ALTHOUGH HE CONVERSE WITH A
SINNER, WILL NOT PERISH WITH HIM. THAT NO PERSON IS PUNISHED FOR
ANOTHER, BUT EVERY ONE MUST GIVE AN ACCOUNT OF HIMSELF. THAT WE MUST
ASSIST THOSE WHO ARE WEAK IN THE FAITH; AND THAT A BISHOP MUST NOT BE
GOVERNED BY ANY TURBULENT PERSON AMONG THE LAITY.
XIV. But if thou refusest to receive him that
repents, thou exposest him to those who lie in wait to destroy,
forgetting what David says: "Deliver not my soul, which confesses to
Thee, unto destroying beasts."(8) Wherefore Jeremiah, when he is
exhorting men to repentance, says thus: "Shall not he that falleth
arise? or he that turneth away, cannot he return? Wherefore have my
people gone back by a shameless backsliding? and they are hardened in
their purpose.(9) Turn, ye backsliding children, and I will heal your
backslidings."(10) Receive, therefore, without any doubting, him that
repents. Be not hindered by such unmerciful men, who say that we must
not be defiled with such as those, nor so much as speak to them: for
such advice is from men that are unacquainted with God and His
providence, and are unreasonable judges, and unmerciful brutes. These
men are ignorant that we ought to avoid society with offenders, not in
discourse, but in actions: for "the righteousness of the righteous
shall be upon him, and the wickedness of the wicked shall be upon
him."(11) And again: "If a land sinneth against me by trespassing
grievously, and I stretch out my hand upon it, and break the staff of
bread upon it, and send famine upon it, and destroy man and beast
therein: though these three men, Noah, Job, and Daniel, were in the
midst of it, they shall only save their own souls
401
by their righteousness, saith the Lord God."(1) The Scripture most
clearly shows that a righteous man that converses with a wicked man
does not perish with him. For in the present world the righteous and
the wicked are mingled together in the common affairs of life, but not
in holy communion: and in this the friends and favourites of God are
guilty of no sin. For they do but imitate "their Farther which is in
heaven, who maketh His sun to rise on the righteous and unrighteous,
and sendeth His rain on the evil and on the good;"(2) and the righteous
man undergoes no peril on this account. For those who conquer and those
who are conquered are in the same place of running, but only those who
have bravely undergone the race are where the garland is bestowed; and
"no one is crowned, unless he strive lawfully."(3) For every one shall
give account of himself, and God will not destroy the righteous with
the wicked; for with Him it is a constant rule, that innocence is never
punished. For neither did He drown Noah, nor burn up Lot, nor destroy
Rahab for company. And if you desire to know how this matter was among
us, Judas was one of us, and took the like part of the ministry which
we had; and Simon the magician received the seal of the Lord. Yet both
the one and the other proving wicked, the former hanged himself, and
the latter, as he flew in the air in a manner unnatural, was dashed
against the earth. Moreover, Noah and his sons with him were in the
ark; but Ham, who alone was found wicked, received punishment in his
son.(4) But if fathers are not punished for their children, nor
children for their fathers, it is thence clear that neither will wives
be punished for their husbands, nor servants for their masters, nor one
relation for another, nor one friend for another, nor the righteous for
the wicked. But every one will be required an account of his own doing.
For neither was punishment inflicted on Noah for the world, nor was Lot
destroyed by fire for the Sodomites, nor was Rahab slain for the
inhabitants of Jericho, nor lsrael for the Egyptians. For not the
dwelling together, but the agreement in their sentiments, alone could
condemn the righteous with the wicked. We ought not therefore to
hearken to such persons who call for death, and hate mankind, and love
accusations, and under fair pretences bring men to death. For one man
shall not die for another, but "every one is held with the chains of
his own sins."(5) And, "behold, the man and his work is before his
face."(6) Now
we ought to assist those who are with us,(7) and are in danger, and
fall, and, as far as lies in our power, to reduce them to sobriety by
our exhortations, and so save them from death. For "the whole have no
need of the physician, but the sick;"(8) since "it is not pleasing in
the sight of your Father that one of these little ones should
perish."(9) For we ought not to establish the will of hard-hearted men,
but the will of the God and Father of the universe, which is revealed
to us by Jesus Christ our Lord, to whom be glory for ever. Amen.
For it is not equitable that thou, O bishop, who art
the head, shouldst submit to the tail, that is, to some seditious
person among the laity, to the destruction of another, but to God
alone. For it is thy privilege to govern those under thee, but not to
be governed by them. For neither does a son, who is subject by the
course of generation, govern his father; nor a slave, who is subject by
law, govern his master; nor does a scholar govern his teacher, nor a
soldier his king, nor any of the laity his bishop. For that there is no
reason to suppose that such as converse with the wicked, in order to
their instruction in the word, are defiled by or partake of their sins,
Ezekiel, as it were on purpose preventing the suspicions of
ill-disposed persons, says thus: "Why do you speak this proverb
concerning the land of lsrael? The fathers have eaten sour grapes, and
the children's teeth are set on edge. As I live, saith the Lord Coot,
ye shall not henceforth have occasion to use this proverb in Israel.
For all souls are mine, in like manner as the soul of the father, so
also the soul of the son is mine: the soul that sinneth, it shall die.
But the man who is righteous, and does judgment and justice" (and so
the prophet reckons up the rest of the virtues, and then adds for a
conclusion, "Such a one is just"), "he shall surely live, saith the
Lord God. And if he beget a son who is a robber, a shedder of blood,
and walks not in the way of his righteous father" (and when the prophet
had added what follows, he adds in the conclusion), "he shall certainly
not live: he has done all this wickedness; he shall surely die; his
blood shall be upon him. Yet they will ask thee, Why? Does not the son
bear the iniquity of the father; or his righteousness, having exercised
righteousness and mercy himself? And thou shalt say unto them, The soul
that sinneth, it shall die. The son shall not bear the iniquity of the
father, and the father shall not bear the iniquity of the son. The
righteousness of the righteous shall be upon him, and the wickedness of
the wicked shall be upon
402
him."(1) And a little after he says: "When the righteous turneth away
from his righteousness, and committeth iniquity, all his righteousness,
by reason of all his wickedness which he has committed, shall not be
mentioned to him: in his iniquity which he hath committed, and in his
sin which he hath sinned, in them shall he die." And a little after he
adds: "When the wicked turneth away from his wickedness which he hath
committed, and doth judgment and justice, he hath preserved his soul,
he hath turned away from all his ungodliness which he hath done; he
shall surely live, he shall not die." And afterwards: "I will judge
every one of you according to his ways, O house of Israel, saith the
Lord God."
THAT A PRIEST MUST NEITHER OVERLOOK OFFENCES, NOR BE RASH IN PUNISHING
THEM.
XV. Observe, you who are our beloved sons, how
merciful yet righteous the Lord our God is; how gracious and kind to
men; and yet most certainly "He will not acquit the guilty:"(2) though
He welcomes the returning sinner, and revives him, leaving no room for
suspicion to such as wish to judge sternly and to reject offenders
entirely, and to refuse to vouchsafe to them exhortations which might
bring them to repentance. In contradiction to such, God by Isaiah says
to the bishops: "Comfort ye, comfort ye my people, ye priests: speak
comfortably to Jerusalem." It therefore behoves you, upon hearing those
words of His, to encourage those who have offended, and lead them to
repentance, and afford them hope, and not vainly to suppose that you
shall be partakers of their offences on account of such your love to
them. Receive the penitent with alacrity, and rejoice over them, and
with mercy and bowels of compassion judge the sinners. For if a person
was walking by the side of a river, and ready to stumble, and thou
shouldest push him and thrust him into the river, instead of offering
him thy hand for his assistance, thou wouldst be guilty of the murder
of thy brother; whereas thou oughtest rather to lend thy helping hand
as he was ready to fall, lest he perish without remedy, that both the
people may take warning, and the offender may not utterly perish. It is
thy duty, O bishop, neither to overlook the sins of the people, nor to
reject those who are penitent, that thou mayst not unskilfully destroy
the Lord's flock, or dishonour His new name, which is imposed on His
people, and thou thyself beest reproached as those ancient
pastors were, of whom God speaks thus to Jeremiah: "Many shepherds have
destroyed my vineyard; they have
polluted my heritage."(3) And in another passage: "My anger is waxed
hot against the shepherds, and against the lambs shall I have
indignation."(4) And elsewhere: "Ye are the priests that dishonour my
name."(5)
OF REPENTANCE, THE MANNER OF IT, AND
RULES ABOUT IT.
XVI. When thou seest the offender, with severity
command him to be cast out; and as he is going out, let the deacons
also treat him with severity, and then let them go and seek for him,
and detain him out of the Church; and when they come in, let them
entreat thee for him. For our Saviour Himself entreated His Father for
those who had sinned, as it is written in the Gospel: "Father, forgive
them; for they know not what they do."(6) Then order the offender to
come in; and if upon examination thou findest that he is penitent, and
fit to be received at all into the Church when thou hast afflicted him
his days of fasting, according to the degree of his offence--as two,
three, five, or seven weeks--so set him at liberty, and speak such
things to him as are fit to be said in way of reproof, instruction, and
exhortation to a sinner for his reformation, that so he may continue
privately in his humility, and pray to God to be merciful to him,
saying: "If Thou, O Lord, shouldest mark iniquities, O Lord, who should
stand? For with Thee there is propitiation."(7) Of this sort of
declaration is that which is said in the book of Genesis to Cain: "Thou
hast sinned; be quiet;"(8) that is, do not go on in sin. For that a
sinner ought to be ashamed for his own sin, that oracle of God
delivered to Moses concerning Miriam is a sufficient proof, when he
prayed that she might be forgiven. For says God to him: "If her father
had spit in her face, should she not be ashamed? Let her be shut out of
the camp seven days, and afterwards let her come in again."(9) We
therefore ought to do so with offenders, when they profess their
repentance,--namely, to separate them some determinate time, according
to the proportion of their offence, and afterwards, like fathers to
children, receive them again upon their repentance.
THAT A BISHOP MUST BE UNBLAMEABLE, AND A PATTERN FOR THOSE WHO ARE
UNDER HIS CHARGE.
XVII. But if the bishop himself be an
offender, how will he be able any longer to prosecute the
403
offence of another? Or how will he be able to reprove another, either
he or his deacons, if by accepting of persons, or receiving of bribes,
they have not all a clear conscience? For when the ruler asks, and the
judge receives, judgment is not brought to perfection; but when both
are "companions of thieves, and regardless of doing justice to the
widows,"(1) those who are under the bishop will not be able to support
and vindicate him: for they will say to him what is written in the
Gospel, "Why beholdest thou the mote that is in thy brother's eye, but
considerest not the beam that is in thine own eye?"(2) Let the bishop,
therefore, with his deacons, dread to bear any such thing; that is, let
him give no occasion for it. For an offender, when he sees any other
doing as bad as himself, will be encouraged to do the very same things;
and then the wicked one, taking occasion from a single instance, works
in others, which God forbid: and by that means the flock will be
destroyed. For the greater number of offenders there are, the greater
is the mischief that is done by them: for sin which passes without
correction grows worse and worse, and spreads to others; since "a
little leaven infects the whole lump,"(3) and one thief spreads the
abomination over a whole nation and "dead flies spoil the whole pot of
sweet ointment;"(4) and "when a king hearkens to unrighteous counsel,
all the servants under him are wicked."(5) So one scabbed sheep, if not
separated from those that are whole, infects the rest with the same
distemper; and a man infected with the plague is to be avoided by all
men; and a mad dog is dangerous to every one that he touches. If,
therefore, we neglect to separate the transgressor from the Church of
God, we shall make the "Lord's house a den of thieves."(6) For it is
the bishop's duty not to be silent in the case of offenders, but to
rebuke them, to exhort them, to beat them down, to afflict them with
fastings, that so he may strike a pious dread into the rest: for, as He
says, "make ye the children of Israel pious."(7) For the bishop must be
one who discourages sin by his exhortations, and sets a pattern of
righteousness, and proclaims those good things which are prepared by
God, and declares that wrath which will come at the day of judgment,
lest he contemn and neglect the plantation of God; and, on account of
his carelessness, hear that which is said in Hosea: "Why have ye held
your peace at impiety, and have reaped the fruit thereof?"(8)
THAT A BISHOP MUST TAKE CARE THAT HIS PEOPLE DO NOT SIN, CONSIDERING
THAT HE IS SET FOR A WATCHMAN AMONG THEM.
XVIII. Let the bishop, therefore, extend his concern
to all sorts of people: to those who have not offended, that they may
continue innocent; to those who offend, that they may repent. For to
you does the Lord speak thus: "Take heed that ye offend not one of
these little ones."(9) It is your duty also to give remission to the
penitent. For as soon as ever one who has offended says, in the
sincerity of his soul, "I have sinned against the Lord," the Holy
Spirit answers, "The Lord also hath forgiven thy sin; be of good cheer,
thou shalt not die."(10) Be sensible, therefore, O bishop, of the
dignity of thy place, that as thou hast received the power of binding,
so hast thou also that of loosing. Having therefore the power of
loosing, know thyself, and behave thyself in this world as becomes thy
place, being aware that thou hast a great account to give. "For to
whom," as the Scripture says, "men have entrusted much. of him they
will require the more."(11) For no one man is free from sin, excepting
Him that was made man for us; since it is written: "No man is pure from
filthiness; no, not though he be but one day old."(12) Upon which
account the lives and conduct of the ancient holy men and patriarchs
are described; not that we may reproach them from our reading, but that
we ourselves may repent, and have hope that we also shall obtain
forgiveness. For their blemishes are to us both security and
admonition, because we hence learn, when we have offended, that if we
repent we shall have pardon. For it is written: "Who can boast
that he has a clean heart? and who dare affirm that he is pure from
sin?"(13) No man, therefore, is without sin. Do thou therefore labour
to the utmost of thy power to be unblameable; and be solicitous of l
all the parts of thy flock, lest any one be scandalized on thy account,
and thereby perish. For the layman is solicitous only for himself, but
thou for all, as having a greater burden, and carrying a heavier
load. For it is written: "And the Lord said unto Moses, Thou and Aaron
shall bear the sins of the priesthood."(14) Since, therefore,
thou art to give an account of all, take care of all. Preserve those
that are sound, admonish those that sin; and when thou hast afflicted
them with fasting, give them ease by remission; and when with tears the
offender begs readmission, receive him, and let the whole Church
pray for him; and when by imposition
404
of thy hand thou hast admitted him, give him leave to abide afterwards
in the flock. But for the drowsy and the careless, do thou endeavour to
convert and confirm, and warn and cure them, as sensible how great a
reward thou shalt have for doing so, and how great danger thou wilt
incur if thou beest negligent therein. For Ezekiel speaks thus to those
overseers who take no care of the people: "Woe unto the shepherds of
lsrael, for they have fed themselves; the shepherds feed not the sheep,
but themselves. Ye eat the milk, and are clothed with the wool; ye slay
the strong, ye do not feed the sheep. The weak have ye not
strengthened, neither have ye healed that which was sick, neither have
ye bound up that which was broken, neither have ye brought again that
which was driven away, neither have ye sought that which was lost; but,
violently ye chastised them with insult: and they, were scattered,
because there was no shepherd; and they became meat to all the beasts
of the forest." And again: "The shepherds did not search for my sheep;
and the shepherds fed themselves, but they fed not my sheep." And a
little after: "Behold, I am against the shepherds, and I will require
my sheep at their hands, and cause them to cease from feeding my sheep,
neither shall the shepherds feed themselves any more; and I will
deliver my sheep out of their hands, and they shall not be meat
for them." And he also adds, speaking to the people: "Behold, I will
judge between sheep and sheep, and between rams and rams. Seemed it a
small thing unto you to have eaten up the good pasture, and to have
trodden down with your feet the residue of your pasture, and that the
sheep have eaten what was trodden down with your feet?" And a little
after He adds: "And ye shall know that I am the Lord, and you the sheep
of my pasture; ye are my men, and I am your God, saith the Lord God."(1)
THAT A SHEPHERD WHO IS CARELESS OF HIS SHEEP WILL BE CONDEMNED,
AND THAT A SHEEP WHICH WILL NOT BE LED BY THE SHEPHERD IS TO BE
PUNISHED.
XIX. Hear, O ye bishops; and hear, O ye of; the
laity, how God speaks: "I will judge between ram and ram, and between
sheep and sheep." And He says to the shepherds: "Ye shall be judged for
your unskilfulness, and for destroying the sheep." That is, I will
judge between one bishop and another, and between one lay person and
another, and between one ruler and another (for these sheep and
these rams are not irrational, but rational creatures): lest at any
time a lay person should say, I am a sheep and not a shepherd, and I am
not concerned for myself; let the shepherd look to that, for he alone
will be required to give an account for me. For as that sheep that will
not follow its good shepherd is exposed to the wolves, to its
destruction; so that which follows a bad shepherd is also exposed to
unavoidable death, since his shepherd will devour him. Wherefore care
must be had to avoid destructive shepherds.
HOW THE GOVERNED ARE TO OBEY THE BISHOPS WHO
ARE SET OVER THEM.
XX. As to a good shepherd, let the lay person honour
him, love him, reverence him as his lord, as his master, as the high
priest of God, as a teacher of piety. For he that heareth him, heareth
Christ; and he that rejecteth him, rejecteth Christ; and he who does
not receive Christ, does not receive His God and Father: for, says He,
"He that heareth you, heareth me; and he that rejecteth you, rejecteth
me; and he that rejecteth me, rejecteth Him that sent me."(2) In like
manner, let the bishop love the laity as his children, fostering and
cherishing them with affectionate diligence; as eggs, in order to the
hatching of young ones; or as young ones, taking them in his arms, to
the rearing them into birds: admonishing all men; reproving all who
stand in need of reproof; reproving, that is, but not striking; beating
them down to make them ashamed, but not overthrowing them; warning them
in order to their conversion: chiding them in order to their
reformation and better course of life; watching the strong, that is,
keeping him firm in the faith who is already strong; feeding the people
peaceably; strengthening the weak, that is, confirming with exhortation
that which is tempted; healing that which is sick, that is, curing by
instruction that which is weak in the faith through doubtfulness of
mind; binding up that which is broken, that is, binding up by
comfortable admonitions that which is gone astray, or wounded,
bruised, or broken by their sins, and put out of the way; leasing
it of its offences, and giving hope: by this means restore it in
strength to the Church, bringing it back into the flock. Bring again
that which is driven away, that is, do not permit that which is in its
sins, and is cast out by way of punishment, to continue excluded; but
receiving it, and bringing it back, restore it to the flock, that is,
to the people of the undefiled Church. Seek for that which is lost,
that is, do not suffer that which desponds of its salvation, by reason
of the multitude of its offences, utterly to perish. Do thou search for
that which is grown sleepy, drowsy, and sluggish, and that which is
unmindful of its own life, through the depth of its sleep, and which is
at a great dis-
405
tance from its own flock, so as to be in danger of falling among
the wolves, and being devoured by them. Bring it back by admonition,
exhort it to be watchful; and insinuate hope, not permitting it to say
that which was said by some: "Our impieties are upon us, and we pine
away in them; how shall we then live?"(1) As far as possible,
therefore, let the bishop make the offence his own, and say to the
sinner, Do thou but return, and I will undertake to suffer death for
thee, as our Lord suffered death for me, and for all men. For "the good
shepherd lays down his life for the sheep; but he that is an hireling,
and not the shepherd, whose own the sheep are not, seeth the wolf
coming, that is, the devil, and he leaveth the sheep, and fleeth, and
the wolf seizes upon them."(1) We must know, therefore, that God is
very merciful to those who have offended, and hath promised repentance
with an oath. But he who has offended, and is unacquainted with this
promise of God concerning repentance, and does not understand His
long-suffering and forbearance, and besides is ignorant of the Holy
Scriptures, which proclaim repentance, inasmuch as he has never learned
them from you, perishes through his folly. But do thou, like a
compassionate shepherd, and a diligent feeder of the flock, search out,
and keep an account of thy flock. Seek that which is wanting;(3) as the
Lord God our gracious Father has sent His own Son, the good Shepherd
and Saviour, our Master Jesus, and has commanded Him to "leave the
ninety-nine upon the mountains, and to go in search after that which
was lost, and when He had found it, to take it upon His shoulders, and
to carry it into the flock, rejoicing that He had found that which was
lost."(4) In like manner, be obedient, O bishop, and do thou seek that
which was lost, guide that which has wandered out of the right way,
bring back that which is gone astray: for thou hast authority to bring
them back, and to deliver those that are broken-hearted by remission.
For by thee does our Saviour say to him who is discouraged under the
sense of his sins, "Thy sins are forgiven thee: thy faith hath saved
thee; go in peace."(5) But this peace and haven of tranquillity is the
Church of Christ, into which do thou, when thou hast loosed them from
their sins, restore them, as being now sound and unblameable, of good
hope, diligent, laborious in good works. As a skilful and compassionate
physician, heal all such as have wandered in the ways of sin; for "they
that are whole have no need of a physician, but they that are sick. For
the Son of man came to save and to seek
that which was lost."(6) Since thou art therefore a physician of the
Lord's Church, provide remedies suitable to every patient's case. Cure
them, heal them by all means possible; restore them sound to the
Church. Feed the flock, "not with insolence and contempt, as lording it
over them,"(7) but as a gentle shepherd, "gathering the lambs into thy
bosom, and gently leading those which are with young."(8)
THAT IT IS A DANGEROUS THING TO JUDGE WITHOUT HEARING BOTH SIDES, OR TO
DETERMINE OF PUNISHMENT AGAINST A PERSON BEFORE HE IS CONVICTED.
XXI. Be gentle, gracious, mild, without guile,
without falsehood; not rigid, not insolent, not severe, not arrogant,
not unmerciful, not puffed up, not a man-pleaser, not timorous, not
double-minded, not one that insults over the people that are under
thee, not one that conceals the divine laws and the promises to
repentance, not hasty in thrusting out and expelling, but steady, not
one that delights in severity, not heady. Do not admit less evidence to
convict any one than that of three witnesses, and those of known and
established reputation; inquire whether they do not accuse out of
ill-will or envy: for there are many that delight in mischief, forward
in discourse, slanderous, haters of the brethren, making it their
business to scatter the sheep of Christ; whose affirmation if thou
admittest without nice scanning the same, thou wilt disperse thy flock,
and betray it to be devoured by wolves, that is, by demons and wicked
men, or rather not men, but wild beasts in the shape of men--by the
heathen, by the Jews, and by the atheistic heretics. For those
destroying wolves soon address themselves to any one that is cast out
of the Church, and esteem him as a lamb delivered for them to devour,
reckoning his destruction their own gain. For he that is "their father,
the devil, is a murderer."(9) He also who is separated unjustly by thy
want of care in judging will be overwhelmed with sorrow, and be
disconsolate, and so will either wander over to the heathen, or be
entangled in heresies, and so will be altogether estranged from the
Church and from hope in God, and will be entangled in impiety, whereby
thou wilt be guilty of his perdition: for it is not fair to be too
hasty in casting out an offender, but slow in receiving him when he
returns; to be forward in cutting off, but unmerciful when he is
sorrowful, and ought to be healed. For of such as these speaks the
divine Scripture: "Their feet run to mischief; they are hasty to
shed blood. Destruction and misery are in their
406
ways, and the way of peace have they not known. The fear of God is not
before their eyes."(1) Now the way of peace is our Saviour Jesus
Christ, who has taught us, saying: "Forgive, and ye shall be forgiven.
Give, and it shall be given to you;"(2) that is, give remission of
sins, and your offences shall be forgiven you. As also He instructed us
by His prayer to say unto God: "Forgive us our debts, as we forgive our
debtors."(3) If, therefore, you do not forgive offenders, how can you
expect the remission of your own sins? Do not you rather bind
yourselves faster, by pretending in your prayers to forgive, when you
really do not forgive? Will you not be confronted with your own words,
when you say you forgive and do not forgive? For know ye, that he who
casts out one who has not behaved himself wickedly, or who will not
receive him that returns, is a murderer of his brother, and sheds his
blood, as Cain did that of his brother Abel, and his "blood cries to
God,"(4) and will be required. For a righteous man unjustly slain by
any one will be in rest with God for ever. The same is the case of him
who without cause is separated by his bishop. He who has cast him out
as a pestilent fellow when he was innocent, is more furious than a
murderer. Such a one has no regard to the mercy of God, nor is mindful
of His goodness to those that are penitent, nor keeping in his eye the
examples of those who, having been once great offenders, received
forgiveness upon their repentance. Upon which account, he who casts off
an innocent person is more cruel than he that murders the body. In like
manner, he who does not receive the penitent, scatters the flock of
Christ, being really against Him. For as God is just in judging of
sinners, so is He merciful in receiving them when they return. For
David, the man after God's own heart, in his hymns ascribes both mercy
and judgment to Him.
THAT DAVID, THE NINEVITES, HEZEKIAH, AND HIS SON MANASSEH, ARE EMINENT
EXAMPLES OF REPENTANCE,THE PRAYER OF MANASSEH KING OF JUDAH.
XXII. It is also thy duty, O bishop, to have before
thine eyes the examples of those that have gone before, and to apply
them skilfully to the cases of those who want words of severity or of
consolation. Besides, it is reasonable that in thy administration of
justice thou shouldest follow the will of God; and as God deals with
sinners, and with those who return, that thou shouldest act accordingly
in thy judging. Now, did not God by Nathan reproach David for his
offence? And yet as soon as he said he repented, He delivered him from
death, saying, "Be of good cheer; thou shalt not die."(5) So also, when
God had caused Jonah(6) to be swallowed up by the sea and the whale,
upon his refusal to preach to the Ninerites, when yet he prayed to Him
out of the belly of the whale, He retrieved his life from corruption.
And when Hezekiah had been puffed up for a while, yet, as soon as he
prayed with lamentation, He remitted his offence. But, O ye bishops,
hearken to an instance useful upon this occasion. For it is written
thus in the fourth book of Kings and the second book of Chronicles:
"And Hezekiah died; and Manasseh his son reigned. He was twelve years
old when he began to reign, and he reigned fifty and five years in
Jerusalem; and his mother's name was Hephzibah. And he did evil in the
sight of the Lord: he did not abstain from the abominations of the
heathen, whom the Lord destroyed from the face of the children of
Israel. And Manasseh returned and built the high places which Hezekiah
his father had overthrown; and he reared pillars for Baal, and set up
an altar for Baal, and made groves, as did Ahab king of Israel. And he
made altars in the house of the Lord, of which the Lord spake to David
and to Solomon his son, saying, Therein will I put my name. And
Manas-seh set up altars, and by them served Baal, and said, My name
shall continue for ever.(7) And he built altars to the host of heaven m
the two courts of the house of the Lord; and he made his children pass
through the fire in a place named Ge Benennom;(8) and he consulted
enchanters, and dealt with wizards and familiar spirits, and with
conjurers and observers of times, and with teraphim. And he sinned
exceedingly in the eyes of the Lord, to provoke Him to anger. And he
set a molten and a graven image, the image of his grove, which he made
in the house of the Lord, wherein the Lord had chosen to put His name
in Jerusalem, the holy city, for ever, and had said, I will no more
remove my foot from the land of Israel, which I gave to their fathers;
only if they will observe to do according to all that I have commanded
them, and according to all the precepts that my servant Moses commanded
them. And they hearkened not. And Manasseh seduced them to do more evil
before the Lord than did the nations whom the Lord cast out from the
face of the children of Israel. And the Lord spake concerning Manasseh
and concerning His people by the hand of His servants the prophets,
saying, Because Manasseh king of Judah
407
has done all these wicked abominations in a higher degree than the
Amorite did which was before him, and hath made Judah to sin with his
idols, thus saith the Lord God of lsrael, Behold, I bring evils upon
Jerusalem and Judah, that whosoever heareth of them, both his ears
shall tingle. And I will stretch over Jerusalem the line of Samaria,
and the plummet of the house of Ahab; and I will blot out Jerusalem as
a table-book is blotted out by wiping it. And I will turn it upside
down; and I will give up the remnant of my inheritance, and will
deliver them into the hands of their enemies, and they shall
become a prey and a spoil to all their enemies, because of all the
evils which they have done in mine eyes, and have provoked me to anger
from the day that I brought their fathers out of the land of Egypt even
until this day. Moreover, Manasseh shed innocent blood very much, till
he had filled Jerusalem from one end to another, beside his sins
wherewith he made Judah to sin in doing evil in the sight of the Lord.
And the Lord brought upon him the captains of the host of the king of
Assyria, and they caught Manasseh in bonds, and they bound him in
fetters of brass, and brought him to Babylon; and he was bound and
shackled with iron all over in the house of the prison. And bread made
of bran was given unto him scantily, and by weight, and water mixed
with vinegar but a little and by measure, so much as would keep him
alive; and he was in straits and sore affliction. And when he was
violently afflicted, he besought the face of the Lord his God, and
humbled himself greatly before the face of the Lord God of his fathers.
And he prayed unto the Lord, saying, O Lord, almighty God of our
fathers Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, and of their righteous seed, who
hast made heaven and earth, with all the ornament thereof, who hast
bound the sea by the word of Thy commandment, who hast shut up the
deep, and sealed it by Thy terrible and glorious name, whom all men
fear and tremble before Thy power; for the majesty of Thy glory cannot
be borne, and Thine angry threatening towards sinners is insupportable.
But Thy merciful promise is unmeasurable and unsearchable; for Thou art
the most high Lord,(1) of great compassion, long-suffering, very
merciful, and repentest of the evils of men. Thou, O Lord, according to
Thy great goodness, hast promised repentance and forgiveness to them
that have sinned against Thee, and of Thine infinite mercy hast
appointed repentance unto sinners, that they may be saved. Thou
therefore, O Lord, that art the God of the just, has not appointed
repentance to the just as to Abraham and Isaac and Jacob, which have
not sinned against Thee; but Thou hast appointed repentance unto me
that am a sinner: for I have sinned above the number of the sands of
the sea. My transgressions, O Lord, are multiplied; my transgressions
are multiplied, and I am not worthy to behold and see the height of
heaven for the multitude of mine iniquity. I am bowed down with
many iron bands; for I have provoked Thy wrath, and done evil before
Thee, setting up abominations, and multiplying offences. Now,
therefore, I bow the knee of mine heart, beseeching Thee of grace. I
have sinned, O Lord, I have sinned, and I acknowledge mine iniquities;
wherefore I humbly beseech Thee, forgive me, O Lord, forgive me, and
destroy me not with mine iniquities. Be not angry with me for ever, by
reserving evil for me; neither condemn me into the lower part of the
earth. For Thou art the God, even the God of them that repent, and in
me Thou wilt show Thy goodness; for Thou wilt save me that am unworthy,
according to Thy great mercy. Therefore I will praise Thee for ever all
the days of my life; for all the powers of the heavens do praise Thee,
and Thine is the glory for ever and ever. Amen. And the Lord heard his
voice, and had compassion upon him. And there appeared a flame of fire
about him, and all the iron shackles and chains which were about him
fell off; and the Lord healed Manasseh from his affliction, and brought
him back to Jerusalem unto his kingdom: and Manasseh knew that
the Lord He is God alone. And he worshipped the Lord God alone
with all his heart, and with all his soul, all the days of his life;
and he was esteemed righteous. And he took away the strange gods and
the graven image out of the house of the Lord, and all the altars which
he had built in the house of the Lord, and all the altars in Jerusalem,
and he cast them out of the city. And he repaired the altar of the
Lord, and sacrificed thereon peace-offerings and thank-offerings. And
Manasseh spake to Judah to serve the Lord God of Israel. And he slept
in peace with his fathers; and Amon his son reigned in his stead. And
he did evil in the sight of the Lord according to all things that
Manasseh his father had done in the former part of his reign. And he
provoked the Lord his God to anger."(2)
Ye have heard, our beloved children, how the Lord
God for a while punished him that was addicted to idols, and had slain
many innocent persons; and yet that He received him when he repented,
and forgave him his offences, and restored him to his kingdom. For He
not only forgives the penitent, but reinstates them in their former
dignity.
408
AMON MAYBE AN EXAMPLE TO SUCH AS SIN WITH AN HIGH HAND.
XXIII. There is no sin more grievous than idolatry,
for it is an impiety against God: and yet even this sin has been
forgiven, upon sincere repentance. But if any one sin in direct
opposition, and on purpose to try whether God will punish the wicked or
not, such a one shall have no remission, although he say with himself,
"All is well, and I will walk according to the conversation of my evil
heart." Such a one was Amon the son of Manasseh. For the Scripture
says: "And Amon reasoned an evil reasoning of transgression, and said,
My father from his childhood was a great transgressor, and repented in
his old age; and now I will walk as my soul lusteth, and afterwards I
will return unto the Lord. And he did evil in the sight of the Lord
above all that were before him. And the Lord God soon destroyed him
utterly from His good land. And his servants conspired against him, and
slew him in his own house, and he reigned two years only."
THAT CHRIST JESUS OUR LORD CAME TO SAVE
SINNERS BY REPENTANCE.
XXIV. Take heed, therefore, ye of the laity, lest
any one of you fix the reasoning of Amon in his heart, and be suddenly
cut off, and perish. In the same manner, let the bishop take all the
care he can that those which are vet innocent may not fall into sin;
and let him heal and receive those which turn from their sins. But if
he is pitiless, and will not receive the repenting sinner, he will sin
against the Lord his God, pretending to be more just than God's
justice, and not receiving him whom He has received, through Christ;
for whose sake He sent His Son upon earth to men, as a man; for whose
sake God was pleased that He, who was the Maker of man and woman,
should be born of a woman; for whose sake He did not spare Him from the
cross, from death, and burial, but permitted Him to die, who by nature
could not suffer, His beloved Son, God the Word, the Angel of His great
council, that he might deliver those from death who were obnoxious to
death. Him do those provoke to anger who do not receive the penitent.
For He was not ashamed of me, Matthew, who had been formerly a
publican; and admitted of Peter, when he had through fear denied Him
three times, but had appeased Him by repentance, and had wept bitterly;
nay, He made him a shepherd to His own lambs. Moreover, He ordained
Paul, our fellow-apostle, to be of a persecutor an apostle, and
declared him a chosen vessel, even when he had heaped many mischiefs
upon us before, and had blasphemed His sacred name. He says also to
another, a woman that was a sinner: "Thy sins, which are many, are
forgiven, for thou lovest much."(1) And when the elders had set another
woman which had sinned before Him, and had left the sentence to Him,
and were gone out, our Lord, the Searcher of the hearts, inquiring of
her whether the elders had condemned her, and being answered No, He
said unto her: "Go thy way therefore, for neither do I condemn
thee."(2) This Jesus, O ye bishops, our Saviour, our King, and our God,
ought to be set before you as your pattern; and Him you ought to
imitate, in being meek, quiet, compassionate, merciful, peaceable,
without passion, apt to teach, and diligent to convert, willing to
receive and to comfort; no strikers, not soon angry, not injurious, not
arrogant, not supercilious, not wine-bibbers, not drunkards, not vainly
expensive, not lovers of delicacies, not extravagant, using the gifts
of God not as another's, but as their own, as good stewards appointed
over them, as those who will be required by God to give an account of
the same.
SEC. IV.--ON THE MANAGEMENT OF THE RESOURCES COLLECTED FOR THE SUPPORT
OF THE CLERGY, AND THE RELIEF OF THE POOR.
Let the bishop esteem such food and raiment
sufficient as suits necessity and decency. Let him not make use of the
Lord's goods as another's, but moderately; "for the labourer is worthy
of his reward."(3) Let him not be luxurious in diet, or fond of idle
furniture, but contented with so much alone as is necessary for his
sustenance.
OF FIRST-FRUITS AND TITHES, AND AFTER WHAT MANNER THE BISHOP IS HIMSELF
TO PARTAKE OF THEM, OR TO DISTRIBUTE THEM TO OTHERS.
XXV. Let him use those tenths and first-fruits,
which are given according to the command of God, as a man of God; as
also let him dispense in a right manner the free-will offerings
which are brought in on account of the poor, to the orphans, the
widows, the afflicted, and strangers in distress, as having that God
for the examiner of his accounts who has committed the disposition to
him. Distribute to all those in want with righteousness, and yourselves
use the things which belong to the Lord, but do not abuse them; eating
of them, but not eating them all up by yourselves: communicate
with those that are in want, and thereby show yourselves unblameable
before God. For if you shall consume them by yourselves, you will be
reproached by God, who says to such unsatiable people, who
409
alone devour all, "Ye eat up the milk, and clothe yourselves with the
wool;"(1) and in another passage, "Must you alone live upon the earth
Upon which account you are commanded in the law, "Thou shalt love thy
neighbour as thyself." Now we say these things, not as if you might not
partake of the fruits of your labours; for it is written, "Thou shalt
not muzzle the mouth of the ox which treadeth out the corn;"(4) but
that you should do it with moderation and righteousness. As, therefore,
the ox that labours in the threshing-floor without a muzzle eats
indeed, but does not eat all up; so do you who labour in the
threshing-floor, that is, in the Church eat of the Church: which was
also the case of the Levites, who served in the tabernacle of the
testimony, which was in all things a type of the Church. Nay, further,
its very name implied that that tabernacle was fore-appointed for a
testimony of the Church. Here, therefore, the Levites also, who
attended upon the tabernacle partook of those things that were offered
to God by all the people,--namely, gifts, offerings, and first-fruits,
and tithes, and sacrifices, and oblations, without disturbance, they
and their wives, and their sons and their daughters. Since their
employment was the ministration to the tabernacle, therefore they had
not any lot or inheritance in the land among the children of lsrael,
because the oblations of the people were the lot of Levi, and the
inheritance of their tribe. You, therefore, O bishops, are to your
people priests and Levites, ministering to the holy tabernacle, the
holy Catholic Church; who stand at the altar of the Lord your God, and
offer to Him reasonable and unbloody sacrifices through Jesus the great
High Priest. You are to the laity prophets, rulers, governors, and
kings; the mediators between God and His faithful people, who receive
and declare His word, well acquainted with the Scriptures. Ye are the
voice of and witnesses of His will, who bear the sins of all, and
intercede for all; whom, as you have heard, the word severely threatens
if you hide the key of knowledge from men, who are liable to perdition
if you do not declare His will to the people that are under you; who
shall have a certain reward from God, and unspeakable honour and glory,
if you duly minister to the holy tabernacle. For as yours is the
burden, so you receive as your fruit the supply of food and other.
necessaries. For you imitate Christ the Lord; and as He "bare the sins
of us all upon the tree" at His crucifixion, the innocent for those who
deserved punishment, so also you ought to make the sins of the people
your own. For concerning our Saviour it is said in Isaiah, "He bears
our sins, and is afflicted for us."(5) And again: "He bare the sins of
many, and was delivered for our offences."(6) As, therefore, you are
patterns for others, so have you Christ for your pattern. As,
therefore, He is concerned for all, so be you for the laity under you.
For do not thou imagine that the office of a bishop is an easy or light
burden. As, therefore, you bear the weight, so have you a right to
partake of the fruits before others, and to impart to those that are in
want, as being to give an account to Him, who without bias will examine
your accounts. For those who attend upon the Church ought to be
maintained by the Church, as being priests, Levites, presidents, and
ministers of God; as it is written in the book of Numbers concerning
the priests: "And the Lord said unto Aaron, Thou, and thy sons, and the
house of thy family, shall bear the iniquities of the holy things of
priesthood."(7) "Behold, I have given unto you the charge of the
first-fruits, from all that are sanctified to me by the children of
lsrael; I have given them for a reward to thee, and to thy sons after
thee, by an ordinance for ever. This shall be yours out of the holy
things, out of the oblations, and out of the gifts, and out of all the
sacrifices, and out of every trespass-offering, and sin-offerings; and
all that they render unto me out of all their holy things, they shall
belong to thee, and to thy sons: in the sanctuary shall they eat
them."(8) And a little after: "All the first-fruits of the oil, and of
the wine, and of the wheat, all which they shall give unto the Lord, to
thee have I given them; and all that is first ripe, to thee have I
given it, and every devoted thing. Every first-born of man and of
beast, clean and unclean, and of sacrifice, with the breast, and the
right shoulder, all these appertain to the priests, and to the rest of
those belonging to them, even to the Levites."(9)
Hear this, you of the laity also, the elect Church
of God. For the people were formerly called "the people of God,"(10)
and "an holy nation."(11) You, therefore, are the holy and sacred
"Church of God, enrolled in heaven, a royal priesthood, an holy nation,
a peculiar people,"(12) a bride adorned for the Lord God, a great
Church, a faithful Church. Hear attentively now what was said formerly:
oblations and tithes belong to Christ our High Priest, and to those who
minister to Him. Tenths of salvation are the first letter of the name
of Jesus. Hear, O thou Holy Catholic Church, who hast escaped the ten
plagues, and hast received the ten com-
410
mandments, and hast learned the law, and hast kept the faith, and hast
believed in Jesus, and hast known the decad, and hast believed in
the iota which is the first letter of the name of Jesus,(1) and art
named after His name, and art established, and shinest in the
consummation of His glory. Those which were then the sacrifices now are
prayers, and intercessions, and thanksgivings. Those which were then
first-fruits, and tithes, and offerings, and gifts, now are oblations,
which are presented by holy bishops to the Lord God, through Jesus
Christ, who has died for them. For these are your high priests, as the
presbyters are your priests, and your present deacons instead of your
Levites; as are also your readers, your singers, your porters, your
deaconesses, your widows, your virgins, and your orphans: but He who is
above all these is the High Priest.
ACCORDING TO WHAT PATTERNS AND DIGNITY EVERY ORDER OF THE CLERGY IS
APPOINTED BY GOD.
XXVI. The bishop, he is the minister of the word,
the keeper of knowledge, the medieator between God trod you in the
several parts of your divine worship. He is the teacher of piety; and,
next after God, he is your father, who has begotten you again to
the adoption of sons by water and the Spirit. He is your ruler and
governor; he is your king and potentate; he is, next after God, your
earthly god, who has a right to be honoured by you. For concerning him,
arid such as he, it is that God pronounces, "I have said, Ye are gods;
and ye are all children of the Most High."(2) And, "Ye shall not speak
evil of the gods."(3) For let the bishop preside over you as one
honoured with the authority of God, which he is to exercise over the
clergy, and by which he is to govern all the people. But let the deacon
minister to him, as Christ does to His Father;(4) and let him serve him
unblameably in all things, as Christ does nothing of Himself, but does
always those things that please His Father. Let also the deaconess be
honoured by you in the place of the Holy Ghost, and not do or say
anything without the deacon; as neither does the Comforter say or
do anything of Himself, but gives glory to Christ by waiting for
His pleasure. And as we cannot believe on Christ without the teaching
of the Spirit, so let not any woman address herself to the deacon
or bishop without the deaconess. Let the presbyters be
esteemed by you to represent us the apostles, and let them be the
teachers of divine knowledge; since our Lord, when He sent us,
said, "Go ye, and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them
in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost:
teaching them to observe all things whatsoever I have commanded
you."(5) Let the widows and orphans be esteemed as representing the
altar of burnt-offering; and let the virgins be honoured as
representing the altar of incense, and the incense itself.
THAT IT IS A HORRIBLE THING FOR A MAN TO THRUST HIMSELF INTO ANY
SACERDOTAL OFFICE, AS DID CORAH AND HIS COMPANY, SAUL AND UZZIAH.
XXVII. As, therefore, it was not lawful for one of
another tribe, that was not a Levite, to offer anything, or to approach
the altar without the priest, so also do you do nothing without the
bishop;(6) for if any one does anything without the bishop, he does it
to no purpose. For it will not be esteemed as of any avail to him. For
as Saul, when he had offered without Samuel, was told, "It will not
avail for thee;"(7) so every person among the laity, doing anything
without the priest, labours in vain. And as Uzziah the king,(8) who was
not a priest, and yet would exercise the functions of the priests, was
smitten with leprosy for his transgression; so every lay person shall
not be unpunished who despises God, and is so mad as to affront His
priests, and unjustly to snatch that honour to himself: not imitating
Christ, "who glorified not Himself to be made an high priest;"(9) but
waited till He heard from His Father, "The Lord sware, and will not
repent, Thou art a priest for ever, after the order of
Melchizedek."(10) If, therefore, Christ did not glorify Himself without
the Father, how dare any man thrust himself into the priesthood who has
not received that dignity from his superior, and do such things which
it is lawful only for the priests to do? Were not the followers of
Corah, even though they were of the tribe of Levi, consumed with fire,
because they rose up against Moses and Aaron, and meddled with such
things as did not belong to them? And Dathan and Abiram went down quick
into hell; and the rod that budded put a stop to the readiness of the
multitude, and demonstrated who was the high priest ordained by
God.(11) You ought therefore, brethren, to bring your sacrifices and
your oblations to the bishop, as to your high priest, either by
yourselves or by the deacons; and do you bring not those only, but also
your first-fruits, and your tithes, and your free-will offerings to
him. For he knows who they are that are in affliction, and gives to
every one as is convenient,
411
that so one may not receive alms twice or oftener the same day, or the
same week, while another has nothing at all. For it is reasonable
rather to supply the wants of those who really are in distress, than of
those who only appear to be so.
OF AN ENTERTAINMENT, AND AFTER WHAT MANNER EACH DISTINCT ORDER OF THE
CLERGY IS TO BE TREATED BY THOSE WHO INVITE THEM TO IT.
XXVIII. If any determine to invite eider women to an
entertainment of love, or a feast, as our Saviour calls it,(1) let them
most frequently send to such a one whom the deacons know to be in
distress. But let what is the pastor's due, I mean the first-fruits,(2)
be set apart in the feast for him, even though he be not at the
entertainment, as being your priest, and in honour of that God who has
entrusted him with the priesthood. But as much as is given to every one
of the eider women, let double so much be given to the deacons, in
honour of Christ. Let also a double portion be set apart for the
presbyters, as for such who labour continually about the word and
doctrine, upon the account of the apostles of our Lord, whose place
they sustain, as the counsellors of the bishop and the crown of the
Church. For they are the Sanhedrim and senate of the Church. If there
be a reader there, let him receive a single portion, in honour of the
prophets, and let the singer and the porter have as much. Let the
laity, therefore, pay proper honours in their presents, and utmost
marks of respect to each distinct order. But let them not on all
occasions trouble their governor, but let them signify their desires by
those who minister to him, that is, by the deacons, with whom they may
be more free. For neither may we address ourselves to Almighty God, but
only by Christ. In the same manner, therefore, let the laity make known
all their desires to the bishop by the deacon, and accordingly let them
act as he shall direct them. For there was no holy thing offered or
done in the temple formerly without the priest. "For the priest's lips
shall keep knowledge, and they shall seek the law at his mouth," as the
prophet somewhere says, "for he is the messenger of the Lord
Almighty."(3) For if the worshippers of demons, in their hateful,
abominable, and impure performances, imitate the sacred rules till this
very day(it is a wide comparison indeed. and there is a vast distance
between their abominations and God's sacred worship), in their
mockeries of worship they neither offer nor do anything without their
pretended priest, but esteem him as the very mouth of their idols of
stone, waiting to see what commands he will lay upon them. And
whatsoever he commands them, that they do, and without him they do
nothing; and they honour him, their pretended priest, and esteem his
name as venerable in honour of lifeless statues, and in order to the
worship of wicked spirits. If these heathens, therefore, who give glory
to lying vanities, and place their hope upon nothing that is firm,
endeavour to imitate the sacred rules, how much more reasonable is it
that you, who have a most certain faith and undoubted hope, and who
expect glorious, and eternal, and never-failing promises, should honour
the Lord God in those set over you, and esteem your bishop to be the
mouth of God !
WHAT IS THE DIGNITY OF A BISHOP AND OF A
DEACON.
XXIX. For if Aaron, because he declared to Pharaoh
the words of God from Moses, is called a prophet; and Moses himself is
called a god to Pharaoh, on account of his being at once a king and a
high priest, as God says to him, "I have made thee a god to Pharaoh,
and Aaron thy brother shall be thy prophet;"(4) why do not ye also
esteem the mediators of the word to be prophets, and reverence them as
gods?
AFTER WHAT MANNER THE LAITY ARE TO BE
OBEDIENT TO THE DEACON.
XXX. For now the deacon is to you Aaron, and the
bishop Moses. If, therefore, Moses was called a god by the Lord, let
the bishop be honoured among you as a god, and the deacon as his
prophet. For as Christ does nothing without His Father, so neither does
the deacon do anything without his bishop; and as the Son without His
Father is nothing, so is the deacon nothing without his bishop; and as
the Son is subject to His Father, so is every deacon subject to his
bishop; and as the Son is the messenger and prophet of the Father, so
is the deacon the messenger and prophet of his bishop. Wherefore let
all things that he is to do with any one be made known to the bishop,
and be finally ordered by him.
THAT THE DEACON MUST NOT DO ANYTHING
WITHOUT THE BISHOP.
XXXI. Let him not do anything at all without his
bishop, nor give anything without his consent. For if he gives to any
one as to a person in distress without the bishop's knowledge, he gives
it so that it must tend to the reproach of the bishop, and he accuses
him as careless of the distressed. But he that casts reproach on his
bishop, either by word or deed, opposes God, not hearkening to
what He says: "Thou shalt not speak evil of the gods."(5) For He did
not make that law concerning deities of wood and
412
of stone, which are abominable, because they are falsely called gods,
but concerning the priests and the judges, to whom He also said, "Ye
are gods, and children of the Most High."(1)
THAT THE DEACON MUST NOT MAKE ANY DISTRIBUTIONS WITHOUT THE CONSENT OF
THE BISHOP, BECAUSE THAT WILL TURN TO THE REPROACH OF THE BISHOP.
XXXII. If therefore, O deacon, thou knowest any one
to be in distress, put the bishop in mind of him, and so give to him;
but do nothing in a clandestine way, so as may tend to his
reproach, lest thou raise a murmur against him; for the murmur will not
be against him, but against the Lord God: and the deacon, with the
rest, will hear what Aaron and Miriam heard, when they spake against
Moses: "How is it that ye were not afraid to speak against my servant
Moses?"(2) And again, Moses says to those who rose up against him:
"Your murmuring is not against us, but against the Lord our God."(3)
For if he that calls one of the laity Raka,(4) or fool, shall not be
unpunished, as doing injury to the name(5) of Christ, how dare any man
speak against his bishop, by whom the Lord gave the Holy Spirit among
you upon the laying on of his hands, by whom ye have learned the sacred
doctrines, and have known God, and have believed in Christ, by whom ye
were known of God, by whom ye were sealed with the oil of gladness and
the ointment of understanding, by whom ye were declared to be the
children of light, by whom the Lord in your illumination testified by
the imposition of the bishop's hands, and sent out His sacred voice
upon every one of you, saying, "Thou art my son, this day have I
begotten thee?"(6) By thy bishop, O man, God adopts thee for His child.
Acknowledge, O son, that right hand which was a mother to thee. Love
him who, after God, is become a father to thee, and honour him.
AFTER WHAT MANNER THE BISHOPS ARE TO BE HONOURED, AND TO BE REVERENCED
AS OUR SPIRITUAL PARENTS.
XXXIII. For if the divine oracle says, concerning
our parents according to the flesh, "Honour thy father and thy mother,
that it may be well with thee;"(7) and, "He that curseth his father or
his mother, let him die the death;"(8) how much more should the word
exhort you to honour your spiritual parents, and to love them as your
benefactors and ambassadors with God, who have regenerated you by
water, and endued you with the fulness of the Holy Spirit, who have fed
you with the word as with milk, who have nourished yon with doctrine,
who have confirmed you by their admonitions, who have imparted to you
the saving body and precious blood of Christ, who have loosed you from
your sins, who have made you partakers of the holy and sacred
eucharist, who have admitted you to be partakers and fellow-heirs of
the promise of God! Reverence these, and honour them with all kinds of
honour; for they have obtained from God the power of life and death, in
their judging of sinners, and condemning them to the death of eternal
fire, as also of loosing returning sinners from their sins, and
of restoring them to a new life.
THAT PRIESTS ARE TO BE PREFERRED BEFORE
RULERS AND KINGS.
XXXIV. Account these worthy to be esteemed your
rulers and your kings, and bring them tribute as to kings; for by you
they and their families ought to be maintained. As Samuel made
constitutions for the people concerning a king,(9) in the first book of
Kings, and Moses did so concerning priests in Leviticus, so do we also
make constitutions for you concerning bishops. For if there the
multitude distributed the inferior services in proportion to so great a
king, ought not therefore the bishop much more now to receive of you
those things which are determined by God for the sustenance of himself
and of the rest of the clergy belonging to him? But if we may add
somewhat further, let the bishop receive more than the other received
of old: for he only managed the affairs of the soldiery, being
entrusted with war and peace for the preservation of men's bodies; but
the other is entrusted with the exercise of the priestly office in
relation to God, in order to preserve both body and soul from dangers.
By how much, therefore, the soul is more valuable than the body, so
much the priestly office is beyond the kingly. For it binds and
looses those that are worthy of punishment or of remission. Wherefore
you ought to love the bishop as your father, and fear him as your king,
and honour him as your lord, bringing to him your fruits and the works
of your hands, for a blessing upon you, giving to him your
first-fruits, and your tithes, and your oblations, and your gifts, as
to the priest of God; the first-fruits of your wheat, and wine, and
oil, and autumnal fruits, and wool,(10) and all things which the Lord
God gives thee. And thy offering shall be accepted as a savour of a
sweet smell to the Lord thy God; and the Lord will bless the works of
thy hands, and will multiply
413
the good things of the land. "For a blessing is upon the head of him
that giveth."(1)
THAT BOTH THE
LAW AND THE GOSPEL PRESCRIBE OFFERINGS.
XXXV. Now you ought to know, that although the Lord
has delivered you from the additional bonds, and has brought you out of
them to your refreshment, and does not permit you to sacrifice
irrational creatures for sin-offerings, and purifications, and
scapegoats, and continual washings and sprinklings, yet has He nowhere
freed you from those oblations which you owe to the priests, nor from
doing good to the poor. For the Lord says to you in the Gospel: "Unless
your righteousness abound more than that of the scribes and Pharisees,
ye shall by no means enter into the kingdom of heaven."(2) Now herein
will your righteousness exceed theirs, if you take greater care of the
priests, the orphans, and the widows; as it is written: "He hath
scattered abroad; he hath given to the poor; his righteousness
remaineth for ever."(3) And again: "By acts of righteousness and faith
iniquities are purged."(4) And again: "Every bountiful soul is
blessed."(5) So therefore shalt thou do as the Lord has appointed, and
shalt, give to the priest what things are due to him, the
first-fruits of thy floor, and of thy wine-press, and
sin-offerings, as to the mediator between God and such as stand in need
of purgation and forgiveness. For it is thy duty to give, and his to
administer, as being the administrator and disposer of ecclesiastical
affairs. Yet shalt thou not call thy bishop to account, nor watch
his administration, how he does it, when, or to whom, or where,
or whether he do it well or ill, or indifferently; for he has One who
will call him to an account, the Lord God, who put this
administration into his hands, and thought him worthy of the priesthood
of so great dignity.
THE RECITAL OF THE TEN COMMANDMENTS, AND AFTER WHAT MANNER THEY DO HERE
PRESCRIBE TO US.
XXXVI. Have before thine eyes the fear of God, and
always remember the ten commandments of God,--to love the one and only
Lord God with all thy strength; to give no heed to idols, or any other
beings, as being lifeless gods, or irrational beings or daemons.
Consider the manifold workmanship of God, which received its beginning
through Christ. Thou shalt observe the Sabbath, on account of Him who
ceased from His work of creation, but ceased not from His work of
providence: it is a rest
for meditation of the law, not for idleness of the hands. Reject every
unlawful lust, everything destructive to men, and all anger. Honour thy
parents, as the authors of thy being. Love thy neighbour as thyself.
Communicate the necessaries of-life to the needy. Avoid swearing
falsely, and swearing often, and in vain; for thou shalt not be held
guiltless. Do not appear before the priests empty, and offer thy
free-will offerings continually. Moreover, do not leave the church of
Christ; but go thither in the morning before all thy work, and again
meet there in the evening, to return thanks to God that He has
preserved thy life. Be diligent, and constant, and laborious in thy
calling. Offer to the Lord thy free-will offerings; for says He,
"Honour the Lord with the fruit of thy honest labours."(6) If thou art
not able to cast anything considerable into the Corban,(7) yet at least
bestow upon the strangers one, or two, or five mites. "Lay up to
thyself heavenly treasure, which neither the moth nor thieves can
destroy."(8) And in doing this, do not judge thy bishop, or any of thy
neighbours among the laity; for if thou judge thy brother, thou
becomest a judge, without being constituted such by anybody, for the
priests are only entrusted with the power of judging. For to them it is
said, "Judge righteous judgment;"(9) and again "Approve yourselves to
be exact money-changers."(10) For to yon this is not entrusted; for, on
the
contrary, it is said to those who are not of the dignity of magistrates
or ministers: "Judge not, and ye shall not be judged."(11)
SEC. V.--ON ACCUSATIONS, AND THE TREATMENT OF ACCUSERS.
CONCERNING ACCUSERS AND FALSE ACCUSERS, AND HOW A JUDGE IS NOT RASHLY
EITHER TO BELIEVE THEM OR DISBELIEVE THEM, BUT AFTER AN ACCURATE
EXAMINATION.
XXXVII. But it is the duty of the bishop to judge
rightly, as it is written, "Judge righteous judgment;"(12) and
elsewhere, "Why do ye not even of yourselves judge what is right?"(13)
Be ye therefore as skilful dealers in money: for as these reject bad
money, but take to themselves what is current, in the same manner it is
the bishops's duty to retain the unblameable, but either to heal, or,
if they be past cure, to cast off those that are blameworthy, so as not
to be hasty in cutting off, nor to believe alI accusations; for it
sometimes happens that some, either
414
through passion or envy, do insist on a false accusation against a
brother, as did the two elders in the case of Susanna in Babylon,(1)
and the Egyptian woman in the case of Joseph.(2) Do thou therefore, as
a man of God, not rashly receive such accusations, lest thou take away
the innocent and slay the righteous; for he that will receive such
accusations is the author of anger rather than of peace. But where
there is anger, there the Lord is not; for that anger, which is the
friend of Satan--I mean that which is excited unjustly by the means of
false brethren--never suffers unanimity to be in the Church. Wherefore,
when you know such persons to be foolish, quarrelsome, passionate, and
such as delight in mischief, do not give credit to them; but observe
such as they are, when you hear anything from them against their
brother: for murder is nothing in their eyes, and they cast a man down
in such a way as one would not suspect. Do thou therefore consider
diligently the accuser,(3) wisely observing his mode of life, what, and
of what sort it is; and in case thou findest him a man of veracity, do
according to the doctrine of our Lord,(4) and taking him who is
accused, rebuke him, that he may repent, when nobody is by. But if he
be not pervaded, take with thee out or two more, and so show him his
fault, and admonish him with mildness and instruction; for "wisdom will
rest upon an heart that is good, but is not understood in the heart of
the foolish."(5)
THAT SINNERS ARE PRIVATELY TO BE REPROVED, AND THE PENITENT TO BE
RECEIVED, ACCORDING TO THE CONSTITUTION OF OUR LORD.
XXXVIII. If, therefore, he be persuaded by the mouth
of you three, it is well. But if any one hardens himself, "tell it to
the Church: but if he neglects to hear the Church, let him be to thee
as an heathen man and a publican;"(6) and receive him no longer into
the Church as a Christian, but reject him as an heathen. But if he be
willing to repent, receive him. For the Church does not receive an
heathen or a publican to communion, before they every one repent of
their former impieties; for our Lord Jesus, the Christ of God, has
appointed place for the acceptance of men upon their repentance.
EXAMPLES OF REPENTANCE.
XXXIX. For I Matthew, one of those twelve
which speak to you in this doctrine, am an apostle, having myself
been formerly a publican, but now have obtained mercy through
believing, and
have repented of my former practices, and have been vouchsafed the
honour to be an apostle and preacher of the word. And Zacchaeus, whom
the Lord received upon his repentance and prayers to Him, was also
himself in the same manner a publican at first. And, besides, even the
soldiers and multitude of publicans, who came to hear the word of the
Lord about repentance, heard this from the prophet John, after he had
baptized them: "Do nothing more than that which is appointed you."(7)
In like manner, life is not refused to the heathen, if they repent and
cast away their unbelief. Esteem, therefore, every one that is
convicted of any wicked action, and has not repented, as a publican or
an heathen. But if he afterward repents, and turns from his error,
then, as we receive the heathen, when they wish to repent, into the
Church indeed to hear the word, but do not receive them to communion
until they have received the seal of baptism, and are made complete
Christians; so do we also permit such as these to enter only to hear,
until they show the fruit of repentance, that by hearing the word they
may not utterly and irrecoverably perish. But let them not be admitted
to communion in prayer; and let them depart after the reading of the
law, and the prophets, and the Gospel, that by such departure they may
be made better in their course of life, by endeavouring to meet every
day about the public assemblies, and to be frequent in prayer, that
they also may be at length admitted, and that those who behold them may
be affected, and be more secured by fearing to fall into the same
condition.
THAT WE ARE NOT TO BE IMPLACABLE TO HIM WHO HAS ONCE OR TWICE OFFENDED.
XL. But yet do not thou, O bishop, presently abhor
any person who has fallen into one or two offences, nor shalt thou
exclude him from the word of the Lord, nor reject him from common
intercourse, since neither did the Lord refuse to eat with publicans
and sinners; and when He was accused by the Pharisees on this account,
He said: "They that are well have no need of the physician, but they
that are sick."(8) Do you, therefore, live and dwell with those who are
separated from you for their sins; and take care of them, comforting
them, and confirming them, and saying to them: "Be strengthened, ye
weak hands and feeble knees."(9) For we ought to comfort those that
mourn, and afford encouragement to the fainthearted, lest by immoderate
sorrow they degenerate into distraction, since "he that is fainthearted
is exceedingly distracted."(10)
415
AFTER WHAT MANNER WE OUGHT TO RECEIVE A PENITENT; HOW WE OUGHT TO DEAL
WITH OFFENDERS, AND WHEN THEY ARE TO BE CUT OFF FROM THE CHURCH.
XLI. But if any one returns, and shows forth the
fruit of repentance, then do ye receive him to prayer, as the lost son,
the prodigal, who had consumed his father's substance with harlots, who
fed swine, and desired to be fed with husks, and could not obtain it.
This son, when he repented, and returned to his father, and said, "I
have sinned against Heaven, and before thee, and am no more worthy to
be called thy son;"(1) the father, full of affection to his child,
received him with music, and restored him his old robe, and ring, and
shoes, and slew the fatted calf, and made merry with his friends. Do
thou therefore, O bishop, act in the same manner. And as thou receivest
an heathen after thou hast instructed and baptized him, so do thou let
all join in prayers for this man, and restore him by imposition of
hands to his ancient place among the flock, as one purified by
repentance; and that imposition of hands shall be to him instead of
baptism: for by the laying on of our hands the Holy Ghost was given to
believers. And in case some one of those brethren who had stood
immoveable accuse thee, because thou art reconciled to him, say to him:
"Thou art always with me, and all that I have is thine. It was meet to
make merry and be glad: for this thy brother was dead, and is alive
again; he was lost, and is found." For that God does not only receive
the penitent, but restores them to their former dignity, holy David is
a sufficient witness, who, after his sin in the matter of Uriah, prayed
to God, and said: "Restore unto me the joy of Thy salvation, and uphold
me with Thy free Spirit."(2) And again: "Turn Thy face from my sins,
and blot out all mine offences. Create in me a clean heart, O God, and
renew a right spirit in my inward parts. Cast me not away from Thy
presence, and take not Thy Holy Spirit from me." Do thou therefore, as
a compassionate physician, heal all that have sinned, making use of
saving methods of cure; not only cutting and searing, or using
corrosives, but binding up, and putting in tents, and using gentle
healing medicines, and sprinkling comfortable words. If it be an hollow
wound, or great gash, nourish it with a suitable plaister, that it may
be filled up, and become even with the rest of the whole flesh. If it
be foul, cleanse it with corrosive powder, that is, with the words of
reproof. If it have proud flesh, eat it down with a sharp plaister--the
threats of judgment. If it spreads further, sear it, and cut off the
putrid flesh, mortifying him with fastings. But if, after all that thou
hast done, thou perceivest that from the feet to the head there is no
room for a fomentation, or oil, or bandage, but that the malady spreads
and prevents all cure, as a gangrene which corrupts the entire member;
then, with a great deal of consideration, and the advice of other
skilful physicians, cut off the putrefied member, that the whole body
of the Church be not corrupted. Be not therefore ready and hasty to cut
off, nor do thou easily have recourse to the saw, with its many teeth;
but first use a lancet to lay open the wound, that the inward cause
whence the pain is derived being drawn out, may keep the body free from
pain. But if thou seest any one past repentance, and he is become
insensible, then cut off the incurable from the Church with sorrow and
lamentation. For: "Take out from among yourselves that wicked
person."(3) And: "Ye shall make the children of Israel to fear."(4) And
again: "'Thou shalt not accept the persons of the rich in judgment."(5)
And: "Thou shalt not pity a poor man in his cause: for the judgment is
the Lord's."(6)
THAT A JUDGE MUST NOT
BE A RESPECTER OF PERSONS.
XLII. But if the slanderous accusation be false, and
youthat are the pastors, with the deacons, admit of that falsehood for
truth, either by acceptance of persons or receiving of bribes, as
willing to do that which will he pleasing to the devil, and so
you thrust out from the Church him that is accused, but is clear of the
crime, you shall give an account in the day of the Lord. For it is
written: "The innocent and the righteous thou shalt not slay."(7) "Thou
shalt not take girls to smite the soul: for gifts blind the eyes of the
wise, and destroy the words of the righteous."(8) And again: "They that
justify the wicked for gifts, and take away the righteousness of the
righteous from him."(9) Be careful, therefore, not to condemn any
persons unjustly, and so to assist the wicked. For "woe to him
that calls evil good, and good evil; bitter sweet, and sweet bitter;
that puts light for darkness, and darkness for light."(10) Take care,
therefore, lest by any means ye become acceptors of persons, and
thereby fall under this voice of the Lord.(11) For if you condemn
others unjustly, you pass sentence against yourselves. For the Lord
says: "With what judgment ye judge, ye shall be judged; and as you
condemn, you shall be
416
condemned."(1) If, therefore, ye judge without respect of persons, ye
will discover that accuser who bears false witness against his
neighbour, and will prove him to be a sycophant, a spiteful person, and
a murderer, causing perplexity by accusing the man as if he were
wicked, inconstant in his words, contradicting himself in what he
affirms, and entangled with the words of his own mouth; for his own
lips are a dangerous, snare to him: whom, when thou hast convicted him
of speaking falsely, thou shalt judge severely, and shalt deliver him
to the fiery sword, and thou shalt do to him as he wickedly
proposed to do to his brother; for as much as in him lay he
slew his brother, by forestalling the ears of the judge.(2) Now it is
written, that "he that sheddeth man's blood, for that his own blood
shall be shed."(3) And: "Thou shalt take away that innocent blood,
which was shed without cause, from thee."(4)
AFTER WHAT
MANNER FALSE ACCUSERS ARE TO BE PUNISHED.
XLIII. Thou shalt therefore cast him out of the
congregation as a murderer of his brother. Some time afterwards,
if he says that he repents, mortify him with fastings, and
afterwards ye shall lay your hands upon him and receive him, but still
securing him, that he does not disturb anybody a second time. But if,
when he is admitted again, he be alike troublesome, and will not cease
to disturb and to quarrel with his brother, spying faults out of a
contentious spirit, cast him out as a pernicious person, that he may
not lay waste the Church of God. For such a one is the raiser of
disturbances in cities; for he, though he be within, does not become
the Church, but is a superfluous and vain member, casting a blot, as
far as in him lies, on the body of Christ. For if such men as are born
with superfluous members of their body, which hang to them as fingers,
or excrescences of flesh, cut them away from themselves on account of
their indecency, whereby the unseemliness vanishes, and the man
recovers his natural good shape by the means of the surgeon; how much
more ought you, the pastors of the Church (for the Church is a perfect
body, and sound members; of such as believe in God, in the fear of the
Lord, and in love), to do the like when there is found in it a
superfluous member with wicked designs, and rendering the rest of the
body unseemly, and disturbing it with sedition, and war, and
evil-speaking; causing fears, disturbances, blots, evil-speaking,
accusations, disorders, and doing the like works of the devil, as if he
were ordained by the devil to cast a reproach on the Church by
calumnies, and mighty disorders, and strife, and division! Such a one,
therefore, when he is a second time cast out of the Church, is justly
cut off entirely from the congregation of the Lord. And now the Church
of the Lord will be more beautiful than it was before, when it had a
superfluous, and to itself a disagreeable member. Wherefore
henceforward it will be free from blame and reproach, and become clear
of such wicked, deceitful, abusive, unmerciful, traitorous persons; of
such as are "haters of those that are good, lovers of pleasure,"(5)
affecters of vainglory, deceivers, and pretenders to wisdom; of such as
make it their business to scatter, or rather utterly to disperse, the
lambs of the Lord.
SEC. VI.--THE DISPUTES OF THE FAITHFUL TO BE SETTLED BY THE DECISIONS
OF THE BISHOP, AND THE FAITHFUL TO BE RECONCILED.
Do thou therefore, O bishop, together with thy
subordinate clergy, endeavour rightly to divide the word of truth. For
the Lord says: "If you walk cross-grained to me, I will walk
cross-grained to you."(6) And elsewhere: "With the holy Thou wilt be
holy, and with the perfect man Thou wilt be perfect, and with the
froward Thou wilt be froward."(7) Walk therefore holily, that you
may rather appear worthy of praise from the Lord than of
complaint from the adversary.
THAT THE DEACON IS TO EASE THE BURTHEN OF THE BISHOPS, AND TO ORDER THE
SMALLER MATTERS HIMSELF.
XLIV. Be ye of one mind, O ye bishops, one with
another, and be at peace with one another; sympathize with one another,
love the brethren, and feed the people with care; with one consent
teach those that are under you to be of the same sentiments and to be
of the same opinions about the same matters, "that there may be no
schisms among you; that ye may be one body and one spirit, perfectly
joined together in the same mind and in the same judgment,"(8)
according to the appointment of the Lord. And let the deacon refer all
things to the bishop, as Christ does to His Farther. But let him order
such things as he is able by himself, receiving power from the bishop,
as the Lord did from His Father the power of creation and of
providence. But the weighty matters let the bishop judge; but let the
deacon be the bishop's ear, and eye, and mouth, and heart, and soul,
that the bishop may not be distracted with many cares, but with such
only as are more considerable, as Jethro did appoint for Moses, and his
counsel was received.(9)
417
THAT CONTENTIONS AND QUARRELS ARE UNBECOMING
CHRISTIANS.
XLV. It is therefore a noble encomium for a
Christian to have no contest with any one;(1) but if by any management
or temptation a contest arises with any one, let him endeavour that it
may be composed, though thereby he be obliged to lose somewhat; and let
it not come before an heathen tribunal. Nay, indeed, you are not to
permit that the rulers of this world should pass sentence against your
people; for by them the devil contrives mischief to the servants of
God, and occasions a reproach to be cast upon us, as though we had not
"one wise man that is able to judge between his brethren," or to decide
their controversies.
THAT BELIEVERS OUGHT NOT TO GO TO LAW BEFORE UNBELIEVERS; NOR OUGHT ANY
UNBELIEVER TO BE CALLED FOR A WITNESS AGAINST BELIEVERS.
XLVI. Let not the heathen therefore know of your
differences among One another, nor do you receive unbelievers as
witnesses against yourselves, nor be judged by them, nor owe them
anything on account of tribute or fear; but "render to Caesar the
things that are Caesar's, and unto God the things that are God's,"(2)
as tribute, taxes, or poll-money, as our Lord by giving a piece of
money was freed from disturbance.(3) Choose therefore rather to suffer
harm, and to endeavour after those things that make for peace, not only
among the brethren, but also among the unbelievers. For by suffering
loss in the affairs of this life, thou wilt be sure not to suffer in
the concerns of piety, and wilt live religiously, and according
to the command of Christ.(4) But if brethren have lawsuits one with
another, which God forbid, you who are the rulers ought thence to learn
that such as these do not do the work of brethren in the Lord, but
rather of public enemies; and one of the parties will be found to be
mild, gentle, and the child of light; but the other unmerciful,
insolent, and covetous. Let him, therefore, who is condemned be
rebuked, let him be separated, let him undergo the punishment of his
hatred to his brother. Afterwards, when he repents, let him be
received; and so, when they have learned prudence, they will ease your
judicatures. It is also a duty to forgive each other's trespasses--not
the duty of those that judge, but of those that have quarrels; as the
Lord determined when I Peter asked Him, "How oft shall my brother sin
against me, and I forgive him? Till seven times?" He replied, "I say
not unto thee, Until seven times, but until seventy times seven."(5)
For so would our Lord have us to be truly His disciples, and never to
have anything against anybody; as, for instance, anger without measure,
passion without mercy, covetousness without justice, hatred without
reconciliation. Draw by your instruction those who are angry to
friendship, and those who are at variance to agreement. For the Lord
says: "Blessed are the peacemakers, for they shall be called the
children of God."(6)
THAT THE JUDICATURES OF CHRISTIANS OUGHT TO BE HELD ON THE SECOND DAY
OF THE WEEK.
XLVII. Let your judicatures be held on the
second day of the week, that if any controversy arise about your
sentence, having an interval till the Sabbath,(7) you may be able to
set the controversy right, and to reduce those to peace who have the
contests one with another against the Lord's day. Let also the deacons
and presbyters be present at your judicatures, to judge without
acceptance of persons, as men of God, with righteousness. When,
therefore, both the parties are come, according as the law says,(8)
those that have the controversy shall stand severally in the middle of
the court; and when you have heard them, give your votes holily,
endeavouring to make them both friends before the sentence of the
bishop, that judgment against the offender may not go abroad into the
world; knowing that he has in the court the Christ of God as conscious
of and confirming his judgment. But if any persons are accused by any
one, and their fame suffers as if they did not walk uprightly in the
Lord. in like manner you shall hear both parties--the accuser and
accused; but not with prejudice, nor with hearkening to one part only,
but with righteousness, as passing a sentence concerning eternal life
or death. For says God: "He shall prosecute that which is right
justly."(9) For he that is justly punished and separated by you is
rejected from eternal life and glory; he becomes dishonourable among
holy men, and one condemned of God.
THAT THE SAME PUNISHMENT IS NOT TO BE INFLICTED FOR EVERY OFFENCE, BUT
DIFFERENT PUNISHMENTS FOR DIFFERENT OFFENDERS.
XLVIII. Do not pass the same sentence for every sin,
but one suitable to each crime, distinguishing all the several sorts of
offences with much prudence, the great from the little. Treat a wicked
action after one manner, and a wicked word after another; a bare
intention still other-
418
wise. So also in the case of a contumely or suspicion. And some thou
shalt curb by threatenings alone; some thou shalt punish with fines to
the poor; some thou shalt mortify with fastings; and others thou shalt
separate according to the greatness of their several crimes. For the
law did not allot the same punishment to every offence, but had a
different regard to a sin against God, against the priest, against the
temple, or against the sacrifice; from a sin against the king, or
ruler, or a soldier, or a fellow-subject; and so were the offences
different which were against a servant, a possession, or a brute
creature. And again, sins were differently rated according as they were
against parents and kinsmen, and those differently which were done on
purpose from those that happened involuntarily. Accordingly the
punishments were different: as death either by crucifixion or by
stoning, fines, scourgings, or the suffering the same mischiefs they
had done to others. Wherefore do you also allot different penalties to
different offences, lest any injustice should happen, and provoke God
to indignation. For of what unjust judgment soever you are the
instruments, of the same you shall receive the reward from God. "For
with what judgment ye judge ye shall be judged."(1)
WHAT ARE TO BE THE CHARACTERS OF ACCUSERS AND
WITNESSES.
XLIX. When, therefore, you are set down at your
tribunal, and the parties are both of them present (for we will not
call them brethren until they receive each other in peace), examine
diligently concerning those who appear before you; and first concerning
the accuser, whether this be the first person he has accused, or
whether he has advanced accusations against some others before, and
whether this contest and accusation of theirs does not arise from some
quarrel, and what sort of life the accuser leads. Yet, though he be of
a good conscience, do not give credit to him alone, for that is
contrary to the law; but let him have others to join in his testimony,
and those of the same course of life. As the law says: "At the mouth of
two or three witnesses everything shall be established."(2) But why did
we say that the character of the witnesses was to be inquired after, of
what sort it is? Because it frequently happens that two and more
testify for mischief, and with joint consent prefer a lie; as did the
two elders against Susanna in Babylon,(3) and the sons of transgressors
against Naborb in Samaria,(4) and the multitude of the Jews against our
Lord at Jerusalem,(5) and
against Stephen His first martyr.(6) Let the witnesses therefore be
meek, free from anger, full of equity, kind, prudent, continent, free
from wickedness, faithful, religious; for the testimony of such persons
is firm on account of their character, and true on account of their
mode of life. But as to those of a different character, do not ye
receive their testimony, although they seem to agree together in their
evidence against the accused; for it is ordained in the law: "Thou
shalt not be with a multitude for wickedness; thou shalt not receive a
vain report; thou shalt not consent with a multitude to pervert
judgment."(7) You ought also particularly to know him that is accused;
what he is in his course and mode of life; whether he have a good
report as to his life; whether he has been unblameable; whether he has
been zealous in holiness; whether he be a lover of the widows, a lover
of the strangers, a lover of the poor, and a lover of the brethren;
whether he be not given to filthy lucre; whether he be not an
extravagant person, or a spendthrift; whether he be sober, and free
from luxury, or a drunkard, or a glutton; whether he be compassionate
and charitable.
THAT FORMER OFFENCES DO SOMETIMES RENDER AFTER ACCUSATIONS CREDIBLE.
L. For if he has been before addicted to wicked
works, the accusations which are now brought against him will thence in
some measure appear to be true, unless justice do plainly plead for
hint. For it may be, that though he had formerly been an
offender, yet that he may not be guilty of this crime of which he is
accused. Wherefore be exactly cautious about such circumstances, and so
render your sentences, when pronounced against the offender convicted,
safe and firm. And if, after his separation, he begs pardon, and falls
down before the bishop, and acknowledges his fault, receive him. But
neither do you suffer a false accuser to go unpunished, that he may not
calumniate another who lives well, or encourage some other person to do
like him. Nor, to be sure, do ye suffer a person convicted to go off
clear, lest another be ensnared in the same crimes. For neither shall a
witness of mischiefs be unpunished, nor shall he that offends be
without censure.
AGAINST JUDGING WITHOUT HEARING BOTH SIDES.
LI. We said before that judgment ought not to be
given upon hearing only one of the parties; for if you hear one of them
when the other is not there, and so cannot make his defence to
the accusation brought against him, and rashly
419
give your votes for condemnation, you will be found guilty of that
man's destruction, and partaker with the false accuser before God, the
just Judge. For "as he that holdeth the tail of a dog, so is he that
presides at unjust judgment." But if ye become imitators of the elders
in Babylon, who, when they had borne witness against Susanna, unjustly
condemned her to death, you will become obnoxious to their judgment and
condemnation. For the Lord by Daniel delivered Susanna from the hand of
the ungodly, but condemned to the fire those elders who were guilty of
her blood, and reproaches you by him, saying: "Are ye so foolish, ye
children of Israel? Without examination, and without knowing the truth,
have ye condemned a daughter of Israel? Return again to the place of
judgment, for these men have borne false witness against her."(2)
THE CAUTION OBSERVED AT HEATHEN TRIBUNALS BEFORE THE CONDEMNATION OF
CRIMINALS AFFORDS CHRISTIANS A GOOD EXAMPLE.
LII. Consider even the judicatures of this world, by
whose power we see murderers, adulterers, wizards, robbers of
sepulchres, and thieves brought to trial; and those that preside, when
they have received their accusations from those that brought them, ask
the malefactor whether those things be so. And though he does not deny
the crimes, they do not presently send him out to punishment; but for
several days they make inquiry about him with a full council, and with
the veil interposed. And he that is to pass the final decree and
suffrage of death against him, lifts up his hands to the sun, and
solemnly affirms that he is innocent of the blood of the man. Though
they be heathens, and know not the Deity, nor the vengeance which will
fall upon men from God on account of those that are justly condemned,
they avoid such unjust judgments.
THAT CHRISTIANS OUGHT NOT TO BE CONTEN-
TIOUS ONE WITH ANOTHER.
LIII. But you who know who our God is, and what are
His judgments, how can you bear to pass an unjust judgment, since your
sentence will be immediately known to God? And if you have judged
righteously, you will be deemed worthy of the recompenses of
righteousness, both now and hereafter; but if unrighteously, you will
partake of the like. We therefore advise you, brethren, rather to
deserve commendation from God than rebukes; for the commendation of God
is eternal life to men, as is His rebuke everlasting death. Be ye
therefore righteous judges, peacemakers, and without anger. For "he
that is angry with his brother without a cause is obnoxious to the
judgment."(3) But if it happens that by any one's contrivance you are
angry at anybody, "let not the sun go down upon your wrath;"(4) for
says David, "Be angry and sin not;"(5) that is, be soon reconciled,
lest your wrath continue so long that it turn to a settled hatred, and
work sin. "For the souls of those that bear a settled hatred are to
death,"(6) says Solomon. But our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ says in
the Gospels: "If thou bring thy gift to the altar, and there
rememberest that thy brother hath ought against thee, leave there thy
gift before the altar, and go thy way; first be reconciled to thy
brother, and then come and offer thy gift to God."(7) Now the gift to
God is every one's prayer and thanksgiving. If, therefore, thou hast
anything against thy brother, or he has anything against thee, neither
will thy prayers be heard, nor will thy thanksgivings be accepted, by
reason of that hidden anger. But it is your duty, brethren, to pray
continually. Yet, because God hears not those which are at enmity with
their brethren by unjust quarrels, even though they should pray three
times an hour, it is our duty to compose all our enmity and littleness
of soul, that we may be able to pray with a pure and unpolluted heart.
For the Lord commanded us to love even our enemies, and by no means to
hate our friends. And the lawgiver says: "Thou shalt not hate any man;
thou shalt not hate thy brother in thy mind. Thou shalt certainly
reprove thy brother, and not incur sin on his account."(8) "Thou shalt
not hate an Egyptian, for thou wast a sojourner with him. Thou shalt
not hate an Idumaean, for he is thy brother."(9) And David says: "If I
have repaid those that requited me evil."(10) Wherefore, if thou wilt
be a Christian, follow the law of the Lord: "Loose every band of
wickedness; for the Lord has given thee authority to remit those sins
to thy brother which he has committed against thee as far as "seventy
times seven,"(12) that is, four hundred and ninety times. How oft,
therefore, hast thou remitted to thy brother, that thou art unwilling
to do it now, when thou also hast heard Jeremiah saying, "Do not any of
you impute the wickedness of his neighbour in your hearts?"(13) But
thou rememberest in juries, and keepest enmity, and comest into
judgment, and art suspicious of His anger and thy prayer is hindered.
Nay, if thou hast re-
420
mitted to thy brother four hundred and ninety times, do thou still
multiply thy acts of gentleness more, to do good for thy own sake.
Although he does not do so, yet, however, do thou endeavour to forgive
thy brother for God's sake, "that thou mayest be the son of thy Father
which is in heaven,"(1) and when thou prayest, mayest be heard as a
friend of God.
THAT THE BISHOPS MUST BY THEIR DEACON PUT THE PEOPLE IN MIND OF THE
OBLIGATION THEY ARE UNDER TO LIVE PEACEABLY TOGETHER.
LIV. Wherefore, O bishop, when you are to go to
prayer after the lessons, and the psalmody, and the instruction out of
the Scriptures, let the deacon stand nigh you, and with a loud voice
say: Let none have any quarrel with another; let none come in
hypocrisy; that if there be any controversy found among any of you,
they may be affected in conscience, and may pray to God, and be
reconciled to their brethren. For if, upon coming into any one's house,
we are to say, "Peace be to this house,"(2) like sons of peace
bestowing peace on those who are worthy, as it is written, "He came and
preached peace to you that are nigh, and them that are far off, whom
the Lord knows to be His,"(3) much more is it incumbent on those that
enter into the Church of God before all things to pray for the peace of
God. But if he prays for it upon others, much more let himself be
within the same, as a child of light; for he that has it not within
himself is not fit to bestow it upon others. Wherefore, before all
things, it is our duty to be at peace in our own minds; for he that
does not find any disorder in himself will not quarrel with another,
but will be peaceable, friendly, gathering the Lord's people, and a
fellow-worker with him, in order to the increasing the number of those
that shall be saved in unanimity. For those who contrive enmities, and
strifes, and contests, and lawsuits, are wicked, and aliens from God.
AN ENUMERATION OF THE SEVERAL INSTANCES OF DIVINE PROVIDENCE, AND
HOW IN EVERY AGE FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE WORLD GOD HAS INVITED
ALL MEN TO REPENTANCE.
LV. For God, being a God of mercy from the
beginning, called every generation to repentance by righteous men and
prophets. He instructed those before the flood by Abel and Sem, and
Seth, also by Enos, and by Enoch that was translated; those at the
flood by Noah; the inhabitants of Sodom by hospitable Lot; those after
the flood by Melchizedek, and the patriarchs, and Job the beloved of
God; the Egyptians by Moses; the Israelites by him, and Joshua, and
Caleb, and Phineas, and the rest; those after the law by angels and
prophets, and the same by His own incarnation(4) of the Virgin; those a
little before His bodily appear- ance by John His forerunner, and the
same by the same person after Christ's birth, saying, "Repent ye,
for the kingdom of heaven is at hand;"(5) those after His passion by
us, the twelve apostles, and Paul the chosen vessel. We
therefore, who have been vouchsafed the favour of being the witnesses
of His appearance, together with James the brother of our Lord, and the
other seventy-two disciples, and his seven deacons, have heard from the
mouth of our Lord Jesus Christ, and by exact knowledge declare "what is
the will of God, that good, and acceptable, and perfect will"(6) which
is made known to us by Jesus; that none should perish, but that all men
with one accord should believe in Him, and send unanimously praise to
Him, and thereby live for ever.
THAT IT IS THE WILL OF GOD THAT MEN SHOULD BE OF ONE MIND IN MATTERS OF
RELIGION, IN ACCORD WITH THE HEAVENLY POWERS.
LVI. For this is that which our Lord taught us when
we pray to say to His Father, "Thy will be done, as in heaven, so upon
earth;"(7) that as the heavenly natures of the incorporeal powers do
all glorify God with one consent, so also upon earth all men with one
mouth and one purpose may glorify the only, the one, and the true God,
by Christ His only-begotten. It is therefore His will that men should
praise Him with unanimity, and adore Him with one consent.(8) For this
is His will in Christ, that those who are saved by Him may be many; but
that you do not occasion any loss or diminution to Him, nor to the
Church, or lessen the number by one soul of man, as destroyed by you,
which might have been saved by repentance; and which therefore perishes
not only by its own sin, but also by your treachery besides, whereby
you fulfil that which is written, "He that gathereth not with me,
scattereth."(9) Such a one is a disperser of the sheep, an adversary,
an enemy of God, a destroyer of those lambs whose Shepherd was the
Lord, and we were the collectors out of various nations and tongues, by
much pains and danger, and perpetual labour, by watchings, by fastings,
by lyings on the ground, by persecutions, by stripes, by imprisonments,
that we might do the will of God, and fill the feast-chamber with
guests to sit down at His
421
table, that is, the holy and Catholic Church, with joyful and chosen
people, singing hymns and praises to God that has called them by us to
life. And you, as much as in you lies, have dispersed them. Do you also
of the laity be at peace with one another, endeavouring like wise men
to increase the Church, and to turn back, and tame, and restore those
which seem wild. For this is the greatest reward by His promise from
God, "If thou fetch out the worthy and precious from the unworthy, thou
shalt be as my mouth."(1)
SEC. VII.--ON ASSEMBLING IN THE CHURCH.
AN EXACT DESCRIPTION OF A CHURCH AND THE CLERGY, AND WHAT THINGS IN
PARTICULAR EVERY ONE IS TO DO IN THE SOLEMN ASSEMBLIES OF THE CLERGY
AND LAITY FOR, RELIGIOUS WORSHIP.
LVII. But be thou, O bishop, holy, unblameable, no
striker, not soon angry, not cruel; but a builder up, a
converter, apt to teach, forbear-ing of evil, of a gentle mind, meek,
long-suffering, ready to exhort, ready to comfort, as a man of
God. When thou callest an assembly of the Church as one that is the
commander of a great ship, appoint the assemblies to be made with all
possible skill, charging the deacons as mariners to prepare places for
the brethren as for passengers, with all due care and decency. And
first, let the building be long, with its head to the east, with
its vestries on both sides at the east end, and so it will be
like a ship. In the middle let the bishop's throne be placed, and on
each side of him let the presbytery sit down; and let the deacons
stand near at hand, in close and small girt garments, for they are like
the mariners and managers of the ship: with regard to these,
let the laity sit on the other side, with all quietness and
good order. And let the women sit by themselves, they also keeping
silence. In the middle, let the reader stand upon some high
place: let him read the books of Moses, of Joshua the son of Nun, of
the Judges, and of the Kings and of the Chronicles, and those written
after the return from the captivity; and besides these, the books of
Job and of Solomon, and of the sixteen prophets. But when there have
been two lessons severally read, let some other person sing the hymns
of David, and let the people join at the conclusions of the verses.
Afterwards let our Acts be read, and the Epistles of Paul our
fellow-worker, which he sent to the churches under the conduct of the
Holy Spirit; and afterwards let a deacon or a presbyter read the
Gospels, both those which I Matthew and John have delivered to you, and
those which the fellow-workers of Paul received and left to you, Luke
and Mark. And while the Gospel is read, let all the presbyters and
deacons, and all the people, stand up in great silence; for it is
written: "Be silent, and hear, O lsrael."(2) And again: "But do thou
stand there, and hear."(3) In the next place, let the presbyters one by
one, not all together, exhort the people, and the bishop in the last
place, as being the commander. Let the porters stand at the entries of
the men, and observe them. Let the deaconesses also stand at those of
the women, like shipmen. For the same description and pattern was both
in the tabernacle of the testimony and in the temple of God.(4) But if
any one be found sitting out of his place, let him be rebuked by the
deacon, as a manager of the foreship, and be removed into the place
proper for him; for the Church is not only like a ship, but also like a
sheepfold. For as the shepherds place all the brute creatures
distinctly, I mean goats and sheep, according to their kind and age,
and still every one runs together, like to his like; so is it to be in
the Church. Let the young persons sit by themselves, if there be a
place for them; if not, let them stand upright. But let those that are
already stricken in years sit in order. For the children which stand,
let their fathers and mothers take them to them. Let the younger women
also sit by themselves, if there be a place for them; but if there be
not, let them stand behind the women. Let those women which are
married, and have children, be placed by themselves; but let the
virgins, and the widows, and the elder women, stand or sit before all
the rest; and let the deacon be the disposer of the places, that every
one of those that comes in may go to his proper place, and may not sit
at the entrance. In like manner, let the deacon oversee the people,
that nobody may whisper, nor slumber, nor laugh, nor nod; for all ought
in the church to stand wisely, and soberly, and attentively, having
their attention fixed upon the word of the Lord. After this, let all
rise up with one consent, and looking towards the east, after the
catechumens and penitents are gone out, pray to God eastward, who
ascended up to the heaven of heavens to the east; remembering also the
ancient situation of paradise in the east, from whence the first man,
when he had yielded to the persuasion of the serpent, and disobeyed the
command of God, was expelled. As to the deacons, after the prayer is
over, let some of them attend upon the oblation of the Eucharist,
ministering to the Lord's body with fear. Let others of them watch the
multitude, and keep them silent. But let
422
that deacon who is at the high priest's hand say to the people, Let no
one have any quarrel against another; let no one come in hypocrisy.
Then let the men give the men, and the women give the women, the Lord's
kiss. But let no one do it with deceit, as Judas betrayed the Lord with
a kiss. After this let the deacon pray for the whole Church, for the
whole world, and the several parts of it, and the fruits of it; for the
priests and the rulers, for the high priest and the king, and the peace
of the universe. After this let the high priest pray for peace upon the
people, and bless them, as Moses commanded the priests to bless the
people, in these words: "The Lord bless thee, and keep thee: the Lord
make His face to shine upon thee,(1) and give thee peace."(2) Let the
bishop pray for the people, and say: "Save Thy people, O Lord, and
bless Thine inheritance, which Thou hast obtained with the precious
blood of Thy Christ, and hast called a royal priesthood, and an holy
nation."(3) After this let the sacrifice follow, the people standing,
and praying silently; and when the oblation has been made, let every
rank by itself partake of the Lord's body and precious blood in order,
and approach with reverence and holy fear, as to the body of their
king. Let the women approach with their heads covered, as is becoming
the order of women; but let the door be watched, lest any unbeliever,
or one not yet initiated, come in.(4)
OF COMMENDATORY LETTERS IN FAVOUR OF STRANGERS, LAY PERSONS, CLERGYMEN,
AND BISHOPS; AND THAT THOSE WHO COME INTO THE CHURCH ASSEMBLIES ARE TO
BE RECEIVED WITHOUT REGARD TO THEIR QUALITY.
LVIII. If any brother, man or woman, come in from
another parish, bringing recommendatory letters, let the deacon be the
judge of that affair, inquiring whether they be of the faithful, and of
the Church? whether they be not defiled by heresy? and besides, whether
the party be a married woman or a widow? And when he is satisfied in
these questions, that they are really of the faithful, and of the same
sentiments in the things of the Lord, let him conduct every one to the
place proper for him. And if a presbyter comes from another parish, let
him be received to communion by the presbyters; if a deacon, by the
deacons; if a bishop, let him sit with the bishop, and be allowed the
same honour with himself; and thou, O bishop, shalt desire him to speak
to the people words of instruction: for the exhortation and admonition
of strangers is very acceptable, and exceeding profitable. For, as the
Scripture says, "no prophet is accepted in his own country."(5) Thou
shalt also permit him to offer the Eucharist; but if, out of reverence
to thee, and as a wise man, to preserve the honour belonging to thee,
he will not offer, at least thou shalt compel him to give the blessing
to the people. But if, after the congregation is sat down, any other
person comes upon you of good fashion and character in the world,
whether he be a stranger, or one of your own country, neither do thou,
O bishop, if thou art speaking the word of God, or hearing him that
sings or reads, accept persons so far as to leave the ministry of the
word, that thou mayest appoint an upper place for him; but continue
quiet, not interrupting thy discourse, nor thy attention. But let the
brethren receive him by the deacons; and if there be not a place, let
the deacon by speaking, but not in anger, raise the junior, and place
the stranger there. And it is but reasonable that one that loves the
brethren should do so of his own accord; but if he refuse, let him
raise him up by force, and set him behind all, that the rest may be
taught to give place to those that are more honourable. Nay, if a poor
man, or one of a mean family, or a stranger, comes upon you, whether he
be old or young, and there be no place, the deacon shall find a place
for even these, and that with all his heart; that, instead of accepting
persons before men, his ministration towards God may be well-pleasing.
The very same thing let the deaconess do to those women, whether poor
or rich, that come unto them.
THAT EVERY CHRISTIAN OUGHT TO FREQUENT THE CHURCH DILIGENTLY BOTH
MORNING AND EVENING.
LIX. When thou instructest the people, O bishop,
command and exhort them to come constantly to church morning and
evening every day, and by no means to forsake it on any account, but to
assemble together continually; neither to diminish the Church by
withdrawing themselves, and causing the body of Christ to be without
its member. For it is not only spoken concerning the priests, but let
every one of the laity hearken to it as concerning himself, considering
that it is said by the Lord: "He that is not with me is against me, and
he that gathereth not with me scattereth abroad."(6) Do not you
therefore scatter yourselves abroad, who are the members of Christ, by
not assembling together, since you have Christ your head, according to
His promise, present, and communicating to you.(7) Be not careless of
yourselves,
423
neither deprive your Saviour of His own members, neither divide His
body nor disperse His members, neither prefer the occasions of this
life to the word of God; but assemble yourselves together every day,
morning and evening, singing psalms and praying in the Lord's house: in
the morning saying the sixty-second Psalm, and in the evening the
hundred and fortieth, but principally on the Sabbath-day. And on the
day of our Lord's resurrection, which is the Lord's day, meet more
diligently, sending praise to God that made the universe by Jesus, and
sent Him to us, and condescended to let Him suffer, and raised Him from
the dead. Otherwise what apology will he make to God who does not
assemble on that day to hear the saving word concerning the
resurrection, on which we pray thrice standing in memory of Him
who arose in three days, in which is performed the reading
of the prophets, the preaching of the Gospel, the oblation of the
sacrifice, the gift of the holy food?
THE VAIN ZEAL WHICH THE HEATHENS AND JEWS SHOW IN FREQUENTING THEIR
TEMPLES AND SYNAGOGUES IS A PROPER EXAMPLE AND MOTIVE TO EXCITE
CHRISTIANS TO FREQUENT THE CHURCH.
LX. And how can he be other than an adversary to
God, who takes pains about temporary things night and day, but takes no
care of things eternal? who takes care of washings and temporary food
every day, but does not take care of those that endure for ever? How
can such a one even now avoid hearing that word of the Lord, "The
Gentiles are justified more than you?"(1) as He says, by way of
reproach, to Jerusalem, "Sodom is justified rather than thou." For if
the Gentiles every day, when they arise from sleep, run to their idols
to worship them, and before all their work and all their labours do
first of all pray to them, and in their feasts and in their solemnities
do not keep away, but attend upon them; and not only those upon the
place, but those living far distant do the same; and in their public
shows all come together, as into a synagogue: in the same manner those
which are vainly called Jews, when they have worked six days. on the
seventh day rest, and come together into their synagogue, never leaving
nor neglecting either rest from labour or assembling together, while
yet they are deprived of the efficacy of the word in their
unbelief, nay, and of the force of that name Judah, by which they
call themselves,--for Judah is interpreted Confession,--but these do
not confess to God (having unjustly occasioned the suffering on the
cross), so as to be saved on their repentance;--if, therefore, those
who are not saved frequently assemble together for such purposes as do
not profit them, what apology wilt thou make to the Lord God who
forsakest His Church, not imitating so much as the heathen, but by such
thy absence growest slothful, or turnest apostate, or actest
wickedness? To whom the Lord says by Jeremiah: "Ye have not kept my
ordinances; nay, ye have not walked according to the ordinances of the
heathen, and you have in a manner exceeded them."(2) And again: "lsrael
has justified his soul more than treacherous Judah."(3) And afterwards:
"Will the Gentiles change their gods which are not gods?(4) Wherefore
pass over to the isles of Chittim, and behold, and send to Kedar, and
observe diligently whether such things have been done. For those
nations have not changed their ordinances; but," says He, "my people
has changed its glory for that which will not profit."(5) How,
therefore, will any one make his apology who has despised or absented
himself from the church of God?
THAT WE MUST NOT PREFER THE AFFAIRS OF THIS LIFE TO THOSE WHICH CONCERN
THE WORSHIP OF GOD.
LXI. But if any one allege the pretence of his own
work, and so is a despiser, "offering pretences for his sins," let such
a one know that the trades of the faithful are works by the by, but the
worship of God is their great work. Follow therefore your trades as by
the by, for your maintenance, but make the worship of God your main
business; as also our Lord said: "Labour not for the meat which
perishes, but for that which endureth unto everlasting life."(6) And
again: "This is the work of God, that ye believe on Him whom He hath
sent."(7) Endeavour therefore never to leave the Church of God; but if
any one overlooks it, and goes either into a polluted temple of the
heathens, or into a synagogue of the Jews or heretics, what apology
will such a one make to God in the day of judgment, who has forsaken
the oracles of the living God, and the living and quickening oracles,
such as are able to deliver from eternal punishment, and has gone into
an house of demons, or into a synagogue of the murderers of Christ, or
the congregation of the wicked?--not hearkening unto him that says: "I
have hated the congregation of the wicked, and I will not enter with
the ungodly. I have not sat with the assembly of vanity, neither will I
sit with the ungodly."(8) And again: "Blessed is the
424
man that hath not walked in the counsel of the ungodly, nor stood in
the way of sinners, and hath not sat in the seat of the scornful; but
his delight is in the law of the Lord, and in His law will he meditate
day and night."(1) But thou, forsaking the gathering together of the
faithful, the Church of God, and His laws, hast respect to those "dens
of thieves," calling those things holy which He has called profane, and
making such things unclean which He has sanctified. And not only so,
but thou already runnest after the pomps of the Gentiles, and hastenest
to their theatres, being desirous to be reckoned one of those that
enter into them, and to partake of unseemly, not to say abominable
words; not hearkening to Jeremiah, who says, "O Lord, I have not sat in
their assemblies, for they are scorners; but I was afraid because of
Thy hand;"(2) nor to Job, who speaks in like manner, "If I have gone at
any time with the scornful; for I shall be weighed in a just
balance."(3) But why wilt thou be a partaker of the heathen oracles,
which are nothing but dead men declaring by the inspiration of the
devil deadly things, and such as tend to subvert the faith, and to draw
those that attend to them to polytheism? Do you therefore, who attend
to the laws. of God, esteem those laws more honourable than the
necessities of this life, and pay a greater respect to them, and run
together to the Church of the Lord, "which He has purchased with the
blood of Christ, the beloved, the first-born of every creature."(4) For
this Church is the daughter of the Highest, which has been in travail
of you by the word of grace, and has "formed Christ in you," of whom
you are made partakers, and thereby become His holy and chosen members,
"not having spot or wrinkle, or any such thing; but as being holy and
unspotted in the faith, ye are complete in Him, after the image of God
that created you."(5)
THAT CHRISTIANS MUST ABSTAIN FROM ALL THE IMPIOUS PRACTICES OF THE
HEATHENS.
LXII. Take heed, therefore, not to join yourselves
in your worship with those that perish, which is the assembly of the
Gentiles, to your deceit and destruction. For there is no fellowship
between God and the devil; for he that assembles himself with those
that favour the things of the devil, will be esteemed one of them, and
will inherit a woe. Avoid also indecent spectacles: I mean the theatres
and the pomps of the heathens; their enchantments, observations of
omens, soothsayings, purgations, divinations, observations of birds;
their necromancies and invocations. For it is written: "There is no
divination in Jacob, nor soothsaying in Israel."(6) And again:
"Divination is iniquity."(7) And elsewhere: "Ye shall not be
soothsayers, and follow observers of omens, nor diviners, nor dealers
with familiar spirits. Ye shall not preserve alive wizards."(8)
Wherefore Jeremiah exhorts, saying: "Walk ye not according to the ways
of the heathen, and be not afraid of the signs of heaven."(9) So that
it is the duty of a believer to avoid the assemblies of the ungodly, of
the heathen, and of the Jews, and of the rest of the heretics, lest by
uniting ourselves to them we bring snares upon our own souls; that we
may not by joining in their feasts, which are celebrated in honour of
demons, be partakers with them in their impiety. You are also to avoid
their public meetings, and those sports which are celebrated in them.
For a believer ought not to go to any of those public meetings, unless
to purchase a slave, and save a soul? and at the same time to buy such
other things as suit their necessities. Abstain, therefore, from all
idolatrous pomp and state, all their public meetings, banquets, duels,
and all shows belonging to demons.
SEC. VIII.--ON THE DUTY OF WORKING FOR A LIVELIHOOD.
THAT A CHRISTIAN WHO WILL NOT WORK MUST NOT EAT, AS PETER AND THE REST
OF THE APOSTLES WERE FISHERMEN, BUT PAUL AND AQUILA TENTMAKERS, JUDE
THE SON OF JAMES AN HUSBANDMAN.
LXIII. Let the young persons of the Church endeavour
to minister diligently in all necessaries: mind your business with all
becoming seriousness, that so you may always have sufficient to support
yourselves and those that are needy, and not burden the Church of God.
For we ourselves, besides our attention to the word of the Gospel, do
not neglect our inferior employments. For some of us are fishermen,
some tentmakers, some husbandmen, that so we may never be idle. So says
Solomon somewhere: "Go to the ant, thou sluggard; consider her ways
diligently, and become wiser than she. For she, having neither field,
overseer, nor ruler, prepareth her food in the summer, and layeth up a
great store in the harvest. Or else go to the bee, and learn how
laborious she is, and her work how valuable it is, whose labours both
kings and mean men make use of for their health. She is desirable and
glorious, though she be weak in strength, yet by honouring wisdom she
is improved, etc. How long wilt thou lie on thy bed, O sluggard? When
wilt thou
425
awake out of thy sleep? Thou sleepest awhile thou liest down awhile,
thou slumberest awhile, thou foldest thy hands on thy breast to
sleep awhile. Then poverty comes on thee like an evil traveller,
and want as a swift racer. But if thou beest diligent, thy harvest
shall come as a fountain, and want shall fly from thee as an evil
runagate."(1) And again: "He that manageth his own land shall be filled
with bread."(2) And elsewhere he says: "The slothful has folded his own
hands together, and has eaten his own
flesh."(3) And afterwards: "The sluggard hides his hand; he will not be
able to bring it to his mouth."(4) And again: "By slothfulness of the
hands a floor will be brought low."(5) Labour therefore continually;
for the blot of the slothful is not to be healed. But "if any one does
not work, let not such a one eat"(6) among you. For the Lord our God
hates the slothful. For no one of those who are dedicated to God ought
to be idle.
ELUCIDATION
(To purchase a slave, and save a soul, p. 424.)
THE calm and patient course of the Church in
gradually obliterating slavery has been well defended by the pious
Spanish Ultramontane writer Jacques Balmas.(1) Of course, he imagines
that "the Catholic Church," which wrought the change, was his own
Tridentine Communion,(2) Lecky's remarks on the gladiators and slavery
as the product of famines and distress are worthy of note, and even he
is forced to recognise the ameliorating influences of Christianity from
the beginning.(3) He says:--
"Christianity for the first time made charity a
rudimentary virtue, giving it a foremost place in the moral type and in
the exhortations of its teachers. Besides its general influence in
stimulating the affections, it effected a complete revolution in this
sphere, by representing the poor as the special representatives of the
Christian founder, and thus making the love of Christ rather than the
love of man the principle of charity. Even in the days of persecution,
collections for the relief of the poor were made at the Sunday
meetings. The agapoe, or feasts of love, were intended mainly for the
poor; and food that was saved by the fasts was devoted to their
benefit. A vast organization of charity, presided over by the bishops,
and actively directed by the deacons, soon ramified over Christendom,
till the bond of charity became the bond of unity, and the most distant
sections of the Christian Church corresponded by the interchange of
mercy.(4) Long before the era of Constantine it was observed that the
charities of the Christians were so extensive--it may perhaps be said
so excessive--that they drew very many impostors to the Church; and,
when the victory of Christianity was achieved, the enthusiasm for
charity displayed itself in the erection of numerous institutions that
were altogether unknown to the pagan world."
CONSTITUTIONS OF THE HOLY APOSTLES
BOOK III.
SEC. I.--CONCERNING WIDOWS.
THE AGE AT WHICH WIDOWS SHOULD BE CHOSEN.
I. CHOOSE your "widows not under sixty years of
age,"(1) that in some measure the suspicion of a second marriage may be
prevented by their age. But if you admit one younger into the order of
widows, and she cannot bear her widowhood in her youth, and marries,
she will procure indecent reflections on the glory of the order of the
widows, and shall give an account to God; not because she married a
second time, but because she has "waxed wanton against Christ,"(2) and
not kept her promise, because she did not came and keep her promise
with faith and the fear of God.(3) Wherefore such a promise ought not
to be rashly made, but with great caution: "for it is better for her
not to vow, than to vow and not to pay."(4) But if any younger woman,
who has lived but a while with her husband, and has lost him by death
or some other occasion, and remains by herself, having the gift of
widowhood, she will be found to be blessed, and to be like the widow of
Sarepta, belonging to Sidon, with whom the holy prophet of God,
Elijah,(5) lodged. Such a one may also be compared to "Anna, the
daughter of Phanuel, of the tribe of Aser, which departed not from the
temple, but continued in supplications and prayers night and day, who
was fourscore years old, and had lived with an husband seven years from
her virginity, who glorified the coming of Christ, and gave
thanks to the Lord, and spake concerning Him to all those who looked
for redemption in Israel."(6) Such a widow will have a good report, and
will be honoured, having both glory with men upon earth, and eternal
praise with God in heaven.
THAT WE MUST AVOID THE CHOICE OF YOUNGER WIDOWS, BECAUSE OF SUSPICION.
II. But let not the younger widows be placed in the
order of widows, lest, under pretence of inability to contain in the
flower of their age, they come to a second marriage, and become subject
to imputation. But let them be assisted and supported, that so they may
not, under pretence of being deserted, come to a second marriage, and
so be ensnared in an unseemly imputation. For you ought to know this,
that once marrying according to the law is righteous, as being
according to the will of God; but second marriages, after the promise,
are wicked, not on account of the marriage itself, but because of the
falsehood. Third marriages are indications of incontinency. But such
marriages as are beyond the third are manifest fornication, and
unquestionable uncleanness. For God in the creation gave one woman to
one man; for "they two shall be one flesh."(7) But to the younger women
let a second marriage be allowed after the death of their first
husband, lest they fall into the condemnation of the devil, and many
snares, and foolish lusts, which are hurtful to souls, and which bring
upon them punishment rather than rest.
WHAT CHARACTER THE WIDOWS OUGHT TO BE OF, AND HOW THEY OUGHT TO BE
SUPPORTED BY THE BISHOP.
III. But the true widows are those which have had
only one husband, having a good report among the generality for good
works; widows indeed, sober, chaste, faithful, pious, who have brought
up their children well, and have entertained strangers unblameably,
which are to be supported as devoted to God. Besides, do thou, O
bishop, be mindful of the needy, both reaching Gilt thy helping hand
and making provision
427
for them as the steward of God, distributing seasonably the oblations
to every one of them, to the widows, the orphans, the friendless,
and those tried with affliction.
THAT WE OUGHT TO BE CHARITABLE TO ALL
SORTS OF PERSONS IN WANT.
IV. For what if some are neither widows nor
widowers, but stand in need of assistance, either through poverty or
some disease, or the maintenance of a great number of children? It is
thy duty to oversee all people, and to take care of them all. For they
that give gifts do not of their own head give them to the widows, but
barely bring them in, calling them free-will offerings, that so thou
that knowest those that are in affliction mayest as a good steward give
them their portion of the gift. For God knows the giver, though thou
distributest it to those in want when he is absent. And he has the
reward of well-doing, but thou the blessedness of having dispensed it
with a good conscience. But do thou tell them who was the giver, that
they may pray for him by name. For it is our duty to do good to all
men, not fondly preferring one or another, whoever they be. For the
Lord says: "Give to every one that asketh of thee."(1) It is evident
that it is meant of every one that is really in want, whether he be
friend or foe, whether he be a kinsman or a stranger, whether he be
single or married. For in all the Scripture the Lord gives us
exhortations about the needy, saying first by Isaiah: "Deal thy bread
to the hungry, and bring the poor which have no covering into thine
house. If thou seest the naked, do thou cover him; and thou shalt not
overlook those which are of thine own family and seed."(2) And then by
Daniel He says to the potentate: "Wherefore, O king, let my counsel
please thee, and purge thy sins by acts of mercy, and thine iniquities
by bowels of compassion to the needy."(3) And He says by Solomon: "By
acts of mercy and of faith iniquities are purged."(4) And He says again
by David: "Blessed is he that has regard to the poor and needy; the
Lord shall deliver him in the evil day."(5) And again: "He hath
dispersed abroad, he hath given to the needy, his righteousness
remaineth for ever."(6) And Solomon says: "He that hath mercy on the
poor lendeth to the Lord;(7) according to his gift it shall be repaid
him again."(8) And afterwards: "He that stoppeth his ear, that he may
not hear him that is in want, he also shall call himself, and there
shall be none to hear him."(9)
THAT THE WIDOWS ARE TO BE VERY CAREFUL
OF THEIR BEHAVIOR.
V. Let every widow be meek, quiet, gentle, sincere,
free from anger, not talkative, not clamorous, not hasty of speech, not
given to evil-speaking, not captious, not double-tongued, not a
busybody. If she see or hear anything that is not right, let her be as
one that does not see, and as one that does not hear. And let the widow
mind nothing but to pray for those that give, and for the whole Church;
and when she is asked anything by any one, let her not easily answer,
excepting questions concerning the faith, and righteousness, and hope
in God, remitting those that desire to be instructed in the doctrines
of godliness to the governors. Let her only answer so as may tend to
the subversion of the error of polytheism, and let her demonstrate the
assertion concerning the monarchy of God. But of the remaining
doctrines let her not answer anything rashly, lest by saying anything
unlearnedly she should make the word to be blasphemed. For the Lord has
taught us that the word is like "a grain of mustard seed,"(10) which is
of a fiery nature, which if any one uses unskilfully, he will find it
bitter. For in the mystical points we ought not to be rash, but
cautious; for the Lord exhorts us, saying: "Cast not your pearls before
swine, lest they trample them with their feet, and turn again and rend
you."(11) For unbelievers, when they hear the doctrine concerning
Christ not explained as it ought to be, but defectively, and especially
that concerning His incarnation or His passion, will rather reject it
with scorn, and laugh at it as false, than praise God for it. And so
the aged women will be guilty of rashness, and of causing blasphemy,
and will inherit a woe. For says He, "Woe to him by whom my name is
blasphemed among the Gentiles."(12)
THAT WOMEN OUGHT NOT TO TEACH, BECAUSE IT IS UNSEEMLY; AND WHAT
WOMEN FOLLOWED OUR LORD.
VI. We do not permit our "women to teach in the
Church,"(13) but only to pray and hear those that teach; for our Master
and Lord, Jesus Himself, when He sent us the twelve to make disciples
of the people and of the nations, did nowhere send out women to preach,
although He did not want such. For there were with us the mother of our
Lord and His sisters; also Mary Magdalene, and Mary the mother of
James, and Martha and Mary the sisters of Lazarus; Salome, and certain
others. For, had it been necessary for women to teach, He Himself had
first com-
428
manded these also to instruct the people with us. For "if the head of
the wife be the man,"(1) it is not reasonable that the rest of the body
should govern the head. Let the widow therefore own herself to be the
"altar of God," and let her sit in her house, and not enter into the
houses of the faithful, under any pretence, to receive anything; for
the altar of God never runs about, but is fixed in one place. Let,
therefore, the virgin and the widow be such as do not run about, or gad
to the houses of those who are alien from the faith. For such as these
are gadders and impudent: they do not make their feet to rest in one
place, because they are not widows, but purses ready to receive,
triflers, evil-speakers, counsellors of strife, without shame,
impudent, who being such, are not worthy of Him that called them. For
they do not come to the common station of the congregation on the
Lord's day,(2) as those that are watchful; but either they slumber, or
trifle, or allure men, or beg, or ensnare others, bringing them to the
evil one; not suffering them to be watchful in the Lord, but taking
care that they go out as vain as they came in, because they do not hear
the word of the Lord either taught or read. For of such as these the
prophet Isaiah says: "Hearing ye shall hear, and shall not understand;
and seeing ye shall see, and not perceive: for the heart of this people
is waxen gross,(3) and they hear heavily with their ears."(4)
WHAT ARE THE
CHARACTERS OF WIDOWS FALSELY SO CALLED.
VII. In the same manner, therefore, the ears of the
hearts of such widows as these are stopped, that they will not sit
within in their cottages to speak to the Lord, but will run about with
the design of getting, and by their foolish prattling fulfil the
desires of the adversary. Such widows, therefore, are not affixed to
the altar of Christ: for there are some widows which esteem gain their
business; and since they ask without shame, and receive without being
satisfied, render the generality more backward in giving. For when they
ought to be content with their subsistence from the Church, as having
moderate desires, on the contrary, they run from one of their
neighbours' houses(5) to another, and disturb them, heaping up to
themselves plenty of money, and lend at bitter usury, and are only
solicitous about mammon, whose bag is their god; who prefer eating and
drinking before all virtue, saying, "Let us eat and drink, for
to-morrow we die;"(6) who
esteem these things as if they were durable and not perishing things.
For she that uses herself to nothing but talking of money, worships
mammon instead of God,--that is, is a servant to gain, but cannot be
pleasing to God, nor resigned to His worship; not being able to
intercede with Him continuously on account that her mind and
disposition run after money: for "where the treasure is, there will the
heart be also."(7) For she is thinking in her mind whither she may go
to receive, or that a certain woman her friend has forgot her, and she
has somewhat to say to her. She that thinks of such things as these
will no longer attend to her prayers, but to that thought which offers
itself; so that though sometimes she would pray for anybody, she will
not be beard, because she does not offer her petition to the Lord with
her whole heart, but with a divided mind. But she that will attend to
God will sit within, and mind the things of the Lord day and night,
offering her sincere petition with a mouth ready to utter the same
without ceasing. As therefore Judith, most famous for her wisdom, and
of a good report for her modesty, "prayed to God night and day for
Israel;"(8) so also the widow who is like to her will offer her
intercession without ceasing for the Church to God. And He will hear
her, because her mind is fixed on this thing alone, and is not disposed
to be either insatiable, or covetous, or expensive; when her eye is
pure, and her hearing clean, and her hands undefiled, and her feet
quiet, and her mouth prepared for neither gluttony nor trifling, but
speaking the things that are fit, and partaking of only such things as
are necessary for her maintenance. So, being grave, and giving no
disturbance, she will be pleasing to God; and as soon as she asks
anything, the gift will come to her: as He says, "While thou art
speaking, I will say, Behold, I am here."(9) Let such a one also be
free from the love of money, free from arrogance, not given to filthy
lucre, not insatiable, not gluttonous, but continent, meek, giving
nobody disturbance, pious, modest, sitting at home, singing, and
praying, and reading, and watching, and fasting; speaking to God
continually in songs and hymns. And let her take wool, and rather
assist others than herself want from them; being mindful of that widow
who is honoured in the Gospel with the Lord's testimony, who, coming
into the temple, "cast into the treasury two mites, which make a
farthing. And Christ our Lord and Master, and Searcher of hearts, saw
her, and said, Verily I say unto you, that this widow hath cast into
the treasury more than they all: for all they have cast in of their
429
abundance, but this woman of her penury hath cast in all the living
that she had."(1)
The widows therefore ought to be grave, obedient to
their bishops, and their presbyters, and their deacons, and besides
these to the deaconesses, with piety, reverence, and fear; not usurping
authority, nor desiring to do anything beyond the constitution without
the consent of the deacon: as, suppose, the going to any one to eat or
drink with him, or to receive anything from anybody. But if without
direction she does any one of these things, let her be punished with
fasting, or else let her be separated on account of her rashness.
THAT THE WIDOWS OUGHT NOT TO ACCEPT OF ALMS FROM THE UNWORTHY NO MORE
THAN THE BISHOP, OR ANY OTHER OF THE FAITHFUL.
VIII. For how does such a one know of what character
the person is from whom she receives? or from what sort of ministration
he supplies her with food, whether it does not arise from rapine or
some other ill course of life? while the widow does not remember that
if she receives in a way unworthy of God, she must give an account for
every one of these things. For neither will the priests at any time
receive a free-will offering from such a one, as, suppose, from a
rapacious person or from a harlot. For it is written, "Thou shalt not
covet the goods that are thy neighbour's;"(2) and, "Thou shalt not
offer the hire of an harlot to the Lord God."(3) From such as these no
offerings ought to be accepted, nor indeed from those that are
separated from the Church. Let the widows also be ready to obey the
commands given them by their superiors, and let them do according to
the appointment of the bishop, being obedient to him as to God; for he
that receives from such a one who is worthy of blame, or from one
excommunicated, and prays for him, while he purposes to go on in a
wicked course, and while he is not willing at any time to repent, holds
communion with him in prayer, and grieves Christ, who rejects the
unrighteous, and confirms them by means of the unworthy gift, and is
defiled with them, not suffering them to come to repentance, so as to
fall down before God with lamentation, and pray to Him.
THAT WOMEN OUGHT NOT TO BAPTIZE, BECAUSE IT IS IMPIOUS, AND CONTRARY TO
THE DOCTRINE OF CHRIST.
IX. Now, as to women's baptizing, we let you know
that there is no small peril to those that undertake it. Therefore we
do not advise you to it; for it is dangerous, or rather wicked and
impious. For if the "man be the head of the woman,"(4) and he be
originally ordained for the priesthood, it is not just to abrogate the
order of the creation, and leave the principal to come to the extreme
part of the body. For the woman is the body of the man, taken from his
side, and subject to him, from whom she was separated for the
procreation of children. For says He, "He shall rule over thee."(5) For
the principal part of the woman is the man, as being her head. But if
in the foregoing constitutions we have not permitted them to teach, how
will any one allow them, contrary to nature, to perform the office of a
priest? For this is one of the ignorant practices of the Gentile
atheism, to ordain women priests to the female deities, not one of the
constitutions of Christ. For if baptism were to be administered by
women, certainly our Lord would have been baptized by His own mother,
and not by John; or when He sent us to baptize, He would have sent
along with us women also for this purpose. But now He has nowhere,
either by constitution or by writing, delivered to us any such thing;
as knowing the order of nature, and the decency of the action;(6) as
being the Creator of nature, and the Legislator of the constitution.
THAT A LAYMAN OUGHT NOT TO DO ANY OFFICE OF THE PRIESTHOOD: HE OUGHT
NEITHER TO BAPTIZE, NOR OFFER, NOR LAY ON HANDS, NOR GIVE THE BLESSING.
X. Neither do we permit the laity to perform any of
the offices belonging to the priesthood; as, for instance, neither the
sacrifice, nor baptism, nor the laying on of hands, nor the blessing,
whether the smaller or the greater: for "no one taketh this honour to
himself, but he that is called of God."(7) For such sacred offices are
conferred by the laying on of the hands of the bishop. But a person to
whom such an office is not committed, but he seizes upon it for
himself, he shall undergo the punishment of Uzziah.(8)
THAT NONE BUT A BISHOP AND PRESBYTER, NONE EVEN OF THE INFERIOR RANKS
OF THE CLERGY, ARE PERMITTED TO DO THE OFFICES OF THE PRIESTS; THAT
ORDINATION BELONGS WHOLLY TO THE BISHOP, AND TO NOBODY ELSE.
XI. Nay, further, we do not permit to the rest of
the clergy to baptize,--as, for instance, neither to readers, nor
singers, nor porters, nor ministers,--but to the bishops and presbyters
alone, yet so that the deacons are to minister to them
430
therein. But those who venture upon it shall undergo the punishment of
the companions of Corah.(1) We do not permit presbyters to ordain
deacons, or deaconesses, or readers, or ministers, or singers, or
porters, but only bishops; for this is the ecclesiastical order and
harmony.
THE REJECTION OF ALL UNCHARITABLE ACTIONS.
XII. Now, as concerning envy, or jealousy, or
evil-speaking, or strife, or the love of contention, we have said
already to you, that these are alien from a Christian, and chiefly in
the case of widows. But because the devil, who works in men, is in his
conduct cunning, and full of various devices, he goes to those that are
not truly widows, as formerly to Cain (for some say they are widows,
but do not perform the injunctions agreeable to the widowhood; as
neither did Cain discharge the duties due to a brother: for they do not
consider how it is not the name of widowhood that will bring them to
the kingdom of God, but true faith and holy(2) works). But if any one
possesses the name of widowhood, but does the works of the adversary,
her widowhood will not be imputed, but she will be thrust out of the
kingdom, and delivered to eternal punishment. For we hear that some
widows are jealous, envious calumniators, and envious at the quiet of
others. Such widows as these are not the disciples of Christ, nor of
His doctrine; for it becomes them, when one of their fellow-widows is
clothed by any one, or receives money, or meat, or drink, or shoes, at
the sight of the refreshment of their sister to say:--
HOW THE WIDOWS ARE TO PRAY FOR THOSE THAT SUPPLY THEIR
NECESSITIES.
XIII. Thou art blessed, O God, who hast refreshed my
fellow-widow. Bless, O Lord, and glorify him that has bestowed these
things upon her, and let his good work ascend in truth to Thee, and
remember him for good in the day of his visitation. And as for my
bishop, who has so well performed his duty to Thee, and(3) has ordered
such a seasonable alms to be bestowed on my fellow-widow, who was
naked, do Thou increase his glory, and give him a(3) crown of rejoicing
in the day of the revelation of Thy visitation. In the same manner, let
the widow who has received the alms join with the other in praying for
him who ministered to her.
THAT SHE WHO HAS BEEN KIND TO THE POOR OUGHT NOT TO MAKE A STIR AND
TELL ABROAD HER NAME, ACCORDING TO THE CONSTITUTION OF THE LORD.
XIV. But if any woman has been good, let her, as a
prudent person, conceal her own name, not
sounding a trumpet before her, that her alms may be with God in secret,
as the Lord says: "Thou, when thou doest thine alms, let not thy left
hand know what thy right hand cloth, that thine alms may be in
secret."(4) And let the widow pray for him that gave her the alms,
whosoever he be, as being the holy altar of Christ;(5) and "the Father,
who seeth in secret, will render to him that did good openly." But
those widows which will not live according to the command of God, are
solicitous and inquisitive what deaconess it is that gives the charity,
and what widows receive it. And when she has learned those things, she
murmurs at the deaconess who distributed the charity, saying, Dost not
thou see that I am in more distress, and want of thy charity? Why,
therefore, hast thou preferred her before me? She says these things
foolishly, not understanding that this does not depend on the will of
man, but the appointment of God. For if she is herself a witness that
she was nearer, and, upon inquiry, was in greater want, and more naked
than the other, she ought to understand who it is that made this
constitution, and to hold her peace, and not to murmur at the deaconess
who distributed the charity, but to enter into her own house, and to
cast herself prostrate on her face to make supplication to God that her
sin may be forgiven her. For God commanded the deaconess who brought
the charity not to proclaim the same, and this widow murmured because
she did not publish her name, that so she might know it, and run to
receive; nay, did not only murmur, but also cursed her, forgetting Him
that said: "He that blesseth thee is blessed, and he that curseth thee
is cursed."(6) But the Lord says: "When ye enter into an house, say,
Peace be to this house. And if the son of peace be there, your peace
shall rest upon it; but if it be not worthy, your peace shall return to
you."(7)
THAT IT DOES NOT BECOME US TO REVILE OUR NEIGHBOURS, BECAUSE CURSING IS
CONTRARY TO CHRISTIANITY.
XV. If, therefore, peace returns upon those that
sent it, nay, upon those that before had actually given it, because it
did not find persons fit to receive it, much rather will a curse return
upon the head of him that unjustly sent it, because he to whom it was
sent was not worthy to receive it: for all those who abuse others
without a cause curse themselves, as Solomon says: "As birds and
sparrows fly away, so the curse causeless shall not come upon any
one."(8) And again he says: "Those that bring re-
431
proaches are exceeding foolish."(1) But as the bee, a creature as to
its strength feeble, if she stings any one, loses her sting, and
becomes a drone; in the same manner you also, whatsoever injustice you
do to others, will bring it upon yourselves. "He hath graven and digged
a pit, and he shall fall into the same ditch that he has made."(2) And
again: "He that diggeth a pit for his neighbour, shall fall into
it."(3) Wherefore he that avoids a curse, let him not curse another;
for "what thou hatest should be done to thee, do not thou to
another."(4) Wherefore admonish the widows that are feeble-minded,
strengthen those of them that are weak, and praise such of them as walk
in holiness. Let them rather bless, and not calumniate. Let them make
peace, and not stir up contention.
SEC. II.--ON DEACONS AND DEACONESSES, THE REST OF THE CLERGY, AND ON
BAPTISM.
Let not therefore either a bishop, or a presbyter,
or a deacon, or any one else of the sacerdotal catalogue, defile his
tongue with calumny, lest he inherit a curse instead of a blessing; and
let it also be the bishop's business and care that no lay person utter
any curse: for he ought to take care of all,--of the clergy, of the
virgins, of the widows, of the laity. For which reason, O bishop, do
thou ordain thy fellow-workers, the labourers for life and for
righteousness, such deacons as are pleasing to God, such whom thou
provest to be worthy among all the people, and such as shall be ready
for the necessities of their ministration. Ordain also a deaconess who
is faithful and holy, for the ministrations towards women. For
sometimes he cannot send a deacon, who is a man, to the women, on
account of unbelievers. Thou shalt therefore send a woman, a deaconess,
on account of the imaginations of the bad. For we stand in need of a
woman, a deaconess, for many necessities; and first in the
baptism of women, the deacon shall anoint only their forehead with the
holy oil, and after him the deaconess shall anoint them:(5) for there
is no necessity that the women should be seen by the men; but only in
the laying on of hands the bishop shall anoint her head, as the priests
and kings were formerly anointed, not because those which are now
baptized are ordained priests, but as being Christians, or anointed,
from Christ the Anointed, "a royal priesthood, and an holy nation, the
Church of God, the pillar and ground of the marriage-chamber,"(6) who
formerly were not a people, but now are beloved and chosen, upon whom
is called His new name? as Isaiah the prophet witnesses, saying: "And
they shall Call the people by His new name, which the Lord shall name
for them."(8)
CONCERNING THE SACRED INITIATION OF HOLY
BAPTISM.
XVI. Thou therefore, O bishop, according to that
type, shalt anoint the head of those that are to be baptized, whether
they be men or women, with the holy oil, for a type of the spiritual
baptism. After that, either thou, O bishop, or a presbyter that is
under thee, shall in the solemn form name over them the Father, and
Son, and Holy Spirit, and shall dip them in the water; and let a deacon
receive the man, and a deaconess the woman, that so the conferring of
this inviolable seal may take place with a becoming decency. And after
that, let the bishop anoint those that are baptized with ointment.
WHAT IS THE MEANING OF BAPTISM INTO CHRIST, AND ON WHAT ACCOUNT
EVERYTHING IS THERE SAID OR DONE.
XVII. This baptism, therefore, is given into the
death of Jesus:(9) the water is instead of the burial, and the oil
instead of the Holy Ghost; the seal instead of the cross; the ointment
is the confirmation of the confession; the mention of the Father as of
the Author and Sender; the joint mention of the Holy Ghost as of the
witness; the descent into the water the dying together with Christ; the
ascent out of the water the rising again with Him. The Father is the
God over all; Christ is the only-begotten God, the beloved Son, the
Lord of glory; the Holy Ghost is the Comforter, who is sent by Christ,
land taught by Him, and proclaims Him.
OF WHAT CHARACTER HE OUGHT TO BE WHO IS
INITIATED.
XVIII. But let him that is to be baptized be free
from all iniquity; one that has left off to work sin, the friend of
God, the enemy of the devil, the heir of God the Father, the
fellow-heir of His Son; one that has renounced Satan, and the demons,
and Satan's deceits; chaste, pure, holy, beloved of God, the son of
God, praying as a son to his father, and saying, as from the common
congregation of the faithful, thus: "Our Father, which art in heaven,
hallowed be Thy name; Thy kingdom come; Thy will be done on earth, as
it is in heaven; give us this day our daily bread; and forgive us our
debts, as we forgive our debtors; and lead us not into temptation, but
deliver us from the evil
432
one: for Thine is the kingdom, and the power, and the glory, for ever.
Amen."(1)
WHAT ARE THE CHARACTERS OF A DEACON.
XIX. Let the deacons be in all things unspotted, as
the bishop himself is to be, only more active; in number according to
the largeness of the Church, that they may minister to the infirm as
workmen that are not ashamed. And let the deaconess be diligent in
taking care of the women; but both of them ready to carry messages, to
travel about, to minister, and to serve, as spake Isaiah concerning the
Lord, saying: "To justify the righteous, who serves many
faithfully."(2) Let every one therefore know his proper place, and
discharge it diligently with one consent, with one mind, as knowing the
reward of their ministration; but let them not be ashamed to minister
to those that are in want, as even our" Lord Jesus Christ came not to
be ministered unto, but to minister and to give His life a ransom for
many."(3) So therefore ought they also to do, and not to scruple it, if
they should be obliged to lay down their life for a brother. For the
Lord and our Saviour Jesus Christ did not scruple to "lay down His
life," as Himself says, "for His friends."(4) If, therefore, the Lord
of heaven and earth underwent all His sufferings for us, how then do
you make a difficulty to minister to such as are in want, who ought to
imitate Him who underwent servitude, and want, and stripes, and the
cross for us? We ought therefore also to serve the brethren, in
imitation of Christ. For says He: "He that will be great among you, let
him be your minister; and he that will be first among you, let him be
your servant."(5) For so did He really, and not in word only, fulfil
the prediction of, "serving many faithfully."(6) For "when He had taken
a towel, He girded Himself. Afterward He puts water into a bason; and
as we were sitting at meat, He came and washed the feet of us all, and
wiped them with the towel."(7) By doing this He demonstrated to us His
kindness and brotherly affection, that so we also might do the same to
one another. If, therefore, our Lord and Master so humbled Himself, how
can you, the labourers of the truth, and administrators of piety, be
ashamed to do the same to such of the brethren as are weak and infirm?
Minister therefore with a kind mind, not murmuring nor mutinying; for
ye do not do it on the account of man, but on the account of God, and
shall receive from Him the reward of your ministry in the day of your
visitation. It is your duty who are deacons to visit all those who
stand in need of visitation. And tell your bishop of all those that are
in affliction; for you ought to be like his soul and senses--active and
attentive in all things to hint(8) as to your bishop, and father s and
master.
THAT A BISHOP OUGHT TO BE ORDAINED BY THREE OR BY TWO BISHOPS, BUT NOT
BY ONE; FOR THAT WOULD BE INVALID.
XX. We command that a bishop be ordained by three
bishops, or at least by two; but it is not lawful that he be set over
you by one; for the testimony of two or three witnesses is more firm
and secure. But a presbyter and a deacon are to be ordained by one
bishop and the rest of the clergy. Nor must either a presbyter or a
deacon ordain from the laity into the clergy; but the presbyter is only
to teach, to offer, to baptize, to bless the people, and the deacon is
to minister to the bishop, and to the presbyters, that is, to do the
office of a ministering deacon, but not to meddle with the other
offices.
433
CONSTITUTIONS OF THE HOLY APOSTLES
BOOK IV.
SEC. I.--ON HELPING THE POOR.
THOSE WHO HAVE NO CHILDREN SHOULD ADOPT ORPHANS, AND TREAT THEM AS
THEIR OWN CHILDREN.
I. WHEN any Christian becomes an orphan, whether it
be a young man or a maid, it is good that some one of the brethren who
is without a child should take the young man, and esteem him in the
place of a son; and he that has a son about the same age, and that is
marriageable, should marry the maid to him: for they which do so
perform a great work, and become, fathers to the orphans, and shall
receive the reward of this charity from the Lord God. But if any one
that walks in the way of man-pleasing is rich, and therefore is ashamed
of orphans, the Father of orphans and Judge of widows will make
provision for the orphans, but himself shall have such an heir as will
spend what he has spared; and it shall happen to him according as it is
said: "What things the holy people have not eaten, those shall the
Assyrians eat." As also Isaiah says: "Your land, strangers devour it in
your
presence,"(1)
HOW THE BISHOP OUGHT TO PROVIDE FOR THE
ORPHANS.
II. Do you therefore, O bishops, be solicitous about
their maintenance, being in nothing wanting to them; exhibiting to the
orphans the care of parents; to the widows the care of
husbands; to those of suitable age, marriage; to the artificer,
work; to the unable, commiseration; to the strangers, an house; to the
hungry, food; to the thirsty, drink; to the naked, clothing; to the
sick, visitation; to the prisoners, assistance. Besides these, have a
greater care of the orphans, that nothing may be wanting to them; and
that as to the maiden, till she arrives at the age of marriage, and ye
give her in marriage to a
brother: to the young man assistance, that he may learn a trade, and
may be maintained by the advantage arising from it; that so, when he is
dextrous in the management of it, he may thereby be enabled to buy
himself the tools of his trade, that so he may no longer burden any of
the brethren, or their sincere love to him, but may support himself:
for certainly he is a happy man who is able to support himself, and
does not take up the place of the orphan, the stranger, and the widow.
WHO OUGHT TO BE SUPPORTED ACCORDING TO THE
LORD'S CONSTITUTION.
III. Since even the Lord said: "The giver was
happier than the receiver."(2) For it is again said by Him: "Woe to
those that have, and receive in hypocrisy; or who are able to support
themselves, yet will receive of others: for both of them shall give an
account to the Lord God in the day of judgment." But an orphan who, by
reason of his youth, or he that by the feebleness of old age, or the
incidence of a disease, or the bringing up of many children, receives
alms, such a one shall not only not be blamed, but shall be commended:
for he shall be esteemed an altar to God, and be honoured by God,
because of his zealous and constant prayers for those that give to him;
not receiving idly, but to the uttermost of his power recompensing what
is given him by his prayer. Such a one therefore shall be blessed by
God in eternal life. But he that hath, and receives in hypocrisy or
through idleness, instead of working and assisting others, shall be
obnoxious to punishment before God, because he has snatched away the
morsel of the needy.(3)
OF THE LOVE OF MONEY.
IV. For he that has money and does not bestow it
upon others, nor use it himself, is like the serpent, which they say
sleeps over the treasures; and of him is that scripture true which
says, "He has gathered riches of which he shall not
434
taste;"(1) and they will be of no use to him when he perishes justly.
For it says, "Riches will not profit in the day of wrath." For such a
one has not believed in God, but in his own gold; esteeming that his
God, and trusting therein. Such a one is a dissembler of the truth, an
accepter of persons, unfaithful, cheating, fearful, unmanly, light, of
no value, a complainer, ever in pain, his own enemy, and nobody's
friend. Such a one's money shall perish, and a man that is a stranger
shall consume it, either by theft while he is alive, or by inheritance
when he is dead. "For riches unjustly gotten shall be vomited up."(2)
WITH WHAT FEAR MEN OUGHT TO PARTAKE OF THE LORD'S OBLATIONS.
V. We exhort, therefore, the widows and orphans to
partake of those things that are bestowed upon them with all fear, and
all pious reverence, and to return thanks to God who gives food to the
needy, and to lift up their eyes to Him. For, says He, "Which of you
shall eat, or who shall drink without Him? For He openeth His hand, and
filleth every living thing with His kindness: giving wheat to the young
men, and wine to the maidens, and oil for the joy of the living, grass
for the cattle, and green herb for the service of men, flesh for the
wild beasts, seeds for the birds, and suitable food for all
creatures."(3) Wherefore the Lord says:(4) "Consider the fowls of
heaven,(5) that they sow not, neither do they reap nor gather into
barns, and your Father feedeth them. Are not ye much better than they?
Be not therefore solicitous, saying, What shall we eat? or what shall
we drink? For your Father knoweth that ye have need of all these
things."(6) Since ye therefore enjoy such a providential care from Him,
and are partakers of the good things that are derived from Him, you
ought to return praise to Him that receives the orphan and the widow,
to Almighty God, through His beloved Son Jesus Christ our Lord; through
whom(7) glory be to God in spirit and truth for ever. Amen.
WHOSE OBLATIONS ARE TO BE RECEIVED, AND
WHOSE NOT TO BE RECEIVED.
VI. Now the bishop ought to know whose
oblations he ought to receive, and whose he ought not. For he is to
avoid corrupt dealers, and not receive their gifts. "For, a corrupt
dealer. shall not be justified from sin."(8)For of them it was that
Isaiah reproached lsrael, and said, "Thy corrupt dealers mingle wine
with water."(9) He is also to avoid fornicators, for "thou shall not
offer the hire of an harlot to the Lord."(10) He is also to avoid
extortioners, and such as covet other men's goods, and adulterers; for
the sacrifices of such as these are abominable with God. Also those
that oppress the widow and overbear the orphan, and fill prisons with
the innocent, and abuse their own servants wickedly, I mean with
stripes, and hunger, and hard service, nay, destroy whole cities; do
thou, O bishop, avoid such as these, and their odious oblations. Thou
shalt also refuse rogues, and such pleaders that plead on the side of
injustice, and idol-makers, and thieves, and unjust publicans, and
those that deceive by false balances and deceitful measures, and a
soldier who is a false accuser and not content with his wages, but does
violence to the needy, a murderer, a cut-throat, and an unjust judge, a
subverter of causes, him that lies in wait for men, a worker of
abominable wickedness, a drunkard, a blasphemer, a sodomite, an
usurer, and every one that is wicked and opposes the will of God. For
the Scripture says that all such as these are abominable with God. For
those that receive from such persons, and thereby support the widows
and orphans, shall be obnoxious to the judgment-seat of God; as
Adonias the prophet, in the book of Kings, when he disobeyed God, and
both "eat bread and drank water in the place which the Lord had forbid
him,"(11) because of the impiety of Jeroboam, was slain by a lion. For
the bread which is distributed to the widows from labour is better,
though it be short and little, than that from injustice and false
accusation, though it be much and fine. For the Scripture says: "Better
is a little to the righteous, than much riches of the sinners."(12)
Now, although a widow, who eats and is filled from the impious, pray
for them, she shall not be heard. For God, who knows the heart, with
judgment has declared concerning the impious, saying, "If Moses and
Samuel stand before my face in their behalf, I will not hear them;"(13)
and, "Pray thou not for this people, and do not ask mercy for them, and
do not intercede with me for them, for I will not hear thee."(14)
THAT THE OBLIGATIONS OF THE UNWORTHY, WHILE THEY ARE SUCH, DO NOT ONLY
NOT PROPITIATE GOD, BUT ON THE CONTRARY PROVOKE HIM TO INDIGATION.
VII. And not these only, but those that are in sin
and have not repented, will only not be
435
heard when they pray, but will provoke God to anger, as putting Him in
mind of their own wickedness. Avoid therefore such ministrations, as
you would the price of a dog and the hire of an harlot; for both of
them are forbidden by the laws. For neither did Elisha receive the
presents which were brought by Hazael,(1) nor Ahijah those from
Jeroboam;(2) but if the prophets of God did not admit of presents from
the impious, it is reasonable, O bishops, that neither should you. Nay,
when Simon the magician offered money to me Peter and John,(3) and
tried to obtain the invaluable grace by purchase, we did not admit it,
but bound him with everlasting maledictions, because he thought to
possess the gift of God, not by a pious mind towards God, but by the
price of money. Avoid therefore such oblations to God's altar as are
Hot from a good conscience. For says He: "Abstain from all injustice,
and thou shalt not fear, and trembling shall not come nigh thee."(4)
THAT IT IS BETTER TO AFFORD, THOUGH IT BE INCONSIDERABLE AND FEW,
CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE WIDOWS FROM OUR OWN LABOURS, THAN THOSE WHICH ARE
MANY AND LARGE RECEIVED FROM THE UNGODLY; FOR IT IS BETTER TO PERISH BY
FAMINE THAN TO RECEIVE AN OBLATION FROM THE UNGODLY.
VIII. But if ye say that those who give alms are
such as these, and if we do not receive from them, whence shall we
administer to the widows? And whence shall the poor among the people be
maintained? Ye shall hear from us, that therefore have ye received the
gift of the Levites, the oblations of your people, that ye might have
enough for yourselves, and for those that are in want; and that ye
might not be so straitened as to receive from the wicked. But if the
churches be so straitened, it is better to perish than to receive
anything from the enemies of God, to the reproach and abuse of His
friends. For of such as these the prophet speaks: "Let not the oil of a
sinner moisten my head."(5) Do ye therefore examine such persons, and
receive from such as walk holily, and supply the afflicted. But receive
not from those that are excommunicated, until they are thought worthy
to become the members of the Church. But if a gift be wanting, inform
the brethren, and make a collection from them, and thence minister to
the orphans and widows in righteousness.
THAT THE PEOPLE OUGHT TO BE EXHORTED BY THE PRIEST TO DO GOOD TO THE
NEEDY, AS SAYS SOLOMON THE WISE.
IX. Say unto the people under thee what Solomon the
wise says: "Honour the Lord out of thy just labours, and pay thy
first-fruits to Him out of thy fruits of righteousness, that thy
garners may be filled with fulness of wheat, and thy presses may burst
out with wine."(6) Therefore maintain and clothe those that are in want
from the righteous labour of the faithful. And such sums of money as
are collected from them in the manner aforesaid, appoint to be laid out
in the redemption of the saints, the deliverance of slaves, and of
captives, and of prisoners, and of those that have been abused, and of
those that have been condemned by tyrants to single combat and death on
account of the name of Christ. For the Scripture says: "Deliver those
that are led to death, and redeem those that are ready to be slain, do
not spare."(7)
A CONSTITUTION, THAT IF ANY ONE OF THE UNGODLY BY FORCE WILL CAST MONEY
TO THE PRIESTS, THEY SPEND IT IN WOOD AND COALS, BUT NOT IN FOOD.
X. But if at any time you be forced unwillingly to
receive money from any ungodly person, lay it out in wood and coals,
that so neither the widow nor the orphan may receive any of it, or be
forced to buy with it either meat or drink, which it is unfit to do.
For it is reasonable that such gifts of the ungodly should be fuel for
the fire, and not food for the pious. And this method is plainly
appointed by the law,(8) when it calls a sacrifice kept too long a
thing not fit to be eaten, and commands it to be consumed with fire.
For such oblations are not evil in their nature, but on account of the
mind of those that bring them. And this we ordain, that we may not
reject those that come to us, as knowing that the common conversation
of the pious has often been very profitable to the ungodly, but
religious communion with them is alone hurtful. And so much, beloved,
shall suffice to have spoken to you in order to your security.
SEC. II.--ON DOMESTIC AND SOCIAL LIFE. OF PARENTS AND CHILDREN.
XI. Ye fathers, educate your children in the Lord,
bringing them up in the nurture and admonition of the Lord; and teach
them such trades as are agreeable and suitable to the word, lest
436
they by such opportunity become extravagant, and continue without
punishment from their parents, and so get relaxation before their time,
and go astray from that which is good. Wherefore be not afraid to
reprove them, and to teach them wisdom with severity. For your
corrections will not kill them, but rather preserve them. As Solomon
says somewhere in the book of Wisdom: "Chasten thy son, and he will
refresh thee; so wilt thou have good hope of him. Thou verily shalt
smite him with the rod, and shall deliver his soul from death."(1) And
again, says the same Solomon thus, "He that spareth his rod, hateth his
son;"(2) and afterwards, "Beat his sides whilst he is an infant, lest
he be hardened and disobey thee."(3) He, therefore, that neglects to
admonish and instruct his own son, hates his own child. Do you
therefore teach your children the word of the Lord. Bring them under
with cutting stripes, and make them subject from their infancy,
teaching them the Holy Scriptures, which are Christian and divine, and
delivering to them every sacred writing, "not giving them such liberty
that they get the mastery,"(4) and act against your opinion, not
permitting them to club together for a treat with their equals. For so
they will be turned to disorderly courses, and will fall into
fornication; and if this happen by the carelessness of their parents,
those that begat them will be guilty of their souls. For if the
offending children get into the company of debauched persons by the
negligence of those that begat them, they will not be punished alone by
themselves; but their parents also will be condemned on their account.
For this cause endeavour, at the time when they are of an age fit for
marriage, to join them in wedlock, and settle them together, test in
the heat and fervour of their age their course of life become
dissolute, and you be required to give an account by the Lord God in
the day of judgment.
OF SERVANTS AND MASTERS.
XII. But as to servants, what can we say more than
that the slave bring a good will to his master, with the fear of God,
although he be impious and wicked,(5) but yet not to yield any
compliance as to his worship? And let the master love his servant,
although he be his superior. Let him consider wherein they are equal,
even as he is a man. And let him that has a believing master(6) love
him both as his master, and as of the same faith, and as a father, but
still with the preservation of his authority as his master: "not as an
eye-servant, but as a lover of his master; as knowing that God will
recompense to him for his subjection."(7) In like manner, let a master
who has a believing servant love him as a son or as a brother, on
account of their communion in the faith, but still preserving the
difference of a servant.
IN WHAT THINGS WE OUGHT TO BE SUBJECT TO
THE RULERS OF THIS WORLD.
XIII. Be ye Subject to all royal power and dominion
in things which are pleasing to God, as to the ministers of God, and
the punishers of the ungodly.(8) Render all the fear that is due to
them, all offerings, all customs, all honour, gifts, and taxes.(9) For
this is God's command, that l you owe nothing to any one but the pledge
of love, which God has commanded by Christ.(10)
OF VIRGINS.
XIV. Concerning virginity we have received no
commandment;(11) but we leave it to the power of those that are
willing, as a vow: exhorting them so far in this matter that they do
not promise anything rashly; since Solomon says, "It is better not to
vow, than to vow and not pay."(12) Let such a virgin, therefore, be
holy in body and soul, as the temple of God,(13) as the house of
Christ, as the habitation of the Holy Spirit. For she that vows ought
to do such works as are suitable to her vow; and to show that her vow
is real, and made on account of leisure for piety, not to cast a
reproach on marriage. Let her not be a gadder abroad, nor one that
rambles about unseasonably; not double-minded, but grave, continent,
sober, pure, avoiding the conversation of many, and especially of those
that are of ill reputation.(14)
437
CONSTITUTIONS OF THE HOLY APOSTLES
BOOK V.
SEC. I.--CONCERNING THE MARTYRS.
THAT IT IS REASONABLE FOR THE FAITHFUL TO SUPPLY THE WANTS OF THOSE WHO
ARE AFFLICTED FOR THE SAKE OF CHRIST BY THE UNBELIEVERS, ACCORDING TO
THE CONSTITUTION OF THE LORD.
I. IF any Christian, on account of the name of
Christ, and love and faith towards God, be condemned by the ungodly to
the games, to the beasts, or to the mines, do not ye overlook him; but
send to him from your labour and your very sweat for his sustenance,
and for a reward to the soldiers, that he may be eased and be taken
care of; that, as far as lies in your power, your blessed brother may
not be afflicted: for he that is condemned for the name of the Lord God
is an holy martyr, a brother of the Lord, the son of the Highest, a
receptacle of the Holy Spirit, by whom every one of the faithful has
received the illumination of the glory of the holy Gospel, by being
vouchsafed the incorruptible crown, and the testimony of Christ's
sufferings, and the fellowship of His blood, to be made conformable to
the death of Christ for the adoption of children. For this cause do
you, all ye of the faithful, by your bishop, minister to the saints of
your substance and of your labour. But if any one has not, let him fast
a day, and set apart that, and order it for the saints. But if any one
has superfluities, let him minister more to them according to the
proportion of his ability. But if he can possibly sell all his
livelihood, and redeem them out of prison, he will be blessed, and a
friend of Christ. For if he that gives his goods to the poor be
perfect, supposing his knowledge of divine things, much more is he so
that does it on account of the martyrs. For such a one is worthy of
God, and will fulfil His will by supplying those who have confessed Him
before nations and kings, and the children of Israel; concerning whom
our Lord declared, saying: "Whosoever shall confess me before men, him
will I also confess before my Father."(1) And if
these be such as to be attested to by Christ before His Father, you
ought not to be ashamed to go to them in the prisons. For if you do
this, it will be esteemed to you for a testimony, because the real
trial was to them a testimony; and your readiness will be so to you, as
being partakers of their combat: for the Lord speaks somewhere to such
as these, saying: "Come, ye blessed of my Father, inherit the kingdom
prepared for you from the foundation of the world. For I was an hungry,
and ye gave me meat; I was thirsty, and ye gave me drink; I was a
stranger, and ye took me in; naked, and ye clothed me; I was sick, and
ye visited me; I was in prison, and ye came unto me. Then shall the
righteous answer, and say, Lord, when saw we Thee an hungered, and fed
Thee? or thirsty, and gave Thee drink? When saw we Thee naked, and
clothed Thee? or sick, and visited Thee? When saw we Thee a stranger,
and took Thee in? or in prison, and came unto Thee? And He will answer
and say unto them, Inasmuch as ye have done it unto one of the least of
these my brethren, ye have done it unto me. And these shall go away
into life everlasting. Then shall He say unto them on His left hand,
Depart from me, ye cursed, into everlasting fire, prepared for the
devil and his angels. For I was hungry, and ye gave me no meat; I was
thirsty, and ye gave me no drink; I was a stranger, and ye took me not
in; naked, and ye clothed me not; sick, and in prison, and ye visited
me not. Then shall they also answer and say, Lord when saw we Thee
hungry, or thirsty, or a stranger, or naked, or sick, or in prison, and
did not minister unto Thee? Then shall He answer and say unto them,
Verily I say unto you, Inasmuch as ye have not done it unto one of the
least of these, neither have ye done it unto me. And these shall go
away unto everlasting punishment."(2)
438
THAT WE ARE TO AVOID INTERCOURSE WITH FALSE BRETHREN WHEN THEY CONTINUE
IN THEIR WICKEDNESS.
II. But if any one who calls himself a brother is
seduced by the evil one, and acts wickedness, and is convicted and
condemned to death as an adulterer, or a murderer, depart from him,
that ye may be secure, and none of you may be suspected as a partner in
such an abominable practice; and that no evil report may be spread
abroad, as if all Christians took a pleasure in unlawful actions.
Wherefore keep far from them. But do you assist with all diligence
those that for the sake of Christ are abused by the ungodly and shut up
in prison, or who are given over to death, or bonds, or banishment, in
order to deliver your fellow-members from wicked hands. And if any one
who accompanies with them is caught, and falls into misfortune, he is
blessed, because he is partaker with the martyr, and is one that
imitates the sufferings of Christ; for we ourselves also, when we
oftentimes received stripes from Caiaphas, and Alexander, and Annas,
for Christ's sake, "went out rejoicing that we were counted worthy to
suffer such things for our Saviour."(1) Do you also rejoice when ye
suffer such things, for ye shall be blessed in that day.(2)
THAT WE OUGHT TO AFFORD AN HELPING HAND TO SUCH AS ARE SPOILED FOR THE
SAKE OF CHRIST, ALTHOUGH WE SHOULD INCUR DANGER OURSELVES.
III. Receive also those that are persecuted on
account of the faith, and who "fly from city to city"(3) on account of
the Lord's commandment; and assist them as martyrs, rejoicing
that ye are made partakers of their persecution, as knowing that
they are esteemed blessed by the Lord; for Himself says: "Blessed
are ye when men shall reproach you, and persecute you, and say
all manner of evil against you falsely, for my sake. Rejoice, and be
exceeding glad, because your reward is great in heaven: for so
persecuted they the prophets which were before us."(4) And again: "If
they have persecuted me, they will also persecute you."(5) And
afterwards: "If they persecute you in this city, flee ye to another.
For in the world ye have tribulation: for they shall deliver you into
the synagogues; and ye shall be brought before rulers and kings for my
sake, and for a testimony to them."(6) And, "He that endureth unto the
end, the same shall be saved."(7) For he that is persecuted for the
sake of the faith, and bears witness in regard to Him, Christ, and
endures, is truly a man of
God.
THAT IT IS AN HORRIBLE AND
DESTRUCTIVE THING TO DENY CHRIST.
IV. But he that denies himself to be a Christian,
that he may not be hated of men, and so loves his own life more than he
does the Lord, in whose hand his breath is, is wretched and miserable,
as being detestable and abominable, who desires to be the friend of
men, but is the enemy of God, having no longer his portion with the
saints, but with those that are accursed; choosing instead of the
kingdom of the blessed, that eternal fire which is prepared for the
devil and his angels: not being any longer hated by men, but rejected
by God, and cast out from His presence. For of such a one our Lord
declared, saying: "Whosoever shall deny me before men, and shall be
ashamed of my name, I also will deny and be ashamed of him before my
Father which is in heaven."(8) And again He speaks thus to us
ourselves, His disciples: "He that loveth father or mother more than
me, is not worthy of me; and he that loveth son or daughter more than
me, is not worthy of me; and he that taketh not his cross, and
followeth after me, is not worthy of me. He that findeth his life,
shall lose it; and he that loseth his life for my sake, shall find it.
For what is a man profited, if he shall gain the whole world, and lose
his own souL? or what shall a man give in exchange for his soul?"(9)
And afterwards: "Fear not them that kill the body, but are not able to
kill the soul; but rather fear Him who is able to destroy both soul and
body in hell."(10)
THAT WE OUGHT TO IMITATE CHRIST IN SUFFERING, AND WITH ZEAL TO FOLLOW
HIS PATIENCE.
V. Every one therefore who learns any art, when he
sees his master by his diligence and skill perfecting his art, does
himself earnestly endeavour to make what he takes in hand like to it.
If he is not able, he is not perfected in his work. We therefore who
have a Master, our Lord Jesus Christ, why do we not follow His
doctrine?--since He renounced repose, pleasure, glory, riches, pride,
the power of revenge, His mother and brethren, nay, and moreover His
own life, on account of His piety towards His Father, and His love to
us the race of mankind; and suffered not only persecution and stripes,
reproach and mockery, but also crucifixion, that He might save the
penitent, both Jews and Gentiles. If therefore He for our sakes
renounced His repose, was not ashamed
439
of the cross, and did not esteem death inglorious, why do not we
imitate His sufferings, and renounce on His account even our own life,
with that patience which He gives us? For He did all for our sakes, but
we do it for our own sakes: for He does not stand in need of us, but we
stand in need of His mercy. He only requires the sincerity and
readiness of our faith, as the Scripture says: "If thou beest
righteous, what doest thou give to Him? or what will He receive at thy
hand? Thy wickedness is to a man like thyself, and thy righteousness to
a son of man."(1)
THAT A BELIEVER OUGHT NEITHER RASHLY TO RUN INTO DANGER THROUGH
SECURITY, NOR TO BE OVER-TIMOROUS THROUGH PUSILLANIMITY, BUT TO FLY
AWAY FOR FEAR; YET THAT IF HE DOES FALL INTO THE ENEMY'S HAND, TO
STRIVE EARNESTLY, UPON ACCOUNT OF THE CROWN THAT IS LAID UP FOR HIM.
VI. Let us therefore renounce our parents, and
kinsmen, and friends, and wife, and children, and possessions, and all
the enjoyments of life, when any of these things become an impediment
to piety. For we ought to pray that we may not enter into temptation;
but if we be called to martyrdom, with constancy to confess His
precious name, and if on this account we be punished, let us rejoice,
as hastening to immortality. When we are persecuted, let us not think
it strange; let us not love the present world, nor the praises which
come from men, nor the glory and honour of rulers, according as some of
the Jews wondered at the mighty works of our Lord, yet did not believe
on Him, for fear of the high priests and the rest of the rulers: "For
they loved the praise of men more than the praise of God."(2) But now,
by confessing a good confession, we not only save ourselves, but we
confirm those who are newly illuminated, and strengthen the faith of
the catechumens. But if we remit any part of our confession, and deny
godliness by the faintness of our persuasion, and the fear of a very
short punishment, we not only deprive ourselves of everlasting glory,
but we shall also become the causes of the perdition of others; and
shall suffer double punishment, as affording suspicion, by our denial
that that truth which we gloried in so much before is an erroneous
doctrine. Wherefore neither let us be rash and hasty to thrust
ourselves into dangers, for the Lord says: "Pray that ye fall not into
temptation: the spirit indeed is willing, but the flesh is weak."(3)
Nor let us, when we do fall into dangers, be fearful or ashamed of our
profession.
For if a person, by the denial of his own hope, which is Jesus the Son
of God, should be delivered from a temporary death, and the next day
should fall dangerously sick upon his bed, with a distemper in his
bowels, his stomach, or his head, or any of the incurable diseases, as
a consumption, or gangrene, or looseness, or iliac passion, or dropsy,
or colic, and has a sudden catastrophe, and departs this life; is not
he deprived of the things present, and loses those eternal? Or rather,
he is within the verge of eternal punishment, "and goes into outer
darkness, where is weeping and gnashing of teeth."(4) But let him who
is vouchsafed the honour of martyrdom rejoice with joy in the Lord, as
obtaining thereby so great a crown, and departing out of this life by
his confession. Nay, though he be trot a catechumen, let him depart
without trouble; for his suffering for Christ will be to him a more
genuine baptism, because he does really die with Christ, but the rest
only in a figure. Let him therefore rejoice in the imitation of his
Master, since is it thus ordained: "Let every one be perfect, as his
Master is."(5) Now his and our Master, Jesus the Lord, was smitten for
our sake: He underwent reproaches and revilings with long-suffering. He
was spit upon, He was smitten on the face, He was buffeted; and when He
had been scourged, He was nailed to the cross. He had vinegar and gall
to drink; and when He had fulfilled all things that were written, He
said to His God and Father, "Into Thy hands I commend my spirit."(6)
Wherefore let him that desires to be His disciple earnestly follow His
conflicts: let him imitate His patience, knowing that, although he be
burned in the fire by men, he will suffer nothing, like the three
children;(7) or if he does suffer anything, he shall receive a reward
from the Lord, believing in the one and the only true God and Father,
through Jesus Christ, the great High Priest, and Redeemer of our souls,
and rewarder of our sufferings. To whom be glory for ever. Amen.
SEVERAL DEMONSTRATIONS CONCERNING THE RESURRECTION, CONCERNING THE
SIBYL, AND WHAT THE STOICS SAY CONCERNING THE BIRD CALLED THE PHOENIX.
VII. For the Almighty God Himself will raise us up
through our Lord Jesus Christ, according to His infallible promise, and
grant us a resurrection with all those that have slept from the
beginning of the world; and we shall then be such as we now are in our
present form, without any defect or corruption. For we shall rise
incorruptible: whether we die at sea, or are scat-
440
tered on the earth, or are torn to pieces by wild beasts and birds, He
will raise us by His own power; for the whole world is held together by
the hand of God. Now He says: "An hair of your head shall not
perish."(1) Wherefore He exhorts us, saying: "In your patience possess
ye your souls."(2) But as concerning the resurrection of the dead, and
the recompense of reward for the martyrs, Gabriel speaks to Daniel:
"And many of them that sleep shall arise out of the dust of the earth,
some to everlasting life, and some to shame and everlasting contempt.
And they that understand shall shine as the sun, and as the firmament,
and as the stars."(3) Therefore the most holy Gabriel foretold that the
saints should shine like the stars: for His sacred name did witness to
them, that they might understand the truth. Nor is a resurrection only
declared for the martyrs, but for all men, righteous and unrighteous,
godly and ungodly, that every one may receive according to his desert.
For God, says the Scripture, "will bring every work into judgment, with
every secret thing, whether it be good or whether it be evil."(4) This
resurrection was not believed by the Jews, when of old they said, "Our
bones are withered, and we are gone."(5) To whom God answered, and
said: "Behold, I open your graves, and will bring you out of them; and
I will put my Spirit into you, and ye shall live: and ye shall know
that I the Lord have spoken it, and will do it." And He says by Isaiah:
"The dead shall rise, and those that are in the graves shall be raised
up. And those that rest in the earth shall rejoice, for the dew which
is from Thee shall be healing to them."(6) There are indeed many and
various things said concerning the resurrection, and concerning the
continuance of the righteous in glory, and concerning the punishment of
the ungodly, their fall, rejection, condemnation, shame, "eternal fire,
and endless worm."(7) Now that, if it had pleased Him that all men
should be immortal, it was in His power, He showed in the examples of
Enoch and Elijah, while He did not suffer them to have any experience
of death. Or if it had pleased Him in every generation to raise those
that died, that this also He was able to do He hath made manifest both
by Himself and by others; as when He raised the widow's son(8) by
Elijah, and the Shunammite's son(9) by Elisha. But we are persuaded
that death is not a retribution of punishment, because even the saints
have undergone it; nay, even the Lord of the saints, Jesus Christ, the
life of them that believe, and the resurrection of the dead. Upon this
account, therefore, according to the ancient practice, for those who
live in the great city, after the combats He brings a dissolution for a
while, that, when He raises up every one, He may either reject him or
crown him. For He that made the body of Adam out of the earth
will raise up the bodies of the rest, and that of the first man, after
their dissolution, (to pay what is owing to the rational nature of man;
we mean the continuance in being through all ages. He, therefore, who
brings on the dissolution, will Himself procure the resurrection. And
He that said, "The Lord took dust from the ground, and formed man, and
breathed into his face the breath of life, and man became a living
soul,"(10) added after the disobedience, "Earth thou art, and unto
earth shalt thou return;"(11) the same promised us a resurrection
afterwards.(12)) For says He: "All that are in the graves shall hear
the voice of the Son of God, and they that hear shall live."(13)
Besides these arguments, we believe there is to be a resurrection also
from the resurrection of our Lord. For it is He that raised Lazarus,
when he had been in the grave four days,(14) and Jairus' daughter,(15)
and the widow's son.(16) It is He that raised Himself by the command of
the Father in the space of three days, who is the pledge of our
resurrection. For says He: "I am the resurrection and the life."(17)
Now He that brought Jonas(18) in the space of three days, alive and
unhurt, out of the belly of the whale, and the three children out of
the furnace of Babylon, and Daniel out of the mouth of the lions,(19)
does not want power to raise us up also. But if the Gentiles laugh at
us, and disbelieve our Scriptures, let at least their own prophetess
Sibylla(20) oblige them to believe, who says thus to them in express
words:--
"But when all things shall be reduced to dust and ashes,
And the immortal God who kindled the fire shall have
quenched it,
God shall form those bones and that ashes into a man again,
And shall place mortal men again as they were before.
And then shall be the judgment, wherein God will do
justice,
And judge the world again. But as many mortals as have
sinned through impiety
Shall again be covered under the earth;
But so many as have been pious shall live again in the
world.
441
When God puts His Spirit into them, and gives those
at once that are godly both life and favour, Then shall all see
themselves."(1)
If, therefore, this prophetess confesses the resurrection, and does not
deny the restoration of all things, and distinguishes the godly from
the ungodly, it is in vain for them to deny our doctrine. Nay, indeed,
they say they can show a resemblance of the resurrection, while they do
not themselves believe the things they declare: for they say that there
is a bird single in its kind which affords a copious demonstration of
the resurrection, which they say is without a mate, and the only one in
the creation. They call it a phoenix, and relate that every five
hundred years it comes into Egypt, to that which is called the altar of
the sun, and brings with it a great quantity of cinnamon, and cassia,
and balsam-wood, and standing towards the east, as they say, and
praying to the sun, of its own accord is burnt, and becomes dust; but
that a worm arises again out of those ashes, and that when the same is
warmed it is formed into a new-born phoenix; and when it is able to
fly, it goes to Arabia, which is beyond the Egyptian countries. If,
therefore, as even themselves say, a resurrection is exhibited by the
means of an irrational bird, wherefore do they vainly disparage our
accounts, when we profess that He who by His power brings that into
being which was not in being before, is able to restore this body, and
raise it up again after its dissolution? For on account of this full
assurance of hope we undergo stripes, and persecutions, and deaths.
Otherwise we should to no purpose undergo such things if we had not a
full assurance of these promises, whereof we profess ourselves to be
the preachers. As, therefore, we believe Moses when he says, "In the
beginning God made the heaven and the earth;"(2) and we know that He
did not want matter, but by His will alone brought those things into
being which Christ was commanded to make; we mean the heaven, the
earth, the sea, the light, the night, the day, the luminaries, the
stars, the fowls, the fishes, and four-footed beasts, the creeping
things, the plants, and the herbs; so also will He raise all men up by
His will, as not wanting any assistance. For it is the work of the same
power to create the world and to raise the dead. And then He made man,
who was not a man before, of different parts, giving to him a soul made
out of nothing. But now He will restore the bodies, which have been
dissolved, to the souls that are still in being: for the rising again
belongs to things laid down, not to things which have no being. He
therefore that made the original bodies out of nothing, and fashioned
various forms of them, will also again revive and
raise up those that are dead. For He that formed man in the womb out of
a little seed, and created in him a soul which was not in being
before,--as He Himself somewhere speaks to Jeremiah, "Before I formed
thee in the womb I knew thee;"(3) and elsewhere, "I am the Lord who
established the heaven, and laid the foundations of the earth, and
formed the spirit of man in him,"(4)--will also raise up all men, as
being His workmanship; as also the divine Scripture testifies that God
said to Christ, His only-begoten, "Let us make man after our image, and
after our likeness. And God made man: after the image of God made He
him; male and female made He them."(5) And the most divine and patient
Job, of whom the Scripture says that it is written, that "he was to
rise again with those whom the Lord raises up,"(6) speaks to God thus:
"Hast not Thou milked me like milk, and curdled me like cheese? Thou
hast clothed me with skin and flesh, and hast fenced me with bones and
sinews. Thou hast granted me life and favour, and Thy visitation hath
preserved my spirit. Having these things within me, I know that Thou
canst do all things, and that nothing is impossible with Thee."(7)
Wherefore also(8) our Saviour and Master Jesus Christ says, that "what
is impossible with men is possible with God."(9) And David, the beloved
of God, says: "Thine hands have made me, and fashioned me."(10) And
again: "Thou knowest my frame."(11) And afterward: "Thou hast fashioned
me, and laid Thine hand upon me. The knowledge of Thee is declared to
be too wonderful for me; it is very great, I cannot attain unto
it."(12) "Thine eyes did see my substance, being yet imperfect; and all
men shall be written in Thy book."(13) Nay, and Isaiah says in his
prayer to Him: "We are the clay, and Thou art the framer of us."(14)
If, therefore, man be His workmanship, made by Christ, by Him most
certainly will he after he is dead be raised again, with intention
either of being crowned for his good actions or punished for his
transgressions. But if He, being the legislator, judges with
righteousness; as He punishes the ungodly, so does He do good to and
saves the faithful. And those saints who for His sake have been slain
by men, "some of them He will make light as the stars, and make others
bright as the luminaries,"(15) as Gabriel said to Daniel.
442
All we of the faithful, therefore, who are the disciples of Christ,
believe His promises. For He that has promised it cannot lie; as says
the blessed prophet David: "The Lord is faithful in all His words, and
holy in all His works."(1) For He that framed for Himself a body out of
a virgin, is also the Former of other men. And He that raised Himself
from the dead, will also raise again all that are laid down. He who
raises wheat out of the ground with many stalks from one grain, He who
makes the tree that is cut down send forth fresh branches, He that made
Aaron's dry rod put forth buds,(2) will raise us up in glory; He that
raised Him up that had the palsy whole,(3) and healed him that had the
withered hand,(4) He that supplied a defective part to him that was
born blind from clay and spittle,(5) will raise us up; He that
satisfied five thousand men with five loaves and two fishes, and caused
a remainder of twelve baskets,(6) and out of water made wine,(7) and
sent a piece of money out of a fish's mouth(8) by me Peter to those
that demanded tribute, will raise the dead. For we testify all these
things concerning Him, and the prophets testify the other. We who have
eaten and drunk with Him, and have been spectators of His wonder fill
works, and of His life, and of His conduct, and of His words, and of
His sufferings, and of His death, and of His resurrection from the
dead, and who associated with Him forty days after His resurrection,(9)
and who received a command from Him to preach the Gospel to all the
world, and to make disciples of all nations,(10) and to baptize them
into His death by the authority of the God of the universe, who is His
Father, and by the testimony of the Spirit, who is His Comforter,--we
teach you all these things which He appointed us by His constitutions,
before "He was received up in our sight into heaven,"(11) to Him that
sent Him. And if you will believe, you shall be happy; but if you will
not believe, we shall be found innocent, and clear from your
incredulity.
CONCERNING JAMES THE BROTHER OF THE LORD, AND STEPHEN THE FIRST MARTYR.
VIII. Now concerning the martyrs, we say to you that
they are to be had in all honour with you, as we honour the blessed
James the bishop, and the holy Stephen our fellow-servant. For these
are reckoned blessed by God, and are honoured by holy men, who were
pure from all
transgressions, immoveable when tempted to sin, or persuaded from good
works, without dispute deserving encomiums: of whom also David speaks,
"Precious in the sight of the Lord is the death of His holy ones;"(12)
and Solomon says, "The memory of the just is with encomiums:"(13) of
whom also the prophet speaks, "Righteous men are taken away."(14)
CONCERNING FALSE MARTYRS.
IX. These things we have said concerning those that
in truth have been martyrs for Christ, but not concerning false
martyrs, concerning whom the oracle speaks, "The name of the ungodly is
extinguished."(13) For "a faithful witness will not lie, but an
unjust witness inflames lies."(15) For he that departs this life in his
testimony without lying, for the sake of the truth, is a faithful
martyr, worthy to be believed in such things wherein he strove for the
word of piety by his own blood.
SEC. II.--ALL ASSOCIATION WITH
IDOLS IS TO BE AVOIDED.
AMORAL ADMONITION, THAT WE ARE TO ABSTAIN FROM VAIN TALKING, OBSCENE
TALKING, JESTING, DRUNKENNESS, LASCIVIOUSNESS, AND LUXURY.
X. Now we exhort you, brethren and fellow-servants,
to avoid vain talk and obscene discourses, and jestings, drunkenness,
lasciviousness, luxury, unbounded passions, with foolish discourses,
since we do not permit you so much as on the Lord's days, which are
days of joy, to speak or act anything unseemly; for the Scripture
somewhere says: "Serve the Lord with fear, and rejoice unto Him with
trembling."(16) Even your very rejoicings therefore ought to be done
with fear and trembling: for a Christian who is faithful ought neither
to repeat an heathen hymn nor an obscene song, because he will be
obliged by that hymn to make mention of the idolatrous names of demons;
and instead of the Holy Spirit, the wicked one will enter into him.
AN ADMONITION INSTRUCTING MEN TO AVOID THE ABOMINABLE SIN OF
IDOLATRY.
XI. You are also forbidden to swear by them, or to
utter their abominable names through your mouth, and to worship them,
or fear them as gods; for they are not gods, but either wicked demons
or the ridiculous contrivances of men. For somewhere God says
concerning the Israelites: "They have forsaken me, and sworn by them
that are no gods."(17) And afterwards: "I
443
will take away the names of your idols out of their mouth."(1) And
elsewhere: "They have provoked me to jealousy with them that are no
gods; they have provoked me to anger with their idols."(2) And in all
the Scriptures these things are forbidden by the Lord God.
THAT WE OUGHT NOT TO SING AN HEATHEN OR AN OBSCENE SONG, NOR TO SWEAR
BY AN IDOL BECAUSE IT IS AN IMPIOUS THING, AND CONTRARY TO THE
KNOWLEDGE OF GOD.
XII. Nor do the legislators give us only
prohibitions concerning idols, but also warn us concerning the
luminaries, not to swear by them, nor to serve them. For they say:
"Lest, when thou seest the sun, and the moon, and the stars, thou
shouldest be seduced to worship them."(3) And elsewhere: "Do not ye
learn to walk after the ways of the heathen, and be not afraid of the
signs of heaven."(4) For the stars and the luminaries were given to men
to shine upon them, but not for worship; although the Israelites, by
the perverseness of their temper, "worshipped the creature instead of
the Creator,"(5) and acted insultingly to their Maker, and admired the
creature more than is fit. And sometimes they made a calf, as in the
wilderness;(6) sometimes they worshipped Baalpeor;(7) another time
Baal,(8) and Thamuz,(9) and Astarte of Sidon;(10) and again Moloch and
Chamos;(11) another time the sun,(12) as it is written in Ezekiel; nay,
and besides, brute creatures, as among the Egyptians Apis, and the
Mendesian goat, and gods of silver and gold, as in Judea. On account of
all which things He threatened them, and said by the prophet: "Is it a
small thing to the house of Judah to do these abominations which they
have done? For they have filled the land with their wickedness, to
provoke me to anger: and, behold, they arc as those that mock. And I
will act with anger. Mine eye shall not spare, neither will I have
mercy; and they shall cry in mine ears with a great voice, and I will
not hearken unto them." Consider, beloved, how many things the Lord
declares against idolaters, and the worshippers of the sun and moon.
Wherefore it is the duty of a man of God, as he is a Christian, not to
swear by the sun, or by the moon, or by the stars; nor by the heaven,
nor by the earth, by any of the elements, whether small or great. For
if our Master charged us not to swear by the true God, that our word
might be firmer than an oath, nor by heaven itself, for that is a piece
of heathen wickedness, nor by Jerusalem, nor by the sanctuary of God,
nor the altar, nor the gift, nor the gilding of the altar, nor one's
own head,(14) for this custom is a piece of Judaic corruption, and on
that account was forbidden; and if He exhorts the faithful that their
yea be yea, and their nay, nay, and says that "what is more than these
is of the evil one," how much more blameable are those who appeal to
deities falsely so called as the objects of an oath, and who glorify
imaginary beings instead of those that are real, whom God for their
perverseness "delivered over to foolishness, to do those things that
are not convenient!"(15)
SEC. III.--ON FEAST DAYS AND FAST DAYS.
A CATALOGUE OF THE FEASTS OF THE LORD WHICH ARE TO BE KEPT, AND WHEN
EACH OF THEM OUGHT TO BE OBSERVED.
XIII. Brethren, observe the festival days; and first
of all the birthday which you are to celebrate on the twenty-fifth of
the ninth month; after which let the Epiphany be to you the most
honoured, in which the Lord made to you a display of His own Godhead,
and let it take place on the sixth of the tenth month; after which the
fast of Lent is to be observed by you as containing a memorial of our
Lord's mode of life and legislation. But let this solemnity be observed
before the fast of the passover, beginning from the second day of the
week, and ending at the day of the preparation. After which
solemnities, breaking off your fast, begin the holy week of the
passover, fasting in the same all of you with fear and trembling,
praying in them for those that are about to perish.
CONCERNING THE PASSION OF OUR LORD, AND WHAT WAS DONE ON EACH DAY OF
HIS SUFFERINGS; AND CONCERNING JUDAS, AND THAT JUDAS WAS NOT PRESENT
WHEN THE LORD DELIVERED THE MYSTERIES TO HIS DISCIPLES.
XIV. For they began to hold a council against the
Lord on the second day of the week, in the first month, which is
Xanthicus; and the deliberation continued on the third day of the week;
but on the fourth day they determined to take away His life by
crucifixion. And Judas knowing this, who for a long time had been
perverted, but was then smitten by the devil himself with the love of
money, although he had been long entrusted with the purse.(16) and used
to steal what was set apart for the needy, yet was he not cast off by
the Lord, through much long-suffering;
444
nay, and when we were once feasting with Him, being willing both to
reduce him to his duty and instruct us in His own foreknowledge, He
said: "Verily, verily, I say unto you, that one of you will betray me;"
and every one of us saying, "Is it I?"(1) And the Lord being silent, I,
who was one of the twelve, and more beloved by Him than the rest, arose
up from lying in His bosom. and besought Him to tell who it should be
that should betray Him. Yet neither then did our good Lord declare His
name, but gave two signs of the betrayer: one by saying, "he that
dippeth with me in the dish;" a second, "to whom I shall give the sop
when I have dipped it." Nay, although he himself said, "Master, is it
I?" the Lord did not say Yes, but, "Thou hast said." And being willing
to affright him in the matter, He said: "Woe to that man by whom the
Son of man is betrayed! good were it for him if he had never been born.
Who, when he had heard that, went his way, and said to the priests,
What will ye give me, and I will deliver Him unto you? And they
bargained with him for thirty pieces of silver."(2) And the scripture
was fulfilled, which said, "And they took(3) the thirty pieces of
silver, the price of Him that was valued, whom they of the children of
Israel did value, and gave them for the house of the potter."(4) And on
the fifth day of the week, when we had eaten the passover with Him, and
when Judas had dipped his hand into the dish, and received the sop, and
was gone out by night, the Lord said to us: "The hour is come that ye
shall be dispersed, and shall leave me alone;"(5) and every one
vehemently affirming that they would not forsake Him, I Peter adding
this promise, that I would even die with Him, He said, "Verily I say
unto thee, Before the cock crows, thou shall thrice deny that thou
knowest me."(6) And when He had delivered to us the representative
mysteries of His precious body and blood, Judas not being present with
us, He went out to the Mount of Olives, near the brook Cedron, where
there was a garden;(7) and we were with Him, and sang an hymn according
to the custom.(8) And being separated not far(9) from us, He
prayed to His Father, saying: "Father, remove this cup away from
me; yet not my will, but Thine be done."(10) And when He had done this
thrice, while we out of despondency of mind were fallen asleep, He came
and said: "The hour is come, and the Son of man is betrayed into the
hands of sinners. And behold Judas, and with him a multitude of ungodly
men,"(11) to whom he shows the signal by which he was to betray Him--a
deceitful kiss. But they, when they had received the signal agreed on,
took hold of the Lord; and having bound Him, they led Him to the house
of Caiaphas the high priest, wherein were assembled many, not the
people, but a great rout, not an holy council, but an assembly of the
wicked and council of the ungodly, who did many things against Him, and
left no kind of injury untried, spitting upon Him, cavilling at Him,
beating Him, smiting Him on the face, reviling Him, tempting Him,
seeking vain divination instead of true prophecies from Him, calling
Him a deceiver, a blasphemer, a transgressor of Moses, a destroyer of
the temple, a taker away of sacrifices, an enemy to the Romans, an
adversary to Caesar. And these reproaches did these bulls and dogs(12)
in their madness cast upon Him, till it was very early in the morning,
and then they lead Him away to Annas, who was father-in-law to
Caiaphas; and when they had done the like things to Him there, it being
the day of the preparation, they delivered Him to Pilate the Roman
governor, accusing Him of many and great things, none of which they
could prove. Whereupon the governor, as out of patience with them,
said: "I find no cause against Him."(13) But they bringing two lying
witnesses, wished to accuse the Lord falsely; but they being found to
disagree, and so their testimony not conspiring together, they altered
the accusation to that of treason, saying, "This fellow says that He is
a king, and forbids to give tribute to Caesar."(14) And themselves
became accusers, and witnesses, and judges, and authors of the
sentence, saying, "Crucify Him, crucify Him;"(15) that it might be
fulfilled which is written by the prophets concerning Him, "Unjust
witnesses were gathered together against me, and injustice lied to
itself;"(16) and again, "Many dogs compassed me about, the assembly of
the wicked laid siege against me;"(17) and elsewhere, "My inheritance
became to me as a lion in a wood, and has sent forth her voice against
me."(18) Pilate therefore, disgracing his authority by his
pusillanimity, convicts himself of wickedness by regarding the
multitude more than this just person, and bearing witness to Him that
He was innocent, yet as guilty delivering Him up to the punishment of
the cross, although the Romans had made laws that no man unconvicted
should be put to death. But
445
the executioners took the Lord of glory and nailed Him to the cross,
crucifying Him indeed at the sixth hour, but having received the
sentence of His condemnation at the third hour. After this they gave to
Him vinegar to drink, mingled with gall. Then they divided His garments
by lot. Then they crucified two malefactors with Him, on each side one,
that it might be fulfilled which was written: "They gave me gall to
eat, and when I was thirsty they gave me vinegar to drink."(1) And
again: "They divided my garment among themselves, and upon my vesture
have they cast lots."(2) And in another place: "And I was reckoned with
the transgressors."(3) Then there was darkness for three hours, from
the sixth to the ninth, and again light in the evening; as it is
written: "It shall not be day nor night, and at the evening there shall
be light."(4) All which things,(5) when those malefactors saw that were
crucified with Him the one of them reproached Him as though He was weak
and unable to deliver Himself; but the other rebuked the ignorance of
his fellow and turning to the Lord, as being enlightened by Him, and
acknowledging who He was that suffered, he prayed that He would
remember him in His kingdom hereafter.(6) He then presently granted him
the forgiveness of his former sins, and brought him into paradise to
enjoy the mystical good things; who also cried out about the ninth
hour, and said to His Father: "My God! my God! why hast Thou forsaken
me?"(7) And a little afterward, when He had cried with a loud voice,
"Father, forgive them, for they know not what they do,"(8) and had
added, "Into Thy hands I commit my spirit," He gave up the ghost,(9)
and was buried before sunset in a new sepulchre. But when the first day
of the week dawned He arose from the dead, and fulfilled those things
which before His passion He foretold to us, saying: "The Son of man
must continue in the heart of the earth three days and three
nights."(10) And when He was risen from the dead, He appeared first to
Mary Magdalene, and Mary the mother of James, then to Cleopas in the
way, and after that to us His disciples, who had fled away for fear of
the Jews, but privately were very inquisitive about Him.(11) But these
things are also written in the Gospel.
OF THE GREAT WEEK, AND ON WHAT ACCOUNT THEY ENJOIN US TO FAST ON
WEDNESDAY AND FRIDAY.
XV. He therefore charged us Himself to fast these
six days on account of the impiety and transgression of the Jews,
commanding us withal to bewail over them, and lament for their
perdition. For even He Himself "wept over them, because they knew not
the time of their visitation."(12) But He commanded us to fast on the
fourth and sixth days of the week; the former on account of His being
betrayed, and the latter on account of His passion. But He appointed us
to break our fast on the seventh day at the cock-crowing, but to fast
on the Sabbath-day. Not that the Sabbath-day is a day of fasting, being
the rest from the creation, but because we ought to fast on this one
Sabbath only, while on this day the Creator was under the earth. For on
their very feast-day they apprehended the Lord, thai that oracle might
be fulfilled which says: "They placed their signs in the middle of
their feast, and knew them not."(13) Ye ought therefore to bewail over
them, because when the Lord came they did not believe on Him, but
rejected His doctrine, judging themselves unworthy of salvation. You
therefore are happy who once were not a people, but are now an holy
nation, delivered from the deceit of idols, from ignorance, from
impiety, who once had not obtained mercy, but now have obtained mercy
through your hearty obedience: for to you, the converted Gentiles, is
opened the gate of life, who formerly were not beloved, but are now
beloved; a people ordained for the possession of God, to show forth His
virtues, concerning whom our Saviour said, "I was found of them that
sought me not; I was made manifest to them that asked not after me. I
said, Behold me, to a nation which did not call upon my name."(14) For
when ye did not seek after Him, then were ye sought for by Him; and you
who have believed in Him have hearkened to His call, and have left the
madness of polytheism, and have fled to the true monarchy, to Almighty
God, through Christ Jesus, and are become the completion of the number
of the saved--"ten thousand times ten thousand, and thousands of
thousands;"(15) as it is written in David, "A thousand(16) shall fall
beside thee, and ten thousand at thy right hand;"(17) and again, "The
chariots of God are by tens of thousands, and thousands of the
prosperous."(18) But unto unbelieving lsrael
446
He says: "All the day long have I stretched out mine hands to a
disobedient and gainsaying people, which go in a way that is not good,
but after their own sins, a people provoking me before my face."(1)
AN ENUMERATION OF THE PROPHETICAL PREDICTIONS WHICH DECLARE CHRIST,
WHOSE COMPLETION THOUGH THE JEWS SAW, YET OUT OF THE EVIL TEMPER OF
THEIR MIND THEY DID NOT BELIEVE HE WAS THE CHRIST OF GOD, AND CONDEMNED
THE LORD OF GLORY TO THE CROSS.
XVI. See how the people provoked the Lord by not
believing in Him! Therefore He says: "They provoked the Holy Spirit,
and He was turned to be their enemy."(2) For blindness is cast upon
them, by reason of the wickedness of their mind, because when they saw
Jesus they did not believe Him to be the Christ of God, who was before
all ages(3) begotten of Him, His only-begotten Son, God the Word, whom
they did not own through their unbelief, neither on account of His
mighty works, nor yet on account of the prophecies which were written
concerning Him. For that He was to be born of a virgin, they read this
prophecy: "Behold, a virgin shall be with child, and shall bring forth
a Son, and they shall call His name Emanuel."(4) "For to us a Child is
born, to us a Son is given, whose government is upon His shoulders; and
His name is called the Angel of His Great Council, the Wonderful
Counsellor, the Mighty God, the Potentate, the Prince of Peace, the
Father of the Future Age."(5) Now, that because of their exceeding
great wickedness they would not believe in Him, the Lord shows in these
words: "Who hath believed our report? and to whom hath the arm of the
Lord been revealed?"(6) And afterward: "Hearing ye shall hear, and
shall not understand; and seeing ye shall see, and shall not perceive:
for the heart of this people is waxed gross."(7) Wherefore knowledge
was taken from them, because seeing they overlooked, and hearing they
heard not. But to you, the converted of the Gentiles, is the kingdom
given, because you, who knew not God, have believed by preaching, and
"have known Him, or rather are known of Him,"(8) through Jesus, the
Saviour and Redeemer of those that hope in Him. For ye are translated
from your former vain and tedious mode of life and have contemned the
lifeless idols, and despised the demons, which are in darkness,
and have run to the "true light,"(9) and by it have "known the
one and only true God and Father,"(10) and so are owned to be heirs of
His kingdom. For since ye have "been baptized into the Lord's
death,"(11) and into His resurrection, as "new-born babes,"(12) ye
ought to be wholly free from all sinful actions; "for you are not your
own, but His that bought you"(13) with His own blood. For concerning
the former Israel the Lord speaks thus, on account of their unbelief:
"The kingdom of God shall be taken from them, and given to a nation
bringing forth the fruits thereof;"(14) that is to say, that having
given the kingdom to you, who were once far estranged from Him, He
expects the fruits of your gratitude and probity. For ye are those that
were once sent into the vineyard, and did not obey, but these they that
did obey;(15) but you have repented of your denial, and you work
therein now. But they, being uneasy on account of their own covenants,
have not only left the vineyard uncultivated, but have also killed the
stewards of the Lord of the vineyard,(16)--one with stones, another
with the sword; one they sawed asunder,(17) another they slew in the
holy place, "between the temple and the altar;"(18) nay, at last they
"cast the Heir Himself out of the vineyard, and slew Him."(19) And by
them He was rejected as an unprofitable stone,(20) but by you was
received as the corner-stone. Wherefore He says concerning you: "A
people whom I knew not have served me, and at the hearing of the ear
have they obeyed me."(21)
HOW THE PASSOVER OUGHT TO BE CELEBRATED.
XVII. It is therefore your duty, brethren, who are
redeemed by the precious blood of Christ, to observe the days of the
passover exactly, with all care, after the vernal equinox, lest ye be
obliged to keep the memorial of the one passion twice in a year. Keep
it once only in a year for Him that died but once.
Do not you yourselves compute, but keep it when your
brethren of the circumcision do so: keep it together with them; and if
they err in their computation, be not you concerned. Keep your nights
of watching in the middle of the days of unleavened bread. And when the
Jews are feasting, do you fast and wail over them, because an the day
of their feast they crucified Christ;
447
and while they are lamenting and eating unleavened bread in bitterness,
do you feast.(1) But no longer be careful to keep the feast with the
Jews, for we have now no communion with them; for they have been led
astray in regard to the calculation itself, which they think they
accomplish perfectly, that they may be led astray on every hand, and be
fenced off from the truth. But do you observe carefully the vernal
equinox, which occurs on the twenty-second of the twelfth month, which
is Dystros(March), observing carefully until the twenty-first of the
moon, test the fourteenth of the moon shall fall on another week, and
an error being committed, you should through ignorance celebrate the
passover twice in the year, or celebrate the day of the resurrection of
our Lord on any other day than a Sunday.
A CONSTITUTION CONCERNING THE GREAT PASSOVER
WEEK.
XVIII. Do you therefore fast on the days of the
passover, beginning from the second day of the week until the
preparation, and the Sabbath, six days, making use of only bread, and
salt, and herbs, and water for your drink; but do you abstain on these
days from wine and flesh, for they are days of lamentation and not of
feasting. Do ye who are able fast the day of the preparation and the
Sabbath-day entirely, tasting nothing till the cock-crowing of the
night; but if any one is not able to join them both together, at least
let him observe the Sabbath-day; for the Lord says somewhere, speaking
of Himself: "When the bridegroom shall be taken away from them, in
those days shall they fast."(2) In these days, therefore, He was taken
from us by the Jews, falsely so named, and fastened to the cross, and
"was numbered among the transgressors."(3)
CONCERNING THE WATCHING ALL THE NIGHT OF THE GREAT SABBATH, AND
CONCERNING THE DAY OF THE RESURRECTION.
XIX. Wherefore we exhort you to fast on those days,
as we also fasted till the evening, when He was taken away from us; but
on the rest of the days, before the day of the preparation, let every
one eat at the ninth hour, or at the evening, or as every one is able.
But from the even of the fifth day till cock-crowing break your fast
when it is daybreak of the first day of the week, which is the Lord's
day. From the even till cock-crowing keep awake, and assemble together
in the church, watch and pray, and entreat God; reading, when you sit
up all night, the Law, the Prophets, and the Psalms, until
cock-crowing, and baptizing your catechumens, and reading the Gospel
with fear and trembling, and speaking to the people such things as tend
to their salvation: put an end to your sorrow, and beseech God that
Israel may be converted, and that He will allow them place of
repentance, and the remission of their impiety; for the judge, who was
a stranger, "washed his hands, and said, I am innocent of the blood of
this just person: see ye to it. But Israel cried out, His blood be on
us, and on our children."(4) And when Pilate said, "Shall I crucify
your king? they cried out, We have no king but Caesar: crucify Him,
crucify Him; for every, one that maketh himself a king speaketh against
Caesar." And, "If thou let this man go, thou art not Caesar's
friend."(5) And Pilate the governor and Herod the king commanded Him to
be crucified; and that oracle was fulfilled which says, "Why did the
Gentiles rage, and the people imagine vain things? The kings of the
earth set themselves, and the rulers were gathered together against the
Lord, and against His Christ;"(6) and, "They cast away the Beloved, as
a dead man, who is abominable."(7) And since He was crucified on the
day of the Preparation, and rose again at break of day on the Lord's
day, the scripture was fulfilled which saith, "Arise, O God; judge the
earth: for Thou shalt have an inheritance in all the nations;"(8) and
again, "I will arise, saith the Lord; I will put Him in safety, I will
wax bold through Him;"(9) and," But Thou, Lord, have mercy upon me, and
raise me up again, and I shall requite them."(10) For this reason do
you also, now the Lord is risen, offer your sacrifice, concerning which
He made a constitution by us, saying, "Do this for a remembrance of
me;"(11) and thenceforward leave off your fasting, and rejoice, and
keep a festival, because Jesus Christ, the pledge of our resurrection,
is risen from the dead. And let this be an everlasting ordinance till
the consummation of the world, until the Lord come. For to Jews the
Lord is still dead, but to Christians He is risen: to the former, by
their unbelief; to the latter, by their full assurance of faith. For
the hope in Him is immortal and eternal life. After eight days let
there be another feast observed with honour, the eighth day itself, on
which He gave me Thomas, who was hard of belief, full assurance, by
showing me the print of the nails, and the wound made in His side by
the spear.(12) And again, from the first Lord's
448
day count forty days, from the Lord's day till the fifth day of the
week, and celebrate the feast of the ascension of the Lord, whereon He
finished all His dispensation and constitution, and returned to that
God and Father that sent Him, and sat down at the right hand of power,
and remains there until His enemies are put under His feet; who also
will come at the consummation of the world with power and great glory,
to judge the quick and the dead, and to recompense to every one
according to his works. And then shall they see the beloved Son of God
whom they pierced;(1) and when they know Him, they shall mourn for
themselves, tribe by tribe, and their wives apart.(2)
A PROPHETIC PREDICTION CONCERNING CHRIST
JESUS.
XX. For even now, on the tenth day of the month
Gorpiaeus, when they assemble together, they read the Lamentations of
Jeremiah, in which it is said, "The Spirit before our face, Christ the
Lord was taken in their destructions;"(3) and Baruch, in whom it is
written, "This is our God; no other shall be esteemed with Him. He
found out every way of knowledge, and showed it to Jacob His son, and
lsrael His beloved. Afterwards He was seen upon earth, and conversed
with men."(4) And when they read them, they lament and bewail, as
themselves suppose, that desolation which happened by Nebuchadnezzar;
but, as the truth shows, they unwillingly make a prelude to that
lamentation which will overtake them. But after ten days from the
ascension, which from the first Lord's day is the fiftieth day, do ye
keep a great festival: for on that day, at the third hour, the Lord
Jesus sent on us the gift of the Holy Ghost, and we were filled with
His energy, and we "spake with new tongues, as that Spirit did suggest
to us;" (5) and we preached both to Jews and Gentiles, that He is the
Christ of God, who is "determined by Him to be the Judge, of quick and
dead."(6) To Him did Moses bear witness, and said: "The Lord received
fire from the Lord, and rained it down."(7) Him did Jacob see as a man,
and said: "I have seen God face to face, and my soul is
preserved."(8) Him did Abraham entertain, and acknowledge to be
the Judge, and his Lord.(9) Him did Moses see in the bush;(10)
concerning Him did he speak in Deuteronomy: "A Prophet will the Lord
your God raise up unto you out of your brethren, like unto me; Him
shall ye hear in all things, whatsoever He shall say unto you. And it
shall be, that every soul that will not hear that Prophet, shall be
destroyed from among his people."(11) Him did Joshua the son of Nun
see, as the captain of the Lord's host, in armour, for their assistance
against Jericho; to whom he fell down, and worshipped, as a servant
does to his master.(12) Him Samuel knew as the "Anointed of God,"(13)
and thence named the priests and the kings the anointed. Him David
knew, and sung an hymn concerning Him, "A song concerning the
Beloved;"(14) and adds in his person, and says, "Gird Thy sword upon
Thy thigh, O Thou who art mighty in Thy beauty and renown: go on, and
prosper, and reign, for the sake of truth, and meekness, and
righteousness; and Thy right hand shall guide Thee after a wonderful
manner. Thy darts are sharpened, O Thou that art mighty; the people
shall fall under Thee in the heart of the king's enemies. Wherefore
God, Thy God, hath anointed Thee with the oil of gladness above Thy
fellows." Concerning Him also spake Solomon, as in His person: "The
Lord created me the beginning of His ways, for His works: before the
world He founded me, in the beginning before He made the earth, before
the fountains of waters came, before the mountains were fastened; He
begat me before all the hills."(15) And again: "Wisdom built herself an
house."(16) Concerning Him also Isaiah said: "A Branch shall come out
of the root of Jesse, and a Flower shall spring out of his root." And,
"There shall be a root of Jesse; and He that is to rise to reign over
the Gentiles, in Him shall the Gentiles trust."(17) And Zechariah says:
"(18) Behold, thy King cometh unto thee, just, and
having salvation; meek, and riding upon an ass, and upon a colt, the
foal of an ass."(19) Him Daniel describes as "the Son of man coming to
the Father,"(20) and receiving all judgment and honour from Him; and as
"the stone cut out of the mountain without hands, and becoming a great
mountain, and filling the whole earth,"(21) dashing to pieces the many
governments of the smaller countries, and the polytheism of gods, but
preaching the one God, and ordaining the monarchy of the Romans.
Concerning Him also did Jeremiah prophesy, saying: "The Spirit before
His face, Christ the Lord, was taken in their snares: of whom we said,
Under His shadow
449
we shall live among the Gentiles."(1) Ezekiel also, and the following
prophets, affirm everywhere that He is the Christ, the Lord, the King,
the Judge, the Lawgiver, the Angel of the Father, the only-begotten
God. Him therefore do we also preach to you, and declare Him to be God
the Word, who ministered to His God and Father for the creation of the
universe. By believing in Him you shall live, but by disbelieving you
shall be punished. For "he that is disobedient to the Son shall not see
life, but the wrath of God abideth on him."(2) Therefore, after you
have kept the festival of Pentecost, keep one week more festival, and
after that fast; for it is reasonable to rejoice for the gift of God,
and to fast after that relaxation: for both Moses and Elijah fasted
forty days, and Daniel for "three weeks of days did not eat desirable
bread, and flesh and wine did not enter into his mouth."(3) And blessed
Hannah, when she asked for Samuel, said: "I have not drunk wine nor
strong
drink, and I pour out my soul before the Lord."(4) And the Ninevites,
when they fasted three days and three nights,(5) escaped the execution
of wrath. And Esther, and Mordecai, and Judith,(6) by fasting, escaped
the insurrection of the ungodly Holofernes and Haman. And David says:
"My knees are weak through fasting, and my flesh faileth for want of
oil."(7) Do you therefore fast, and ask your petitions of God. We
enjoin you to fast every fourth day of the week, and every day of the
preparation, and the surplusage of your fast bestow upon the needy;
every Sabbath-day excepting one, and every Lord's day, hold your solemn
assemblies, and rejoice: for he will be guilty of sin who fasts on the
Lord's day, being the day of the resurrection, or during the time of
Pentecost, or, in general, who is sad on a festival day to the Lord.
For on them we ought to rejoice, and not to mourn.
450
CONSTITUTIONS OF THE HOLY APOSTLES
BOOK VI.
SEC. I.--ON HERESIES.
WHO THEY WERE THAT VENTURED TO MAKE SCHISMS, AND DID NOT ESCAPE
PUNISHMENT.
I. ABOVE all things, O bishop, avoid the sad and
dangerous and most atheistical heresies, eschewing them as fire that
burns those that come near to it. Avoid also schisms: for it is neither
lawful to turn one's mind towards wicked heresies, nor to separate from
those of the same sentiment out of ambition. For some who ventured to
set up such practices of old did not escape punishment. For Dathan and
Abiram,(1) who set up in opposition to Moses, were swallowed up into
the earth. But Corah, and those two hundred and fifty who with him
raised a sedition against Aaron, were consumed by fire. Miriam also,
who reproached Moses, was cast out of the camp for seven days; for she
said that Moses had taken an Ethiopian to wife.(2) Nay, in the case of
Azariah and Uzziah,(3) the latter of which was king of Judah, but
venturing to usurp the priesthood, and desiring to offer incense, which
it was not lawful for him to do, was hindered by Azariah the high
priest, and the fourscore priests; and when he would not obey he found
the leprosy to arise in his forehead, and he hastened to go out,
because the Lord had reproved him.
THAT IT IS NOT lAWFUL TO RISE UP EITHER AGAINST THE KINGLY OR THE
PRIESTLY OFFICE.
II. Let us therefore, beloved, consider what sort of
glory that of the seditious is, and what their condemnation. For if he
that rises up against kings is worthy of punishment, even though he be
a son or a friend, how much more he that rises up against the priests!
For by how much the priesthood is more noble than the royal power, as
having its concern about the soul, so much has he a greater punishment
who ventures to oppose the priesthood, than he who ventures to oppose
the royal power, although neither of them goes unpunished. For neither
did Absalom nor Abdadan(4) escape without punishment; nor Corah and
Dathan.(1) The former rose against David, and strove concerning the
kingdom; the latter against Moses, concerning pre-eminence. And they
both spake evil; Absalom of his father David, as of an unjust
judge, saying to every one: "Thy words are good, but there is no
one that will hear thee, and do thee justice. Who will make me a
ruler?"(5) But Abdadan: "I have no part in David, nor any inheritance
in the son of Jesse."(6) It is plain that he could not endure to be
under David's government, of whom God spake: "I have found David the
son of Jesse, a man after my heart, who will do all my commands."(7)
But Dathan and Abiram, and the followers of Corah, said to Moses: "Is
it a small thing that thou hast brought us out of the land of Egypt,
out of a land flowing with milk and honey? And why hast thou put out
our eyes? And wilt thou rule over us?" And they gathered together
against him a great congregation; and the followers of Corah said: "Has
God spoken alone to Moses? Why is it that He has given the
high-priesthood to Aaron alone? Is not all the congregation of the Lord
holy? And why is Aaron alone possessed of the priesthood?"(8) And
before this, one said: "Who made thee a ruler and a judge over us?"(9)
CONCERNING THE VIRTUE OF MOSES AND THE INCREDULITY OF THE JEWISH
NATION, AND WHAT WONDERFUL WORKS GOD DID AMONG THEM.
III. And they raised a sedition against Moses the
servant of God, the meekest of all men,(10) and faithful, and
affronted(11) so great a man with the highest ingratitude; him who was
their lawgiver, and guardian, and high priest, and king, the ad-
451
ministrator of divine things; one that showed as a creator the mighty
works of the Creator; the meekest man, freest from arrogance, and full
of fortitude, and most benign in his temper; one who had delivered them
from many dangers, and freed them from several deaths by his holiness;
who had done so many signs and wonders from God before the people, and
had performed glorious and wonderful works for their benefit; who
had(1) brought the ten plagues upon the Egyptians; who had divided the
Red Sea, and had separated the waters as a walt on this side and on
that side, and had led the people through them as through a dry
wilderness,(2) and had drowned Pharaoh and the Egyptians, and all that
were in company with them;(3) and had made the fountain sweet for them
with wood, and had brought water out of the stony rock for them when
they were thirsty;(4) and had given them manna out of heaven, and had
distributed flesh to them out of the air;(5) and had afforded them a
pillar of fire in the night to enlighten and conduct them, and a pillar
of a cloud to shadow them in the day, by reason of the violent heat of
the sun;(6) and had exhibited to them the law of God, engraven from the
mouth, and hand, and writing of God, in tables of stone, the perfect
number of ten commandments;(7) "to whom God spake face to face, as if a
man spake to his friend;"(8) of whom He said, "And there arose not a
prophet like unto Moses."(9) Against him arose the followers of Corah,
and the Reubenites,(10) and threw stones at Moses, who prayed, and
said: "Accept not Thou their offering."(11) And the glory of God
appeared, and sent some down into the earth, and burnt up others with
fire; and so, as to those ringleaders of this schismatical deceit which
said, "Let us make ourselves a leader,"(12) the earth opened its mouth,
and swallowed them up, and their tents, and what appertained to them,
and they went down alive into hell; but tie destroyed the followers of
Corah with fire.
SEC. II.--HISTORY AND DOCTRINES OF HERESIES.
THAT SCHISM IS MADE. NOT BY HIM WHO SEPARATES HIMSELF FROM THE UNGODLY,
BUT WHO DEPARTS FROM THE GODLY.
IV. If therefore God inflicted punishment
immediately on those that made a schism on account of their ambition,
how much rather will He do it upon those who are the leaders of impious
heresies! Will not He inflict severer punishment on those that
blaspheme His providence or His creation? But do you, brethren, who are
instructed out of the Scripture, take care not to make divisions in
opinion, nor divisions in unity. For those who set up unlawful opinions
are marks of perdition to the people. In like manner, do not you of the
laity come near to such as advance doctrines contrary to the mind of
God; nor be you partakers of their impiety. For says God: "Separate
yourselves from (he midst of these men, lest you perish together with
them."(13) And again: "Depart from the midst of them, and separate
yourselves, says the Lord, and touch not the unclean thing, and I will
receive you."(14)
UPON WHAT ACCOUNT ISRAEL, FALSELY SO NAMED, IS REJECTED BY GOD,
DEMONSTRATED FROM THE PROPHETIC PREDICTIONS.
V. For those are most certainly to be avoided who
blaspheme God. The greatest part of the ungodly, indeed, are ignorant
of God; but these men, as fighters against God, are possessed with a
wilful evil disposition, as with a disease. For from the wickedness of
these heretics "pollution is gone out upon all the earth,"(15) as says
the prophet Jeremiah. For the wicked synagogue is now cast off by the
Lord God, and His house is rejected by Him, as He somewhere speaks: "I
have forsaken mine house, I have left mine inheritance."(16) And again,
says Isaiah: "I will neglect my vineyard, and it shall not be pruned
nor digged, and thorns shall spring up upon it, as upon a desert; and I
will command the clouds that they rain no rain upon it."(17) He has
therefore "left His people as a tent in a vineyard, and as a garner in
a fig or olive yard, and as a besieged city."(18) He has taken away
from them the Holy Spirit, and the prophetic rain, and has replenished
His Church with spiritual grace, as the "river of Egypt in the time of
first-fruits;"(19) and has advanced the same "as an house upon an hill,
or as an high mountain; as a mountain fruitful for milk and fatness,
wherein it has pleased God to dwell. For the Lord will inhabit therein
to the end."(20) And He says in Jeremiah: "Our sanctuary is an exalted
throne of glory."(21) And He says in Isaiah: "And it shall come to pass
in the last days, that the mountain of the Lord shall be glorious, and
the house of the Lord shall
452
be upon the top of the mountains, and shall be advanced above the
hills."(1) Since, therefore, He has forsaken His people, He has also
left His temple desolate, and rent the veil of the temple, and took
from them the Holy Spirit; for says He, "Behold, your house is left
unto you desolate."(2) And He has bestowed upon you, the
converted of the Gentiles, spiritual grace, as He says by Joel:
"And it shall come to pass after these things, saith God, that I will
pour out of my Spirit upon all flesh; and your sons shall prophesy, and
your daughters shall see visions, and your old men shall dream
dreams."(3) For God has taken away all the power and efficacy of His
word, and such like visitations, from that people, and has transferred
it to you, the converted of the Gentiles. For on this account the devil
himself is very angry at the holy Church of God: he is removed to you,
and has raised against you adversities, seditions, and reproaches,
schisms, and heresies. For he had before subdued that people to
himself, by their slaying of Christ. But you who have left his vanities
he tempts in different ways, as he did the blessed Job.(4) For indeed
he opposed that great high priest Joshua the son of Josedek;(5) and he
oftentimes sought to sift us, that our faith might fail.(6) But our
Lord and Master, having brought him to trial, said unto him: "The Lord
rebuke thee, O devil; and the Lord, who hath chosen Jerusalem, rebuke
thee. Is not this plucked out of the fire as a brand?"(7) And who said
then to those that stood by the high priest, "Take away his ragged
garments from him;" and added, "Behold, I have taken thine iniquities
away from thee;" He will say now, as He said formerly of us when
we were assembled together, "I have prayed that your faith may not
fail."(8)
THAT EVEN AMONG THE JEWS THERE AROSE THE DOCTRINE OF SEVERAL HERESIES
HATEFUL TO GOD.
VI. For even the Jewish nation had wicked heresies:
for of them were the Sadducees, who do not confess the resurrection of
the dead; and the Pharisees, who ascribe the practice of sinners to
fortune and fate; and the Basmotheans, who deny providence, and say
that the world is made by spontaneous motion, and take away the
immortality of the soul; and the Hemerobaptists, who every day, unless
they wash, do not eat,--nay, and unless they cleanse their beds and
tables, or platters and cups and seats, do not make use of any of them;
and those who arc newly risen
amongst us, the Ebionites, who will have the Son of God to be a mere
man, begotten by human pleasure, and the conjunction of Joseph and
Mary. There are also those that separate themselves from all these, and
observe the laws of their fathers, and these are the Essenes. These,
therefore, arose among the former people. And now the evil one, who is
wise to do mischief, and as for goodness, knows no such good thing, has
cast out some from among us, and has wrought by them heresies and
schisms.
WHENCE THE HERESIES SPRANG, AND WHO WAS THE RINGLEADER OF THEIR IMPIETY.
VII. Now the original of the new heresies
began thus: the devil entered into one Simon, of a village called
Gitthae, a Samaritan, by profession a magician, and made him the
minister of his wicked design.(9) For when Philip our
fellow-apostle,(10) by the gift of the Lord and the energy of His
Spirit, performed the miracles of healing in Samaria, insomuch that the
Samaritans were affected, and embraced the faith of the God of
the universe, and of the Lord Jesus, and were baptized into His name;
nay, and that Simon himself, when he saw the signs and wonders which
were done without any magic ceremonies, fell into admiration, and
believed, and was baptized, and continued in fasting and prayer,--we
heard of the grace of God which was among the Samaritans by Philip, and
came down(11) to them; and enlarging much upon the word of doctrine, we
laid our hands upon all that were baptized, and we conferred upon them
the participation of the Spirit. But when Simon saw that the Spirit was
given to believers by the imposition of our hands, he took money, and
offered it to us, saying, "Give me also the power, that on whomsoever I
also shall lay my hand, he may receive the Holy Ghost;"(12) being
desirous that as the devil(13) deprived Adam by his tasting of the tree
of that immortality which was promised him, so also that Simon might
entice us by the receiving of money, and might thereby cut us off from
the gift of God,(14) that so by exchange we might sell to him for money
the inestimable gift of the Spirit. But as we were all troubled at this
offer, I Peter, with a fixed attention on that malicious serpent which
was in him, said to Simon: "Let thy money go with thee to perdition,
because thou hast thought to purchase the gift of God with money. Thou
hast no part in this matter, nor lot in this faith;
453
for thy heart is not fight in the sight of God. Repent therefore of
this thy wickedness, and pray to the Lord, if perhaps the thought of
thine heart may be forgiven thee. For I perceive thou art in the gall
of bitterness and the bond of iniquity."(1) But then Simon was
terrified, and said: "I entreat you, pray ye to the Lord for me, that
none of those things which ye have spoken come upon me."(2)
WHO WERE THE SUCCESSORS OF SIMON'S IMPIETY, AND WHAT HERESIES THEY SET
UP.
VIII. But when we went forth among the Gentiles to
preach the word of life, then the devil wrought in the people to send
after us false apostles to the corrupting of the word; arid they sent
forth one Cleobius, and joined him with Simon, and these became
disciples to one Dositheus, whom they despising, put him down from the
principality. Afterwards also others were the authors of absurd
doctrines: Cerinthus, and Marcus, and Menander, and Basilides, and
Saturnilus. Of these some own the doctrine of many gods, some only of
three, but contrary to each other, without beginning, and ever with one
another, and some of an infinite number of them, and those unknown ones
also. And some reject marriage; and their doctrine is, that it is not
the appointment of God; and others abhor some kinds of food: some
are impudent in uncleanness, such as those who are falsely called
Nicolaitans. And Simon meeting me Peter, first at Caesarea
Stratonis (where the faithful Cornelius, a Gentile, believed on the
Lord Jesus by me), endeavoured to pervert the word of God; there being
with me the holy children, Zacchaeus, who was once a publican, and
Barnabas; and Nicetas and Aquila, brethren of Clement the bishop and
citizen of Rome, who was the disciple of Paul, our fellow-apostle and
fellow-helper in the Gospel. I thrice discoursed before them with him
concerning the true Prophet, and concerning the monarchy of God; and
when I had overcome him by the power of the Lord, and had put him to
silence, I drove him away into Italy.
HOW SIMON, DESIRING TO FLY BY SOME MAGICAL ARTS, FELL DOWN HEADLONG
FROM ON HIGH AT THE PRAYERS OF PETER, AND BRAKE HIS FEET, AND HANDS,
AND ANKLE-BONES.
IX. Now when he was in Rome, he mightily disturbed
the Church, and subverted many, and brought them over to himself, and
astonished the Gentiles with his skill in magic, insomuch that once, in
the middle of the day, he went into their theatre, and commanded the
people that they should bring me also by force into the theatre, and
promised he would fly in the air; and when all the people were in
suspense at this, I prayed by myself. And indeed he was carried up into
the air by demons, and did fly on high in the air, saying that he was
returning into heaven, and that he would supply them with good things
from thence. And the people making acclamations to him, as to a god, I
stretched out my hands to heaven, with my mind, and besought God
through the Lord Jesus to throw down this pestilent fellow, and to
destroy the power of those demons that made use of the same for the
seduction and perdition of men, to dash him against the ground, and
bruise him, but not to kill him. And then, fixing my eyes on Simon, I
said to him: "If I be a man of God, and a real apostle of Jesus Christ,
and a teacher of piety, and not of deceit, as thou art, Simon, I
command the wicked powers of the apostate from piety, by whom Simon the
magician is carried, to let go their hold, that he may fall down
headlong from his height, that he may be exposed to the laughter of
those that have been seduced by him." When I had said these words,
Simon was deprived of his powers, and fell down headlong with a great
noise, and was violently dashed against the ground, and had his hip and
ankle-bones broken; and the people cried out, saying, "There is one
only God, whom Peter rightly preaches in truth." And many left him; but
some who were worthy of perdition continued in his wicked doctrine. And
after this manner the most atheistical heresy of the Simonians was
first established in Rome; and the devil wrought by the rest of the
false apostles(3) also.
HOW THE HERESIES
DIFFER FROM EACH OTHER, AND FROM THE TRUTH.
X. Now all these had one and the same design of
atheism, to blaspheme Almighty God, to spread their doctrine that He is
an unknown being, and not the Father of Christ, nor the Creator of the
world; but one who cannot be spoken of, ineffable, not to be named, and
begotten by Himself; that we are not to make use of the law and the
prophets; that there is no providence and no resurrection to be
believed; that there is no judgment nor retribution; that the soul is
trot immortal; that we must only indulge our pleasures, and turn to any
sort of worship without distinction. Some of them say that there are
many gods, some that there are three gods without beginning, some that
there are two unbegotten gods, some that there are innumerable AEons.
Further, some of them teach that men are not to marry, and must ab-
454
stain from flesh and wine, affirming that marriage, and the begetting
of children, and the eating of certain foods, are abominable;
that so, as sober persons, they may make their wicked opinions to be
received as worthy of belief. And some of them absolutely
prohibit the eating of flesh, as being the flesh not of brute
animals, but of creatures that have a rational soul, as though those
that ventured to slay them would be charged with the crime of murder.
But others of them affirm that we must only abstain from swine's flesh,
but may eat such as are clean by the law; and that we ought to be
circumcised, according to the law, and to believe in Jesus as in an
holy man and a prophet. But others teach that men ought to be impudent
in uncleanness, and to abuse the flesh, and to go through all unholy
practices, as if this were the only way for the soul to avoid the
rulers of this world. Now all these are the instruments of the devil,
and the children of wrath.
SEC.
III.--THE HERESIES ATTACKED BY THE APOSTLES.
AN EXPOSITION OF THE PREACHING OF THE APOSTLES.
XI. But we, who are the children of God and the sons
of peace, do preach the holy and right word of piety, and declare one
only God, the Lord of the law and of the prophets, the Maker of the
world, the Father of Christ; not a being that caused Himself, or begat
Himself, as they suppose, but eternal, and without original, and
inhabiting light inaccessible; not two or three, or manifold, but
eternally one only; not a being that cannot be known or spoken of, but
who was preached by the law and the prophets; the Almighty, the Supreme
Governor of all things, the All-powerful Being; the God and Father of
the Only-begotten, and of the First-born of the whole creation; one
God, the Father of one Son, not of many; the Maker of one Comforter by
Christ, the Maker of the other orders, the one Creator of the several
creatures by Christ, the same their Preserver and Legislator by Him;
the cause of the resurrection, and of the judgment, and of the
retribution which shall be made by Him: that this same Christ was
pleased to become man, and went through life without sin, and suffered,
and rose from the dead, and, returned to Him that sent Him. We also say
that every creature of God is good, and nothing abominable; that
everything for the support of life, when it is partaken of righteously,
is very good: for, according to the Scripture, "all things were very
good."(1) We believe that lawful marriage, and the begetting of
children, is honourable and undefiled; for difference of sexes was
formed in Adam and Eve for the increase of mankind. We acknowledge with
us a soul that is incorporeal and immortal,--not corruptible as bodies
are, but immortal, as being rational and free. We abhor all unlawful
mixtures, and that which is practised by some against nature as wicked
and impious. We profess there will be a resurrection both of the just
and unjust, and a retribution. We profess that Christ is not a mere
man, but God the Word, and man the Mediator between God and men, the
High Priest of the Father; nor are we circumcised with the Jews, as
knowing that He is come "to whom the inheritance was reserved,"(2) and
on whose account the families were kept distinct-"the expectation of
the Gentiles," Jesus Christ, who sprang out of Judah,(3) the Son from
the branch, the flower from Jesse, whose government is upon His
shoulder.(4)
FOR THOSE THAT CONFESS CHRIST, BUT
ARE DESIROUS TO JUDAIZE.
XII. But because this heresy did then seem the more
powerful to seduce men, and the whole Church was in danger,(5) we the
twelve assembled together at Jerusalem (for Matthias was chosen to be
an apostle in the room of the betrayer, and took the lot of Judas; as
it is said, "His bishopric(6) let another take"). We deliberated,
together with James the Lord's brother, what was to be done; and it
seemed good to him and to the elders to speak to the people words of
doctrine. For certain men likewise went down from Judea to Antioch, and
taught the brethren who were there, saying: "Unless ye be circumcised
after the manner of Moses, and walk according to the other customs
which he ordained, ye cannot be saved."(7) When, therefore, there had
been no small dissension and disputation, the brethren which were at
Antioch, when they knew that we were all met together about this
question, sent out unto us men who were faithful and understanding in
the Scriptures to learn concerning this question. And they, when they
were come to Jerusalem, declared to us what questions were arisen in
the church of Antioch,--namely, that some said men ought to be
circumcised, and to observe the other purifications. And when some said
one thing, and some another, I Peter stood up, and said unto them: "Men
and brethren, ye know how that from ancient days God made choice among
you that the Gentiles should hear the word of the Gospel by my mouth,
and believe; and God, which knoweth the hearts, bare
455
them witness.(1) For an angel of the Lord appeared on a certain time to
Cornelius,(2) who was a centurion of the Roman government, and spake to
him concerning me, that he should send for me, and hear the word, of
life from my mouth. He therefore sent for me from Joppa to Caesarea
Stratonis; and when I was ready to go to him, I would have eaten. And
while they made ready I was in the upper room praying; and I saw heaven
opened, and a vessel, knit at the four corners like a splendid sheet,
let down to the earth, wherein were all manner of four-looted beasts,
and creeping things of the earth, and fowls of the heaven. And there
came a voice out of heaven to me, saying, Arise, Peter; kill, and eat.
And I said, By no means, Lord: for I have never eaten anything common
or unclean. And there came a voice a second time, saying, What God hath
cleansed, that call not thou common. And this was done thrice, and the
vessel was received up again into heaven. But as I doubted what this
vision should mean, the Spirit said to me, Behold, men seek thee; but
rise up, and go thy way with them, nothing doubting, for I have sent
them.(3) These men were those which came from the centurion, and so by
reasoning I understood the word of the Lord which is written:
'Whosoever shall call on the name of the Lord shall be saved.'(4) And
again: 'All the ends of the earth shall remember, and turn unto the
Lord, and all the families of the heathen shall worship before Him: for
the kingdom is in the Lord's, and He is the governor of the
nations.'(5) And observing that there were expressions everywhere
concerning the calling of the Gentiles, I rose up, and went with them,
and entered into the man's house. And while I was preaching the word,
the Holy 'Spirit fell upon him, and upon those that were with him, as
it did upon us at the beginning; and He put no difference between us
and them, purifying their hearts by faith. And I perceived that God is
no respecter of persons; but that in every nation he that feareth Him,
and worketh righteousness, will be accepted with Him. But even the
believers which were of the circumcision were astonished at this. Now
therefore why tempt ye God, to lay an heavy yoke upon the neck of the
disciples, which neither we nor our fathers were able to bear? But by
the grace of the Lord, we believe we shall be saved, even as
they.(6) For the Lord has loosed us from our bonds, and has made our
burden light, and has loosed the heavy yoke from us by His clemency."
While I spake these things, the whole multitude kept silence. But James
the Lord's brother answered and said: "Men and brethren, hearken unto
me; Simeon hath declared how God at first visited to take out a people
from the Gentiles for His name. And to this agree the words of the
prophets; as it is written: 'Afterwards I will return, and will raise
again and rebuild the tabernacle of David, which is fallen down; and I
will rebuild its ruins, and will again set it up, that the residue of
men may seek after the Lord, and all the nations upon whom my name is
called, saith the Lord, who doth these things.'(7) Known unto God are
all His works from the beginning of the world. Wherefore my sentence
is, that we do not trouble those who from among the Gentiles turn unto
God: but to charge them that they abstain from the pollutions of the
Gentiles, and from what is sacrificed to idols, and from blood, and
from things strangled, and from fornication; which laws were given to
the ancients who lived before the law, under the law of nature, Enos,
Enoch, Noah, Melchizedek, Job, and if there be any other of the same
sort."(8) Then it seemed good to us the apostles, and to James the
bishop, and to the elders, with the whole Church, to send men chosen
from among our own selves, with Barnabas, and Paul of Tarsus, the
apostle of the Gentiles, and Judas who was called Barsabbas, and Silas,
chief men among the brethren, and wrote by their hand, as follows: "The
apostles, and elders, and brethren,(9) to the brethren of Antioch,
Syria, and Cilicia of the Gentiles, send greeting: Since we have heard
that some from us have troubled you with words, subverting your souls,
to whom we gave no such commandment, it has seemed good to us, when we
were met together with one accord, to send chosen men to you, with our
beloved Barnabas and Paul, men that have hazarded their lives for our
Lord Jesus Christ, by whom ye sent unto us. We have sent also with them
Judas and Silas, who shall themselves declare the same things by mouth.
For it seemed good to the Holy Ghost, and to us, to lay no other burden
upon you than these necessary things; that ye abstain from things
offered to idols, and from blood, and from things strangled, and from
fornication: from which things if ye keep yourselves, ye shall do well.
Fare ye well."(10) We accordingly sent this epistle; but we ourselves
remained in Jerusalem many days, consulting together for the public
benefit, for the well ordering of all things.
THAT WE MUST SEPARATE FROM HERETICS.
XIII. But after a long time we visited the brethren,
anti confirmed them with the word of
456
piety, and charged them to avoid those who, under the name of Christ
and Moses, war against Christ and Moses, and in the clothing of sheep
hide the wolf. For these are false Christs, and false prophets, and
false apostles, deceivers and corrupters, portions of foxes, the
destroyers of the herbs of the vineyards: "for whose sake the love of
many will wax cold. But he that endureth stedfast to the end, the same
shall be saved.(1) Concerning whom, that He might secure us, the Lord
declared, saying: "There will come to you men in sheep's clothing, but
inwardly they are ravening wolves. Ye shall know them by their fruits;
take care of them. For false Christs and false prophets shall arise and
shall deceive many."(2)
WHO WERE THE PREACHERS OF THE CATHOLIC DOCTRINE, AND WHICH ARE THE
COMMANDMENTS GIVEN BY THEM.
XIV. On whose account also we, who are now assembled
in one place,--Peter and Andrew; James and John, sons of Zebedee;
Philip and Bartholomew; Thomas and Matthew; James the son of Alphaeus,
and Lebbaeus who is surnamed Thaddaeus; and Simon the Canaanite,(3) and
Matthias, who instead of Judas was numbered with us; and James the
brother of the Lord and bishop of Jerusalem, and Paul the teacher of
the Gentiles, the chosen vessel, having all met together, have written
to you this Catholic doctrine for the confirmation of you, to whom the
oversight of the universal Church is committed: wherein we declare unto
you, that there is only one God Almighty, besides whom there is no
other, and that you must worship and adore Him alone, through Jesus
Christ our Lord, in the most holy Spirit;(4) that you are to make use
of the sacred Scriptures, the law, and the prophets; to honour your
parents; to avoid all unlawful actions; to believe the resurrection and
the judgment, and to expect the retribution; and to use all His
creatures with thankfulness, as the works of God, and having no evil in
them; to marry after a lawful manner, for such marriage is unblameable.
For "the woman is suited to the man by the Lord;"(5) and the Lord says:
"He that made them from the beginning, made them male and female; and
said, For this cause shall a man leave his father and his mother, and
shall cleave unto his wife: and they two shall be one flesh."(6) Nor
let it be esteemed lawful after marriage to put her away who is without
blame. For says He: "Thou shalt take care to thy spirit, and shalt not
forsake the wife of thy youth; for she is the partner(7) of thy life,
and the remains of thy spirit. I and no other have made her."(8) For
the Lord says: "What God has joined together, let no man put
asunder."(9) For the wife is the partner of life, united by God unto
one body from two. But he that divides that again into two which is
become one, is the enemy of the creation of God, and the adversary of
His providence. In like manner, he that retains her that is corrupted
is a transgressor of the law of nature; since "he that retains an
adulteress is foolish and impious."(10) For says He, "Cut her off from
thy flesh;"(11) for she is not an help, but a snare, bending her mind
from thee to another. Nor be ye circumcised in your flesh, but let the
circumcision which is of the heart by the Spirit suffice for the
faithful; for He says, "Be ye circumcised to your God, and be
circumcised in the foreskin of your heart."(12)
THAT WE OUGHT NOT TO REBAPTIZE, NOR TO RECEIVE THAT BAPTISM WHICH IS
GIVEN BY THE UNGODLY, WHICH IS NOT BAPTISM, BUT A POLLUTION.
XV. Be ye likewise contented with one baptism alone,
that which is into the death of the Lord; not that which is conferred
by wicked heretics, but that which is conferred by unblameable priests,
"in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost:"(13)
and let not that which comes from the ungodly be received by you, nor
let that which is done by the godly be disannulled by a second. For as
there is one God, one Christ, and one Comforter, and one death of the
Lord in the body, so let that baptism which is unto Him be but one. But
those that receive polluted baptism from the ungodly will become
partners in their opinions. For they are not priests. For God says to
them: "Because thou hast rejected knowledge, I will also reject thee
from the office of a priest to me."(14) Nor indeed are those that are
baptized by them initiated, but are polluted, not receiving the
remission of sins, but the bond of impiety. And, besides, they that
attempt to baptize those already initiated crucify the Lord afresh,
slay Him a second time, laugh at divine and ridicule holy things,
affront the Spirit, dishonour the sacred blood of Christ as common
blood, are impious against Him that sent, Him that suffered, and Him
that witnessed. Nay, he that, out of contempt, will not be baptized,
shall be
457
condemned as an unbeliever, and shall be reproached as ungrateful and
foolish. For the Lord says: "Except a man be baptized of water and of
the Spirit, he shall by no means enter into the kingdom of heaven."(1)
And again: "He that believeth and is baptized shall be saved; but he
that believeth not shall be damned."(2) But he that says, When I am
dying I will be baptized, lest I should sin and defile my baptism, is
ignorant of God, and forgetful of his own nature. For "do not thou
delay to turn unto the Lord, for thou knowest not what the next day
will bring forth."(3) Do you also baptize your infants, and bring them
up in the nurture and admonition of God. For says He: "Suffer the
little children to come unto me, and forbid them not."(4)
CONCERNING BOOKS WITH FALSE INSCRIPTIONS.
XVI. We have sent all these things to you, that ye
may know our opinion, what it is; and that ye may not receive those
books which obtain in our name, but are written by the ungodly. For you
are not to attend to the names of the apostles, but to the nature of
the things, and their settled opinions. For we know that Simon and
Cleobius, and their followers, have compiled poisonous books under the
name of Christ and of His disciples, and do carry them about in order
to deceive yon who love Christ, and us His servants. And among the
ancients also some have written apocryphal books of Moses, and Enoch,
and Adam, and Isaiah, and David, and Elijah, and of the three
patriarchs, pernicious and repugnant to the truth. The same things even
now have the wicked heretics done, reproaching the creation, marriage,
providence, the begetting of children, the law, and the prophets;
inscribing certain barbarous names, and, as they think, of angels, but,
to speak the truth, of demons, which suggest things to them: whose
doctrine eschew, that ye may not be partakers of the punishment due to
those that write such things for the seduction and perdition of the
faithful and unblameable disciples of the Lord
Jesus.
MATRIMONIAL PRECEPTS CONCERNING CLERGYMEN.
XVII. We have already said, that a bishop, a
presbyter, and a deacon, when they are constituted, must be but once
married, whether their wives be alive or whether they be dead; and that
it is not lawful for them, if they are unmarried when they are
ordained, to be married afterwards; or if they be then married, to
marry a second time, but to be content with that wife. which they had
when they came to ordination.(5) We also appoint that the ministers,
and singers, and readers, and porters, shall be only once married. But
if they entered into the clergy before they were married, we permit
them to many, if they have an inclination thereto, lest they sin and
incur punishment.(6) But we do not permit any one of the clergy to take
to wife either a courtesan, or a servant, or a widow, or one that is
divorced, as also the law says. Let the deaconess be a pure virgin; or,
at the least, a widow who has been but once married, faithful, and well
esteemed.(7)
AN EXHORTATION COMMANDING TO AVOID THE COMMUNION OF THE IMPIOUS
HERETICS.
XVIII. Receive ye the penitent, for this is the will
of God in Christ. Instruct the catechumens in the elements of religion,
and then baptize them. Eschew the antheistical heretics, who are past
repentance, and separate them from the faithful, and excommunicate them
from the Church of God, and charge the faithful to abstain entirely
from them, and not to partake with them either in sermons or prayers:
for these are those that are enemies to the Church, and lay snares for
it; who corrupt the flock, and defile the heritage of Christ,
pretenders only to wisdom, and the vilest of men; concerning whom
Solomon the wise said: "The wicked doers pretend to act piously." For,
says he, "there is a way which seemeth right to some, but the ends
thereof look to the bottom of hell."(8) These are they concerning whom
the Lord declared His mind with bitterness and severity, saying that
"they are false Christs and false teachers;"(9) who have blasphemed the
Spirit of grace, and done despite to the gift they had from Him after
the grace of baptism, "to whom forgiveness shall not be granted,
neither in this world nor in that which is to come;"(10) who are both
more wicked than the Jews and more atheistical than the Gentiles; who
blaspheme the God over all, and tread under foot His Son, and do
despite to the doctrine of the Spirit; who deny the words of God, or
pretend hypocritically to receive them, to the affronting of God, and
the deceiving of those that come among them; who abuse the Holy
Scriptures, and as for righteousness, they do not so much as know what
it is; who spoil the Church of God, as the "little foxes do the
vineyard;"(11) whom we exhort you to avoid, lest you lay traps for your
own souls. "For he that walketh with wise men shall be wise, but he
that walketh
458
with the foolish shall be known."(1) For we ought neither to run along
with a thief, nor put in our lot with an adulterer; since holy David
says: "O Lord, I have hated them that hate Thee, and I am withered away
on account of Thy enemies. I hated them with a perfect hatred: they
were to me as enemies."(2) And God reproaches Jehoshaphat with his
friendship towards Ahab, and his league with him and with Ahaziah, by
Jonah the prophet: "Art thou in friendship with a sinner? Or dost thou
aid him that is hated by the Lord?"(3) "For this cause the wrath of the
Lord would be upon thee suddenly, but that thy heart is found perfect
with the Lord. For this cause the Lord hath spared thee; yet are thy
works shattered, and thy ships broken to pieces."(4) Eschew therefore
their fellowship, and estrange yourselves from their friendship. For
concerning them did the prophet declare, and say: "It is not lawful to
rejoice with the ungodly,"(5) says the Lord. For these are hidden
wolves, dumb dogs, that cannot bark, who at present are but few, but in
process of time, when the end of the world draws nigh, will be more in
number and more troublesome, of whom said the Lord, "Will the Son of
man, when He comes, find faith on the earth?"(6) and, "Because iniquity
shall abound, the love of many shall wax cold;" and, "There shall come
false Christs and false prophets, and shall show signs in the heaven,
so as, if it were possible, to deceive the elect:"(7) from whose deceit
God, through Jesus Christ, who is our hope, will deliver us. For we
ourselves, as we passed through the nations, and confirmed the
churches. curing some with much exhortation and healing words, restored
them again when they were in the certain way to death. But those that
were incurable we cast out from the flock, that they might not infect
the lambs, which were found with their scabby disease, but might
continue before the Lord God pure and undefiled, sound and unspotted.
And this we did in every city, everywhere through the whole world, and
have left to you the bishops and to the rest of the priests this very
Catholic doctrine worthily and righteously, as a memorial or
confirmation to those who have believed in God; and we have sent it by
our fellow-minister Clement, our most faithful and intimate son in the
Lord, together with Barnabas, and Timothy our most dearly beloved son,
and the genuine Mark, together with whom we recommend to you also Titus
and Luke, and Jason and Lucius, and Sosipater.(8)
SEC. IV.--OF THE LAW.
By whom also we exhort you in the Lord to abstain
from your old conversation, vain bonds, separations, observances,
distinction of meats, and daily washings: for "old things are passed
away; behold, all things are become new."(9)
TO THOSE THAT SPEAK EVIL OF THE LAW,
XIX. For since ye have known God through Jesus
Christ, and all His dispensation, as it has been from the beginning,
that He gave a plain law to assist the law of nature,(10) such a one as
is pure, saving, and holy, in which His own name was inscribed,(11)
perfect, which is never to fail, being complete in ten commands,
unspotted, converting souls;(12) which, when the Hebrews forgot, He put
them in mind of it by the prophet Malachi, saying, "Remember ye the law
of Moses, the man of God, who gave you in charge commandments and
ordinances."(13) Which law is so very holy and righteous, that even our
Saviour, when on a certain time He healed one leper, and afterwards
nine, said to the first, "Go, show thyself to the high priest, and
offer the gift which Moses commanded for a testimony unto them;"(14)
and afterwards to the nine, "Go, show yourselves to the priests."(15)
For He nowhere has dissolved the law, as Simon pretends, bat fulfilled
it; for He says: "One iota, or one tittle, shall not pass from the law
until all be fulfilled." For says He, "I come not to dissolve the law,
but to fulfil it."(16) For Moses himself, who was at once the lawgiver,
and the high priest, and the prophet, and the king, and Elijah, the
zealous follower of the prophets, were present at our Lord's
transfiguration in the mountain,(17) and witnesses of His incarnation
and of His sufferings, as the intimate friends of Christ, but not as
enemies and strangers. Whence it is demonstrated that the law is good
and holy, as also the prophets.
WHICH IS THE LAW OF NATURE, AND WHICH iS THAT AFTERWARDS INTRODUCED,
AND WHY IT WAS INTRODUCED.
XX. Now the law is the decalogue, which the Lord
promulgated to them with an audible voice,(18) before the people made
that calf which represented the Egyptian Apis.(19) And the law is
righteous, and therefore is it called the law, because judgments are
thence made according
459
to the law of nature, which the followers of Simon abuse, supposing
they shall not be judged thereby, and so shall escape punishment. This
law is good, holy, and such as lays no compulsion in things positive.
For He says: "If thou wilt make me an altar, thou shalt make it
of earth."(1) It does not say, "Make one," but, "If thou wilt make." It
does not impose a necessity, but gives leave to their own free liberty.
For God does not stand in need of sacrifices, being by nature above all
want. But knowing that, as of old, Abel, beloved of God, and Noah
and Abraham, and those that succeeded, without being required, but only
moved of themselves by the law of nature, did offer sacrifice to God
out of a grateful mind; so He did now permit the Hebrews, not
commanding, but, if they had a mind, permitting them; and if they
offered from a right intention, showing Himself pleased with their
sacrifices. Therefore He says: "If thou desirest to offer, do not
offer. to me as to one that stands in need of it, for I stand in need
of nothing; for the world is mine, and the fulness thereof."(2) But
when this people became forgetful of that, and called upon a calf as
God, instead of the true God, and to him did ascribe the cause of
their coming out of Egypt, saying, "These are thy gods, O lsrael, which
have brought thee out of the land of Egypt;"(3) and when these men had
committed: wickedness with the "similitude of a calf that eateth hay;"
and denied God who had visited them by Moses(4) in their
afflictions, and had done signs with his hand and rod, and had smitten
the Egyptians with ten plagues; who bad divided the waters of the Red
Sea into two parts; who had led them in the midst of the water,
as a horse upon the ground; who had drowned their enemies, and
those that laid wait for them; who at Marah had made sweet the
bitter fountain; who had brought water out of the sharp rock till they
were satisfied; who had overshadowed them with a pillar of a cloud on
account of the immoderate heat, and with a pillar of fire which
enlightened and guided them when they knew not which way they were to
go; who gave them manna from heaven, and gave them quails for flesh
from the sea;(5) who gave them the law in the mountain; whose voice He
had vouchsafed to let them hear; Him did they deny, and said to Aaron,
"Make us gods who shall go before us;"(6) and they made a molten calf,
and sacrificed to an idol;--then was God angry, as being ungratefully
treated by them, and bound them with bonds which could not be loosed,
with a mortifying burden and a hard collar, and no longer said, "If
thou makest," but, "Make an altar," and sacrifice perpetually; for thou
art forgetful and ungrateful. Offer burnt-offerings therefore
continually, that thou mayest be mindful of me. For since thou hast
wickedly abused thy power, I lay a necessity upon thee for the time to
come, and I command thee to abstain from certain meats; and I ordain
thee the distinction of clean and unclean creatures, although every
creature is good, as being made by me; and I appoint thee several
separations, purgations, frequent washings and sprinklings, several
purifications, and several times of rest; and if thou neglectest any of
them, I determine that punishment which is proper to the disobedient,
that being pressed and galled by thy collar, thou mayest depart from
the error of polytheism, and laying aside that, "These are thy gods, O
Israel,"(3) mayest be mindful of that, "Hear, O lsrael, the Lord thy
God is one Lord;"(7) and mayest run back again to that law which is
inserted by me in the nature of all men, "that there is only one God in
heaven and on earth, and to love Him with all thy heart, and all thy
might, and all thy mind," and to fear none but Him, nor to admit the
names of other gods into thy mind, nor to let thy tongue utter them out
of thy mouth. He bound them for the hardness of their hearts, that by
sacrificing, and resting, and purifying themselves, and by similar
observances, they might come to the knowledge of God, who ordained
these things for them.
THAT WE WHO BELIEVE IN CHRIST ARE UNDER GRACE, AND NOT UNDER THE
SERVITUDE OF THAT ADDITIONAL LAW.
XXI. "But blessed are your eyes, for they see; and
your ears, for they hear."(8) Yours, I say, who have believed in
the one God, not by necessity, but by a sound understanding, in
obedience to Him that called you. For you are released from the bonds,
and freed from the servitude. For says He:(9) "I call you no longer
servants, but friends; for all things that I have heard of my Father
have I made known unto you."(10) For to them that would not see nor
hear, not for the want of those senses, but for the excess of their
wickedness, "I gave statutes that were not good, and judgments whereby
they would not live;"(11) they are looked upon as not good, as burnings
and a sword, and medicines are esteemed enemies by the sick, and
impossible to be observed on account of their
460
obstinacy: whence also they brought death upon them being not obeyed.
THAT THE LAW FOR SACRIFICES IS ADDITIONAL, WHICH CHRIST WHEN HE CAME
TOOK AWAY.
XXII. You therefore are blessed who are delivered
from the curse, For Christ, the Son of God, by His coming has confirmed
and completed the law, but has taken away the additional precepts,
although not all of them, yet at least the more grievous ones; having
confirmed the former, and abolished the latter, and has again set the
free-will of man at liberty, not subjecting him to the penalty of a
temporal death, but giving laws to him according to another
constitution. Wherefore He says: "If any man will come after me, let
him come."(1) And again: "Will ye also go away?"(2) And besides, before
His coining He refused the sacrifices of the people, while they
frequently offered them, when they sinned against Him, and thought He
was to be appeased by sacrifices, but not by repentance. For thus He
speaks: "Why dost thou bring to me frankincense from Saba, and cinnamon
from a remote land? Your burnt-offerings are not acceptable, and your
sacrifices are not sweet to me."(3) And afterwards: "Gather your
burnt-offerings, together with your sacrifices, and eat flesh. For I
did not command you, when I brought you out of the land of Egypt,
concerning burnt-offerings and sacrifices."(4) And He says by Isaiah:
"To what purpose do ye bring me a multitude of sacrifices? saith the
Lord. I am full of the burnt-offerings of rams, and I will not accept
the fat of lambs, and the blood of bulls and of goats. Nor do you come
and appear before me; for who hath required these things at your hands?
Do not go on to tread my courts any more. If you bring me fine flour,
it is vain: incense is an abomination unto me: your new moons, and your
Sabbaths, and your great day, I cannot bear them: your fasts, and your
rests, and your feasts, my soul hateth them; I am over-full of
them."(5) And He says by another: "Depart from me; the sound of thine
hymns, and the psalms of thy musical instruments, I will not hear."(6)
And Samuel says to Saul, when he thought to sacrifice: "Obedience is
better than sacrifice, and hearkening than the fat of rams. For,
behold, the Lord does not so much delight in sacrifice, as in obeying
Him."(7) And He says by David: "I will take no calves out of thine
house, nor he-goats out of thy flock. If I should be hungry, I would
not tell thee; for the whole world is mine, and the fulness thereof.
Shall I eat the flesh of bulls, or drink the blood of goats? Sacrifice
to God the sacrifice of praise, and pay thy vows to the Most High."(8)
And in all the Scriptures in like manner He refuses their sacrifices on
account of their sinning against Him. For "the sacrifices of the
impious are an abomination with the Lord, since they offer them in an
unlawful manner."(9) And again: "Their sacrifices are to them as bread
of lamentation; all that eat of them shall be defiled."(10) If,
therefore, before His coining He sought for "a clean heart and a
contrite spirit"(11) more than sacrifices, much rather would He
abrogate those sacrifices, I mean those by blood, when He came. Yet He
so abrogated them as that He first fulfilled them. For He was both
circumcised, and sprinkled, and offered sacrifices and whole
burnt-offerings, and made use of the rest of their customs. And He that
was the Lawgiver became Himself the fulfilling of the law; not taking
away the law of nature, but abrogating those additional laws that were
afterwards introduced, although not all of them neither.
HOW CHRIST BECAME A FULFILLER OF THE LAW, AND WHAT PARTS OF IT HE PUT A
PERIOD TO, OR CHANGED, OR TRANSFERRED.
XXIII. For He did not take away the law of nature,
but confirmed it. For He that said in the law, "The Lord thy God is one
Lord;"(12)
the same says in the Gospel, "That they might know Thee, the only true
God."(13) And He that said, "Thou shalt love thy neighhour as
thyself,"(14) says in the Gospel, renewing the same precept, "A new
commandment I give unto you, that ye love one another."(15) He who then
forbade murder, does now forbid causeless anger.(16) He that forbade
adultery, does now forbid all unlawful lust. He that forbade stealing,
now pronounces him most happy who supplies those that are in want out
of his own labours.(17) He that forbade hatred, now pronounces him
blessed that loves his enemies.(18) He that forbade revenge, now
commands long-suffering;(19) not as if just revenge were an unrighteous
thing, but because long-suffering is more excellent. Nor did He make
laws to root out our natural passions, but only to forbid the excess of
them.(20)
461
He who had commanded to honour our parents, was Himself subject to
them.(1) He who had commanded to keep the Sabbath, by resting thereon
for the sake of meditating on the laws, has now commanded us to
consider of the law of creation, and of providence every day, and to
return thanks to God, He abrogated circumcision when He had Himself
fulfilled it. For He it was "to whom the inheritance was reserved, who
was the expectation of the nations."(2) He who made a law for swearing
rightly, and forbade perjury, has now charged us not to swear at
all.(3) He has in several ways changed baptism, sacrifice, the
priesthood, and the divine service, which was confined to one place:
for instead of daily baptisms, He has given only one, which is that
into His death. Instead of one tribe, He has appointed that out of
every nation the best should be ordained for the priesthood; and that
not their bodies should be examined for blemishes, but their religion
and their lives. Instead of a bloody sacrifice, He has appointed that
reasonable and unbloody mystical one of His body and blood, which is
performed to represent the death of the Lord by symbols. Instead of the
divine service confined to one place, He has commanded and appointed
that He should be glorified from sun-rising to sunsetting in every
place of His dominion.(4) He did not therefore take away the law from
us, but the bonds. For concerning the law Moses says: "Thou shalt
meditate on the word which I command thee, sitting in thine house, and
rising up, and walking in the way."(5) And David says: "His delight is
in the law of the Lord, and in His law will he meditate day and
night."(6) For everywhere would he have us subject to His laws, but not
transgressors of them. For says He: "Blessed are the undefiled in the
way, who walk in the law of the Lord. Blessed are they that search out
His testimonies; with their whole heart shall they seek Him."(7) And
again: "Blessed are we, O Israel, because those things that are
pleasing to God are known to us."(8) And the Lord says: "If ye know
these things, happy are ye if ye do them."(9)
THAT IT PLEASED THE LORD THAT THE LAW OF RIGHTEOUSNESS SHOULD BE
DEMONSTRATED BY THE ROMANS.
XXIV. Nor does He desire that the law of
righteousness should only be demonstrated by
us; but He is pleased that it should appear and shine by means of the
Romans. For these Romans, believing in the Lord, left off their
polytheism and injustice, and entertain the good, and punish the bad.
But they hold the Jews under tribute, and do not suffer them to make
use of their own ordinances.
HOW GOD, ON ACCOUNT OF THEIR IMPIETY TOWARDS CHRIST, MADE THE JEWS
CAPTIVES, AND PLACED THEM UNDER TRIBUTE.
XXV. Because, indeed, they drew servitude upon
themselves voluntarily, when they said, "We have no king but
Caesar;"(10) and, "If we do not slay Christ, all men will believe in
Him, and the Romans will come and will take away both our place and
nation."(11) And so they prophesied unwittingly. For accordingly the
nations believed on Him, and they themselves were deprived by the
Romans of their power, and of their legal worship; and they have been
forbidden to slay whom they please, and to sacrifice when they will.
Wherefore they are accursed, as not able to perform the things they are
commanded to do. For says He: "Cursed be he that does not continue in
all things that are written in the book of the law to do them."(12) Now
it is impossible in their dispersion, while they are among the heathen,
for them to perform all things in their law. For the divine Moses
forbids both to rear an altar out of Jerusalem, and to read the law out
of the bounds of Judea.(13) Let us therefore follow Christ, that we may
inherit His blessings. Let us walk after the law and the prophets by
the Gospel. Let us eschew the worshippers of many gods, and the
murderers of Christ, and the murderers of the prophets, and the wicked
and atheistical heretics. Let us be obedient to Christ as to our King,
as having authority to change several constitutions, and having, as a
legislator, wisdom to make new constitutions in different
circumstances; yet so that everywhere the laws of nature be immutably
preserved.
SEC. V.--THE TEACHING OF THE APOSTLES IN OPPOSITION TO JEWISH
AND GENTILE SUPERSTITIONS, ESPECIALLY IN REGARD TO MARRIAGE AND
FUNERALS.
THAT WE OUGHT TO AVOID THE HERETICS AS THE
CORRUPTERS OF SOULS.
XXVI. Do you therefore, O bishops, and ye of the
laity, avoid all heretics who abuse the law and the prophets. For they
are enemies to God Almighty, and disobey Him, and do not confess
462
Christ to be the Son of God. For they also deny His generation
according to the flesh; they are ashamed of the cross; they abuse His
passion and His death; they know not His resurrection; they take away
His generation before all ages. Nay, some of them are impious after
another manner, imagining the Lord to be a mere man, supposing Him to
consist of a soul and body. But others of them suppose that Jesus
Himself is the God over all, and glorify Him as His own Father, and
suppose Him to be both the Son and the Comforter; than which doctrines
what can be more detestable? Others, again, of them do refuse certain
meats, and say that marriage with the procreation of children is evil,
and the contrivance of the devil; and being ungodly themselves, they
are not willing to rise again from the dead on account of their
wickedness. Wherefore also they ridicule the resurrection, and say, We
are holy people, unwilling to eat and to drink; and they fancy that
they shall rise again from the dead demons without flesh, who shall be
condemned for ever in eternal fire. Fly therefore from them, lest ye
perish with them in their impieties.
OF
SOME JEWISH AND GENTILE OBSERVANCES.
XXVII. Now if any persons keep to the Jewish
customs and observances concerning the natural emission and nocturnal
pollutions, and the lawful conjugal acts,(1) let them tell us whether
in those hours or days, when they undergo any such thing, they observe
not to pray, or to touch a Bible, or to partake of the Eucharist? And
if they own it to be so, it is plain they are void of the Holy Spirit,
which always continues with the faithful. For concerning holy persons
Solomon says: "That every one may prepare himself, that so when he
sleeps it may keep him, and when he arises it may talk with him."(2)
For if thou thinkest, O woman, when thou art seven days in thy
separation, that thou art void of the Holy Spirit, then if thou
shouldest die suddenly thou wilt depart void of the Spirit, and
without assured hope in God; or else thou must imagine that the
Spirit always is inseparable from thee, as not being in a place. But
thou standest in need of prayer and the Eucharist, and the coming of
the Holy Ghost, as having been guilty of no fault in this matter.
For neither lawful mixture, nor child-bearing, nor the menstrual
purgation, nor nocturnal pollution, can defile the nature of a man, or
separate the Holy Spirit from him. Nothing but impiety and unlawful
practice can do that. For the Holy Spirit always abides with those that
are possessed of it, so long as they are worthy; and those from whom it
is departed, it leaves them desolate, and exposed to the
wicked spirit. Now every man is filled either with the holy or with the
unclean spirit; and it is not possible to avoid the one or the other,
unless they can receive opposite spirits. For the Comforter hates every
lie, and the devil hates all truth. But every one that is baptized
agreeably to the truth is separated from the diabolical spirit, and is
under the Holy Spirit; and the Holy Spirit remains with him so long as
he is doing good, and fills him with wisdom and understanding, and
suffers not the wicked spirit to approach him, but watches over his
goings. Thou therefore, O woman, if, as thou sayest, in the days of thy
separation thou art void of the Holy Spirit, thou art then filled with
the unclean one; for by neglecting to pray and to read thou wilt invite
him to thee, though he were unwilling. For this spirit, of all others,
loves the ungrateful, the slothful, the careless, and the drowsy, since
he himself by ingratitude was distempered with evil mind, and was
thereby deprived by God his dignity; having rather chosen to be a devil
than an archangel. Wherefore, O woman, eschew such vain words, and be
ever mindful of God that created thee, and pray to Him. For He is thy
Lord, and the Lord of the universe; and meditate in His laws without
observing any such things, such as the natural purgation, lawful
mixture, child-birth, a miscarriage, or a blemish of the body; since
such observations are the vain inventions of foolish men, and such
inventions as have no sense in them. Neither the burial of a man, nor a
dead man's bone, nor a sepulchre, nor any particular sort of food, nor
the nocturnal pollution, can defile the soul of man; but only impiety
towards God, and transgression, and injustice towards one's neighbour;
I mean rapine, violence, or if there be anything contrary to His
righteousness, adultery or fornication. Wherefore, beloved, avoid and
eschew such observations, for they are heathenish. For we do not
abominate a dead man, as do they, seeing we hope that he will live
again. Nor do we hate lawful mixture; for it is their practice to act
impiously in such instances. For the conjunction of man and wife, if it
be with righteousness, is agreeable to the mind of God. "For He that
made them at the beginning made them male and female; and He blessed
them, and said, Increase and multiply, and fill the earth."(3) If,
therefore, the difference of sexes was made by the will of God for the
generation of multitudes, then must the conjunction of male and female
be also acceptable to His mind.
OF THE LOVE OF
BOYS, ADULTERY, AND FORNICATION.
XXVIII. But we do not say so of that mixture that is
contrary to nature, or of any unlawful
463
practice; for such are enmity to God. For the sin of Sodom is contrary
to nature, as is also that with brute beasts. But adultery and
fornication are against the law; the one whereof is impiety, the other
injustice, and, in a word, no other than a great sin. But neither sort
of them is without its punishment in its own proper nature. For the
practisers of one sort attempt the dissolution of the world, and
endeavour to make the natural course of things to change for one that
is unnatural; but those of the second son--the adulterers--are unjust
by corrupting others' marriages, and dividing into two what God hath
made one, rendering the children suspected, and exposing the true
husband to the snares of others. And fornication is the destruction of
one's own flesh, not being made use of for the procreation of children,
but entirely for the sake of pleasure, which is a mark of incontinency,
and not a sign of virtue. All these things are forbidden by the laws;
for thus say the oracles: "Thou shalt not lie with mankind as with
womankind."(1) "For such a one is accursed, and ye shall stone them
with stones: they have wrought abomination."(2) "Every one that lieth
with a beast, slay ye him: he has wrought wickedness in his people."(3)
"And if any one defile a married woman, slay ye them both: they have
wrought wickedness; they are guilty; let them die."(4) And
afterwards: "There shall not be a fornicator among the children of
Israel, and there shall not be an whore among the daughters of Israel.
Thou shalt not offer the hire of an harlot to the Lord thy God upon the
altar, nor the price of a dog."(5) "For the vows arising from the hire
of an harlot are not clean."(6) These things the laws have forbidden,
but they have honoured marriage, and have called it blessed, since God
has blessed it who joined male and female together.(7) And wise Solomon
somewhere says: "A wife is suited to her husband by the Lord."(8) And
David says: "Thy wife is like a flourishing vine in the sides of thine
house; thy children like olive-branches round about thy table. Behold,
thus shall the man be blessed that feareth the Lord." (9) Wherefore
"marriage is honourable"(10) and comely, and the begetting of children
pure, for there is no evil in that which is good. Therefore neither is
the natural purgation abominable before God, who has ordered it
to happen to women within the space of thirty days for their advantage
and healthful state, who do less move about, and keep usually at home
in the house. Nay, moreover, even in the Gospel, when the woman with
the perpetual purgation of blood(11) touched the saving border of
the Lord's garment in hope of being healed, He was not angry at her,
nor did complain of her at all; but, on the contrary, He healed her,
saying, "Thy faith hath saved thee." When the natural purgations do
appear in the wives, let not their husbands approach them, out of
regard to the children to be begotten; for the law has forbidden it,
for it says: "Thou shalt not come near thy wife when she is in her
separation."(12) Nor, indeed, let them frequent their wives' company
when they are with child.(13) For they do this not for the begetting of
children, but for the sake of pleasure. Now a lover of God ought not to
be a lover of pleasure.
HOW WIVES OUGHT TO BE SUBJECT TO THEIR OWN HUSBANDS, AND HUSBANDS OUGHT
TO LOVE THEIR OWN WIVES.
XXXIX. Ye wives, be subject to your own husbands,
and have them in esteem, and serve them with fear and love, as holy
Sarah honoured Abraham. For she could not endure to call him by his
name, but called him lord, when she said, "My lord is old."(14) In like
manner, ye husbands, love your own wives as your own members, as
partners in life, and fellow-helpers for the procreation of children.
For says He, "Rejoice with the wife of thy youth. Let her conversation
be to thee as a loving hind, and a pleasant foal; let her alone guide
thee, and be with thee at all times: for if thou beest every way
encompassed with her friendship, thou wilt be happy in her
society."(15) Love them therefore as your own members, as your very
bodies; for so it is written, "The Lord has testified between thee and
between the wife of thy youth; and she is thy partner, and another has
not made her: and she is the remains of thy spirit;" and, "Take heed to
your spirit, and do not forsake the wife of thy youth."(16) An husband,
therefore, and a wife, when they company together in lawful marriage,
and rise from one another, may pray without any observations, and
without washing are clean. But whosoever corrupts and defiles another
man's wife, or is defiled with an harlot, when he arises up from her,
though he should wash himself in the entire ocean and all the rivers,
cannot be clean.
464
SEC. VI.--CONCLUSION OF THE WORK.
THAT IT IS THE CUSTOM OF JEWS AND GENTILES TO OBSERVE NATURAL
PURGATIONS, AND TO ABOMINATE THE REMAINS OF THE DEAD; BUT THAT ALL THIS
IS CONTRARY TO CHRISTIANITY.
XXX. Do not therefore keep any such observances
about legal and natural purgations, as thinking you are defiled by
them. Neither do you seek after Jewish separations, or perpetual
washings, or purifications upon the touch of a dead body. But without
such observations assemble in the dormitories, reading the holy books,
and singing for the martyrs which are fallen asleep, and for all the
saints from the beginning of the world, and for your brethren that are
asleep in the Lord, and offer the acceptable Eucharist, the
representation of the royal body of Christ, both in your churches and
in the dormitories; and in the funerals of the departed, accompany them
with singing, if they were faithful in Christ. For "precious in the
sight of the Lord is the death of His saints."(1) And again: "O my
soul, return unto thy rest, for the Lord hath done thee good."(2) And
elsewhere: "The memory of the just is with encomiums."(3) And, "The
souls of the righteous are in the hands of God."(4) For those that have
believed in God, although they are asleep, are not dead. For our
Saviour says to the Sadducees: "But concerning the resurrection
of the dead, have ye not read that which is written, I am the God of
Abraham, and the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob? God, therefore, is
not the God of the dead, but of the living; for all live to Him."(5)
Wherefore, of those that live with God, even their very relics are not
without honour. For even Elisha the prophet, after he was fallen
asleep, raised up a dead man who was slain by the pirates of Syria.(6)
For his body touched the bones of Elisha, and he arose and revived. Now
this would not have
happened unless the body of Elisha were holy. And chaste Joseph
embraced Jacob after he was dead upon his bed;(7) and Moses and Joshua
the son of Nun carried away the relics of Joseph,(8) and did not esteem
it a defilement. Whence you also, O bishops, and the rest, who without
such observances touch the departed, ought not to think yourselves
defiled. Nor abhor the relics of such persons, but avoid such
observances, for they are foolish. And adorn yourselves with holiness
and chastity, that ye may become partakers of immortality, and partners
of the kingdom of God, and may receive the promise of God, and may rest
for ever, through Jesus Christ our Saviour.
To Him, therefore, who is able to open the ears of
your hearts to the receiving the oracles of God administered to you
both by the Gospel and by the teaching of Jesus Christ of Nazareth; who
was crucified under Pontius Pilate and Herod, and died, and rose again
from the dead, and will come again at the end of the world with power
and great glory, and will raise the dead, and put an end to this world,
and distribute to every one according to his deserts: to Him that has
given us Himself for an earnest of the resurrection; who was taken up
into the heavens by the power of His God and Father in our sight, who
ate and drank with Him for forty days after He arose from the dead;
who is sat down on the right hand of the throne of the majesty of
Almighty God upon the cherubim; to whom it was said, "Sit Thou on my
right hand, until I make Thine enemies Thy footstool;"(9) whom the most
blessed Stephen saw standing at the right hand of power, and cried out,
and said, "Behold, I see the heavens opened, and the Son of man
standing at the right hand of God,"(10)as the High Priest of all the
rational orders,--through Him, worship, and majesty, and glory be given
to Almighty God, both now and for evermore.(11) Amen.
465
CONSTITUTIONS OF THE HOLY APOSTLES
BOOK VII.
CONCERNING THE CHRISTIAN LIFE, AND THE EUCHARIST, AND THE
INITIATION INTO CHRIST.
SEC. I.--ON THE TWO WAYS,(1)--THE WAY OF LIFE AND THE WAY OF DEATH.
THAT THERE ARE TWO WAYS,--THE ONE NATURAL, OF LIFE, AND THE OTHER
INTRODUCED AFTERWARDS, OF DEATH; AND THAT THE FORMER IS FROM GOD, AND
THE LATTER OF ERROR, FROM THE SNARES OF THE ADVERSARY.
1. THE lawgiver Moses said to the Israelites,
"Behold, I have set before your face the way of life and the way of
death;"(2) and added, "Choose life, that thou mayest live."(3) Elijah
the prophet also said to the people: "How long will you halt with both
your legs? If the Lord be God, follow Him."(4) The Lord Jesus also said
justly: "No one can serve two masters: for either he will hate the one,
and love the other; or else he will hold to the one, and despise the
other."(5) We also, following our teacher Christ, "who is the Saviour
of all men, especially of those that believe,"(6) are obliged to say
that there are two ways--the one of life, the other of death;(7)
which have no comparison one with another, for they are very
different,(8) or rather entirely separate; and the way of life is that
of nature, but that of death was afterwards introduced,--it not being
according to the mind of God, but from the snares of the adversary.(9)
MORAL EXHORTATIONS OF THE LORD'S CONSTITUTIONS AGREEING WITH THE
ANCIENT PROHIBITIONS OF THE DIVINE LAWS. THE PROHIBITION OF ANGER,
SPITE, CORRUPTION, ADULTERY, AND EVERY FORBIDDEN ACTION.
II. The first way, therefore, is that of life; and
is this,(10) which the law also does appoint: "To
love the Lord God with all thy mind, and with all thy soul, who
is the one and only God, besides whom there is no other;"(11) "and
thy neighbour as thyself."(12)And whatsoever thou wouldest
not should be done to thee, that do not thou to another."(13) "Bless
them that curse you; pray for them that despitefully use you."(14)
"Love your enemies; for what thanks is it if ye love those that love
you? for even the Gentiles do the same."(15) "But do ye love those that
hate you, and ye shall have no enemy." For says He, "Thou shalt not
hate any man; no, not an Egyptian, nor an Edomite;"(16) for they are
all the workmanship of God. Avoid not the persons, but the sentiments,
of the wicked. "Abstain from fleshly and worldly lusts."(17) "If any
one gives thee a stroke on thy right cheek, turn to him the other
also."(18) Not that revenge is evil, but that patience is more
honourable. For David says, "If I have made returns to them that repaid
me evil."(19) "If any one compel thee to go a mile, go with him
twain."(20) And, "He that will sue thee at the law, and take away thy
coat, let him have thy cloak also."(21) "And from him that taketh thy
goods, require them not again."(22) "Give to him that asketh thee, and
from him that would borrow of thee do not shut thy hand."(23) For "the
righteous man is pitiful, and lendeth."(24) For your Father would have
you give to all, who Himself "maketh His sun to rise on the
evil and on the good, and sendeth His rain on the just and on the
unjust."(25) It is therefore reasonable to give to all out of
thine own labours; for says He, "Honour the Lord out of thy
right-
466
eous labours,"(1) but so that the saints be preferred.(2) "Thou shalt
not kill;"(3) that is, thou shalt not destroy a man like thyself: for
thou dissolvest what was well made. Not as if all killing were wicked,
but only that of the innocent: but the killing which is just is
reserved to the magistrates alone. "Thou shalt not commit adultery:"
for thou dividest one flesh into two. "They two shall be one flesh:"(4)
for the husband and wife are one in nature, in consent, in union, in
disposition, and the conduct of life; but they are separated in sex and
number. "Thou shall not corrupt boys:"(5) for this wickedness is
contrary to nature, and arose from Sodom, which was therefore entirely
consumed with fire sent from God.(6) "Let such a one be accursed: and
all the people shall say, So be it."(7) "Thou shall not commit
fornication:" for says He, "There shall not be a fornicator among the
children of Israel."(8) "Thou shalt not steal:" for Achan, whet he had
stolen in Israel at Jericho, was stoned to death;(9) and Gehazi, who
stole, and told a lie, inherited the leprosy of Naaman;(10) and Judas,
who stole the poor's money, betrayed the Lord of glory to the Jews,(11)
and repented, and hanged himself, and burst asunder in the midst, and
all his bowels gushed out;(12) and Ananias, and Sapphira his wife, who
stole their own goods, and "tempted the Spirit of the Lord," were
immediately, at the sentence of Peter our fellow-apostle, struck
dead.(13)
THE PROHIBITION OF CONJURING, MURDER OF INFANTS, PERJURY, AND FALSE
WITNESS.
III. Thou shalt not use magic.(14) Thou shalt not
use witchcraft; for He says, "Ye shall not suffer a witch to live."(15)
Thou shall not slay thy child by causing abortion, nor kill that which
is begotten; for "everything that is shaped, and has received a soul
from God, if it be slain, shall be avenged, as being unjustly
destroyed."(16) "Thou shalt not covet the things that belong to thy
neighbour, as his wife, or his servant, or his ox, or his field." "Thou
shalt not forswear thyself;
for it is said, "Thou shalt not swear at all."(17) But if that cannot
be avoided, thou shalt swear truly;
for" every one that swears by Him shall be commended."(18) "Thou shalt
not bear false witness;" for "he that falsely accuses the needy
provokes to anger Him that made him."(19)
THE PROHIBITION OF EVIL-SPEAKING AND PASSION, OF DECEITFUL CONDUCT, OR
IDLE WORDS, LIES, COVETOUSNESS, AND HYPOCRISY.
IV. Thou shall not speak evil;(20) for says He,
"Love not to speak evil, lest thou beest taken away." Nor shalt thou be
mindful of injuries; for "the ways of those that remember injuries are
unto death."(21) Thou shall not be double-minded nor double-tongued;
for "a man's own lips are a strong snare to him,"(22) and "a talkative
person shall not be prospered upon earth."(23) Thy words shall not be
vain; for "ye shall give an account of every idle word."(24) Thou shalt
not tell lies: for says He, "Thou shalt destroy all those that speak
lies."(25) Thou shalt not be covetous nor rapacious: for says He, "Woe
to him that is covetous towards his neighbour with an evil
covetousness."(26)
THE PROHIBITION OF MALIGNITY, ACCEPTATION OF PERSONS, WRATH, MALICE,
AND ENVY.
V. Thou shalt not be an hypocrite, lest thy "portion
be with them."(27) Thou shalt not be ill-natured nor proud: for "God
resisteth the proud."(28) "Thou shalt not accept persons in judgment;
for the judgment is the Lord's." "Thou shalt not hate any man; thou
shalt surely reprove thy brother, and not become guilty on his
account;"(29) and, "Reprove a wise man, and he will love thee."(30)
Eschew all evil, and all that is like it: for says He, "Abstain from
injustice, and trembling shall not come nigh thee."(31) Be not soon
angry, nor spiteful, nor passionate, nor furious, nor daring, lest thou
undergo the fate of Cain, and of Saul, and of Joab: for the first of
these slew his brother Abel, because Abel was found to be preferred
before him with God, and because Abel's sacrifice was preferred;(32)
the second persecuted holy David, who had slain Goliah the Philistine,
being envious of the praises of the women who danced;(33) the third
slew two gen-
467
erals of armies--Abner of Israel, and Amasa of Judah.(1)
CONCERNING AUGURY AND ENCHANTMENTS.
VI. Be not a diviner, for that leads to idolatry;(2)
for says Samuel, "Divination is sin;"(3) and, "There shall be no
divination in Jacob, nor soothsaying in Israel."(4) Thou shalt not use
enchantments or purgations for thy child. Thou shall not be a
soothsayer nor a diviner by great or little birds. Nor shalt thou learn
wicked arts; for all these things has the law forbidden.(5) Be not one
that wishes for evil, for thou wilt be led into intolerable sins. Thou
shalt not speak obscenely, nor use wanton glances, nor be a drunkard;
for from such causes arise whoredoms and adulteries. Be not a lover of
money, lest thou "serve mammon instead of God."(6) Be not vainglorious,
nor haughty, nor high-minded. For from all these things arrogance does
spring. Remember him who said: "Lord, my heart is not haughty, nor mine
eyes lofty: I have not exercised myself in great matters, nor in things
too high for me; but I was humble."(7)
THE PROHIBITION OF MURMURING, INSOLENCE,
PRIDE, AND ARROGANCE.
VII. Be not a murmurer, remembering the
punishment which those underwent who murmured against Moses. Be not
self-willed, be not malicious, be not hard-hearted, be not passionate,
be not mean-spirited; for all these things lead to blasphemy. But be
meek, as were Moses and David,(8) since "the meek shall inherit the
earth."(9)
CONCERNING LONG-SUFFERING, SIMPLICITY, MEEK-
NESS, AND PATIENCE.
VIII. Be slow to wrath; for such a one is very
prudent, since "he that is hasty of spirit is a very fool."(10) Be
merciful; for "blessed are the merciful: for they shall obtain
mercy."(11) Be sincere, quiet, good, "trembling at the word of
God."(12) Thou shalt not exalt thyself, as did the Pharisee; for "every
one that exalteth himself shall be abased,"(13) and "that which is of
high esteem with man is abomination with God."(14) Thou shalt not
entertain confidence in thy soul; for "a confident man shall fall into
mischief."(15) Thou shalt not go along with the foolish, but with the
wise and righteous; for "he that walketh(16) with wise men shall be
wise, but he that walketh with the foolish shall be known."(17) Receive
the afflictions that fall upon thee with an even mind, and the chances
of life without over-much sorrow, knowing that a reward shall be given
to thee by God, as was given to Job and to Lazarus.(18)
THAT IT IS OUR DUTY TO ESTEEM OUR CHRISTIAN TEACHERS ABOVE OUR
PARENTS--THE FORMER BEING THE MEANS OF OUR WELL-BEING, THE OTHER ONLY
OF OUR BEING.
IX. Thou shalt honour him that speaks to thee the
word of God, and be mindful of him day and night; and thou shalt
reverence him,(19) not as the author of thy birth, but as one that is
made the occasion of thy well-being. For where the doctrine concerning
God is, there God is present. Thou shalt every day seek the face of the
saints, that thou mayest acquiesce in their words.
THAT WE OUGHT NOT TO DIVIDE OURSELVES FROM THE SAINTS, BUT TO MAKE
PEACE BETWEEN THOSE THAT QUARREL, TO JUDGE RIGHTEOUSLY, AND NOT TO
ACCEPT PERSONS.
X. Thou shalt not make schisms among the saints, but
be mindful of the followers of Corah.(20) Thou shalt make peace between
those that are at variance, as Moses did when he persuaded them to be
friends.(21) Thou shalt judge righteously; for "the judgment is the
Lord's."(22) Thou shalt not accept persons when thou reprovest for
sins; but do as Elijah and Micaiah did to Ahab, and Ebedmelech the
Ethiopian to Zedekiah, and Nathan to David, and John to Herod.(23)
CONCERNING HIM THAT IS DOUBLE-MINDED AND DESPONDING.
XI. Be not of a doubtful mind in thy prayer, whether
it shall be granted or no. For the Lord said to me Peter upon the sea:
"O thou of little faith, wherefore didst thou doubt?"(24) "Be not thou
ready to stretch out thy hand to receive, and to shut it when thou
shouldst give."(25)
468
CONCERNING DOING GOOD.
XII. If thou hast by the work of thy hands, give,
that thou mayest labour for the redemption of thy sins; for "by alms
and acts of faith sins are purged away."(1) Thou shalt not grudge to
give to the poor, nor when thou hast given shalt thou murmur; for thou
shalt know who will repay thee thy reward. For says he: "He that hath
mercy on the poor man lendeth to the Lord; according to his gift, so
shall it be repaid him again."(2) Thou shalt not turn away from him
that is needy; for says he: "He that stoppeth his ears, that he may not
hear the cry of the needy, himself also shall call, and there shall be
none to hear him."(3) Thou shall communicate in all things to thy
brother, and shall not say thy gods are thine own; for the common
participation of the necessaries of life is appointed to all men by
God. Thou shalt not take off thine hand from thy son or from thy
daughter, but shalt teach them the fear of God from their youth; for
says he: "Correct thy son, so shall he afford thee good hope."(4)
HOW MASTERS OUGHT TO BEHAVE THEMSELVES TO THEIR SERVANTS, AND HOW
SERVANTS OUGHT TO BE SUBJECT.
XIII. Thou shall not command thy man-servant, or
lily maid-servant, who trust in the same God, with bitterness of soul,
lest they groan against thee, and wrath be upon thee from God. And, ye
servants, "be subject to your masters,"(5) as to the representatives of
God, with attention and fear, "as to the Lord, and not to men."(6)
CONCERNING HYPOCRISY, AND OBEDIENCE TO THE LAWS, AND CONFESSION OF SINS.
XIV. Thou shalt hate all hypocrisy; and whatsoever
is pleasing to the Lord, that shalt thou do. By no means forsake the
commands of the Lord. But thou shalt observe what things thou
hast received from Him, neither adding to them nor taking away
from them. "For thou shalt not add unto His words, lest He convict
thee, and thou becomest a liar."(7) Thou shalt confess thy sins unto
the Lord thy God; and thou shalt not add unto them, that it may be well
with thee from the Lord thy God, who willeth not the death of a sinner,
but his repentance.
CONCERNING THE OBSERVANCE DUE TO PARENTS.
XV. Thou shalt be observant to thy father and mother
as the causes of thy being born, that thou mayest live long on the
earth which the Lord thy God giveth thee. Do not overlook thy brethren
or thy kinsfolk; for "thou shalt not overlook those nearly related to
thee."(8)
CONCERNING THE SUBJECTION DUE TO THE KING
AND TO RULERS.
XVI. Thou shalt fear the king, knowing that his
appointment is of the Lord. His rulers thou shalt honour as the
ministers of God, for they are the revengers of all unrighteousness; to
whom pay taxes, tribute, and every oblation with a willing mind.
CONCERNING THE PURE CONSCIENCE OF THOSE
THAT PRAY.
XVII. Thou shalt not proceed to thy prayer in the
day of thy wickedness, before thou hast laid aside thy bitterness. This
is the way of life, in which may ye be found, through Jesus Christ our
Lord.
THAT THE WAY WHICH WAS AFTERWARD INTRODUCED BY THE SNARES OF THE
ADVERSARY IS FULL OF IMPIETY AND WICKEDNESS.
XVIII. But the way of death(9) is known by its
wicked practices: for therein is the ignorance of God, and the
introduction of many evils, and disorders, and disturbances; whereby
come murders, adulteries, fornications, perjuries, unlawful lusts,
thefts, idolatries, magic arts, witchcrafts, rapines, false-witnesses,
hypocrisies, double-heartedness, deceit, pride, malice, insolence,
covetousness, obscene talk, jealousy, confidence, haughtiness,
arrogance, impudence, persecution of the good, enmity to truth, love of
lies, ignorance of righteousness. For they who do such things do not
adhere to goodness, or to righteous judgment: they watch not for good,
but for evil; from whom meekness and patience are far off, who love
vain things, pursuing after reward, having no pity on the poor, not
labouring for him that is in misery, nor knowing Him that made them;
murderers of infants, destroyers of the workmanship of God, that turn
away from the needy, adding affliction to the afflicted, the flatterers
of the rich, the despisers of the poor, full of sin. May you, children,
be delivered from all these.
THAT WE MUST NOT TURN FROM THE WAY OF PIETY EITHER TO THE RIGHT HAND OR
TO THE LEFT. AN EXHORTATION OF THE LAWGIVER.
XIX. See that no one seduce thee(10) from piety; for
says He: "Thou mayst not turn aside from
469
it to the right hand, or to the left, that thou mayst have
understanding in all that thou doest."(1) For if thou dost not turn out
of the right way, thou wilt not be ungodly.
SEC. II.--ON THE FORMATION OF THE CHARACTER OF BELIEVERS, AND ON GIVING
OF THANKS TO GOD.
THAT WE OUGHT NOT TO DESPISE ANY OF THE SORTS OF FOOD THAT ARE SET
BEFORE US, BUT GRATEFULLY AND ORDERLY TO PARTAKE OF THEM.
XX. Now concerning the several sorts of food, the
Lord says to thee, "Ye shall eat the good things of the earth;"(2) and,
"All sorts of flesh shall ye eat, as the green herb;"(3) but, "Thou
shalt pour out the blood."(4) For "not those things that go into the
mouth, but those that come out of it, defile a man;"(5) I mean
blasphemies, evil-speaking, and if there be any other thing of the like
nature.(6) But "do thou eat the fat of the land with righteousness."(7)
For "if there be anything pleasant, it is His; and if there be anything
good, it is His. Wheat for the young men, and wine to cheer the maids."
For "who shall eat or who shall drink without Him?"(8) Wise Ezra(9)
does also admonish thee and say: "Go your way, and eat the fat, and
drink the sweet, and be not sorrowful."(10)
THAT WE OUGHT TO AVOID THE EATING OF THINGS
OFFERED TO IDOLS.
XXI. But do ye abstain from things offered to
idols;(11) for they offer them in honour of demons, that is, to the
dishonour of the one God, that ye may not become partners with demons.
A CONSTITUTION OF OUR LORD, HOW WE OUGHT TO BAPTIZE, AND
INTO WHOSE DEATH.
XXII. Now concerning baptism,(12) O bishop, or
presbyter, we have already given direction, and we now say, that thou
shalt so baptize as the Lord commanded us, saying: "Go ye, and teach
all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father, and of the Son,
and of the Holy Ghost(teaching them to observe all things whatsoever I
have commanded you):"(13) of the Father who sent, of Christ who
came, of the Comforter who testified. But thou shalt beforehand anoint
the person with the holy oil, and afterward baptize him with the water,
and in the conclusion shall seal him with the ointment; that the
anointing with oil may be the participation of the Holy Spirit, and the
water the symbol of the death of Christ, and the ointment the seal of
the covenants. But if there be neither oil nor ointment, water is
sufficient both for the anointing, and for the seal, and for the
confession of Him that is dead, or indeed is dying together with
Christ. But before baptism, let him that is to be baptized fast; for
even the Lord, when He was first baptized by John, and abode in the
wilderness, did afterward fast forty days and forty nights.(14) But He
was baptized, and then fasted, not having Himself any need of
cleansing, or of fasting, or of purgation, who was by nature pure and
holy; but that He might testify the truth to John, and afford an
example to us. Wherefore our Lord was not baptized into His own
passion, or death, or resurrection--for none of those things had then
happened--but for another purpose. Wherefore He by His own authority
fasted after His baptism, as being the Lord of John. But he who is to
be initiated into His death ought first to fast, and then to be
baptized. For it is not reasonable that he who has been buried with
Christ, and is risen again with Him, should appear dejected at His very
resurrection. For man is not lord of our Saviour's constitution, since
one is the Master and the other the servant.
WHICH DAYS OF THE WEEK WE ARE TO FAST, AND WHICH NOT, AND FOR WHAT
REASONS.
XXIII. But let not your fasts be with the
hypocrites;(15) for they fast on the second and fifth days of the week.
But do you either fast the entire five days, or on the fourth day of
the week, and on the day of the Preparation, because on the fourth day
the condemnation went out against the Lord, Judas then promising to
betray Him for money; and you must fast on the day of the Preparation,
because on that day the Lord suffered the death of the cross under
Pontius Pilate. But keep the Sabbath, and the Lord's day festival;
because the former is the memorial of the creation, and the latter of
the resurrection. But there is one only Sabbath to be observed by you
in the whole year, which is that of our Lord's burial, on which men
ought to keep a fast, but not a festival. For inasmuch as the Creator
was then under the earth, the sorrow for Him is more forcible than the
joy for the creation; for the Creator is more honourable by nature and
dignity than His own creatures.
470
WHAT SORT OF PEOPLE OUGHT TO PRAY THAT PRAYER THAT WAS GIVEN BY THE
LORD.
XXIV. Now, "when ye pray, be not ye as the
hypocrites; "(1) but as the Lord has appointed us in the Gospel, so
pray ye: "Our Father which art in heaven, hallowed be Thy name; Thy
kingdom come; Thy will be done, as in heaven, so on earth; give us this
day our daily bread; and forgive us our debts, as we forgive our
debtors; and lead us not into temptation, but deliver us from evil; for
Thine is the kingdom for ever. Amen."(2) Pray thus thrice in a day,
preparing yourselves beforehand, that ye may be worthy of the adoption
of the Father; lest, when you call Him Father unworthily, you be
reproached by Him, as Israel once His first-born son was told: "If I be
a Father, where is my glory? And if I be a Lord, where is my fear?"(3)
For the glory of fathers is the holiness of their children, and the
honour of masters is the fear of their servants, as the contrary is
dishonour and confusion. For says He: "Through you my name is
blasphemed among the Gentiles."(4)
A MYSTICAL THANKSGIVING.
XXXV. Be ye always thankful, as faithful and honest
servants; and concerning the eucharistical thanksgiving say thus:(5) We
thank Thee, our Father, for that life which Thou hast made known to us
by Jesus Thy Son, by whom Thou madest all things, and takest care of
the whole world; whom Thou hast sent to become man for our
salvation; whom Thou hast permitted to suffer and to die; whom Thou
hast raised up, and been pleased to glorify, and hast set Him down on
Thy right band; by whom Thou hast promised us the resurrection of the
dead. Do thou, O Lord Almighty, everlasting God, so gather together Thy
Church from the ends of the earth into Thy kingdom, as this corn was
once scattered, and is now become one loaf. We also, our Father, thank
Thee for the precious blood of Jesus Christ, which was shed for us and
for His precious body, whereof we celebrate this representation, as
Himself appointed us, "to show forth His death."(6) For through
Him glory is to be given to Thee for ever. Amen. Let no one eat of
these things that is not initiated; but those only who have been
baptized into the death of the Lord. But if any one that is not
initiated conceal himself, and partake of the same, "he eats eternal
damnation;"(7) because, being not of the faith of Christ, he has
partaken of such things as it is not lawful for him to partake of, to
his own punishment. But if any one is a partaker through ignorance,
instruct him quickly, and initiate him, that he may not go out and
despise you.
A THANKSGIVING AT THE DIVINE PARTICIPATION.
XXVI. After the participation,(8) give thanks in
this manner: We thank thee, O God and Father of Jesus our Saviour, for
Thy holy name, which Thou hast made to inhabit among us; and that
knowledge, faith, love, and immortality which Thou hast given us
through Thy Son Jesus. Thou, O Almighty Lord, the God of the universe,
hast created the world, and the things that are therein, by Him; and
hast planted a law in our souls, and beforehand didst prepare things
for the convenience of men. O God of our holy and blameless fathers,
Abraham, and Isaac, and Jacob, Thy faithful servants; Thou, O God, who
art powerful, faithful, and true, and without deceit in Thy promises;
who didst send upon earth Jesus Thy Christ to live with men, as a man,
when He was God the Word, and man, to take away error by the roots: do
Thou even now, through Him, be mindful of this Thy holy Church, which
Thou hast purchased with the precious blood of Thy Christ, and deliver
it from all evil, and perfect it in Thy love and Thy truth, and gather
us all together into Thy kingdom which Thou hast prepared. Let this Thy
kingdom come.(9) "Hosanna to the Son of David. Blessed be He that
cometh in the name of the Lord"(10)--God the Lord, who was manifested
to us in the flesh. If any one be holy, let him draw near; but if any
one be not such, let him become such by repentance.Permit also to your
presbyters to give thanks.
A THANKSGIVING ABOUT THE MYSTICAL OINTMENT.
XXVII. Concerning the ointment give thanks in this manner: We give Thee
thanks, O God, the Creator of the whole world, both for the fla-grancy
of the ointment, and for the immortality which Thou hast made known to
us by Thy Son Jesus. For Thine is the glory and the power for ever.
Amen. Whosoever comes to you,(11) and gives thanks in this manner,
receive him as a disciple of Christ. But if he preach another doctrine,
different from that which Christ by us has delivered to you, such a one
you must not permit to give thanks; for such a one rather affronts God
than glorifies Him.
471
THAT WE OUGHT NOT TO BE INDIFFERENT ABOUT
COMMUNICATING.
XXVIII. But whosoever comes to you, let him be first
examined, and then received: for ye have understanding, and are able to
know the right hand from the left,(1) and to distinguish false teachers
from true teachers. But when a teacher comes to you, supply him with
what he wants with all readiness. And even when a false teacher comes,
you shall give him for his necessity, but shall not receive his error.
Nor indeed may ye pray together with him, lest ye be polluted as well
as he. Every true prophet or teacher(2) that comes to you is worthy of
his maintenance, as being a labourer in the word of
righteousness.(3)
A CONSTITUTION CONCERNING OBLATIONS.
XXIX. All the first-fruits of the winepress, the
threshing-floor, the oxen, and the sheep, shalt thou give to the
priests,(4) that thy storehouses and garners and the products of thy
land may be blessed, and thou mayst be strengthened with corn and wine
and oil, and the herds of thy cattle and flocks of thy sheep may be
increased. Thou shalt give the tenth of thy increase to the orphan, and
to the widow, and to the poor, and to the stranger. All the
first-fruits of thy hot bread of thy barrels of wine, or oil, or honey,
or nuts, or grapes, or the first-fruits of other things, shalt thou
give to the priests; but those of silver, and of garments, and of all
sort of possessions, to the orphan and to the widow.
HOW WE OUGHT TO ASSEMBLE TOGETHER, AND TO CELEBRATE THE FESTIVAL DAY OF
OUR SAVIOUR'S RESURRECTION.
XXX. On the day of the resurrection of the Lord,(5)
that is, the Lord's day, assemble yourselves together, without fail,
giving thanks to God, and praising Him for those mercies God has
bestowed upon you through Christ, and has delivered you from ignorance,
error, and bondage, that your sacrifice may be unspotted, and
acceptable to God, who has said concerning His universal Church: "In
every place shall incense and a pure sacrifice be offered unto me; for
I am a great King, saith the Lord Almighty, and my name is wonderful
among the heathen."(6)
WHAT QUALIFICATIONS THEY OUGHT TO HAVE WHO ARE TO BE ORDAINED.
XXXI. Do you first ordain bishops worthy of the
Lord,(7) and presbyters and deacons, pious men, righteous, meek, free
from the love of money, lovers of truth, approved, holy, not accepters
of persons, who are able to teach the word of piety, and rightly
dividing the doctrines of the Lord.(8) And do ye honour such as your
fathers, as your lords, as your benefactors, as the causes of your
well-being. Reprove ye one another, not in anger, but in mildness, with
kindness and peace. Observe all things that are commanded you by the
Lord. Be watchful for your life.(9) "Let your loins be girded
about, and your lights burning, and ye like unto men who wait for their
Lord, when He will come, at even, or in the morning, or at
cock-crowing, or at midnight. For at what hour they think not, the Lord
will come; and if they open to Him, blessed are those servants, because
they were found watching. For He will gird Himself, and will make them
to sit down to meat, and will come forth and serve them."(10) Watch
therefore, and pray, that ye do not sleep unto death. For your former
good deeds will not profit you, if at the last part of your life you go
astray from the true faith.
I PREDICTION CONCERNING FUTURITIES.
XXXII. For in the last days false prophets shall be
multiplied, and such as corrupt the word; and the sheep shall be
changed into wolves, and love into hatred: for through the
abounding of iniquity the love of many shall wax cold. For men shall
hate, and persecute, and betray one another. And then shall appear the
deceiver of the world, the enemy of the truth, the prince of lies,(11)
whom the Lord Jesus "shall destroy with the spirit of His mouth, who
takes away the wicked with His lips; and many shall be offended at Him.
But they that endure to the end, the same shall be saved. And then
shall appear the sign of the Son of man in heaven;"(12) and afterwards
shall be the voice of a trumpet by the archangel;(13) and in that
interval shall be the revival of those that were asleep. And then shall
the Lord come, and all His saints with Him,(14) with a great concussion
above the clouds, with the angels of His power,(15) in the throne of
His kingdom, to condemn the devil, the deceiver of the world, and to
render to every one according to his deeds. "Then shall the wicked go
away into everlasting punishment, but the righteous shall go into life
eternal,"(16) to inherit those things "which eye hath not seen, nor ear
heard, nor
472
have entered into the heart of man, such things as God hath prepared
for them that love Him;" (1) and they shall rejoice in the kingdom of
God, which is in Christ Jesus. Since we are vouchsafed such great
blessings from Him, let us become His suppliants, and call upon Him by
continual prayer, and say:--
A PRAYER DECLARATIVE OF GOD'S VARIOUS PROVI-
DENCE.
XXXIII. Our eternal Saviour, the King of gods, who
alone art almighty, and the Lord, the God of all beings, and the God of
our holy and blameless fathers, and of those before us; the God of
Abraham, and of Isaac, and of Jacob; who art merciful and
compassionate, long-suffering, and abundant in mercy; to whom every
heart is naked, and by whom every heart is seen, and to whom every
secret thought is revealed: to Thee do the souls of the righteous cry
aloud, upon Thee do the hopes of the godly trust, Thou Father of the
blameless, Thou hearer of the supplication of those that call upon Thee
with uprightness, and who knowest the supplications that are not
uttered: for Thy providence reaches as far as the inmost parts of
mankind; and by Thy knowledge Thou searchest the thoughts of every one,
and in every region of the whole earth the incense of prayer and
supplication is sent up to Thee. O Thou who hast appointed this present
world as a place of combat to righteousness, and hast opened to all the
gate of mercy, and hast demonstrated to every man by implanted
knowledge, and natural judgment, and the admonitions of the law, how
the possession of riches is not everlasting, the ornament of beauty is
not perpetual, our strength and force are easily dissolved; and that
all is vapour and vanity; and that only the good conscience of faith
unfeigned passes through the midst of the heavens, and returning with
truth, takes hold of the right hand of the joy, which is to come. And
withal, before the promise of the restoration of all things is
accomplished, the soul itself exults in hope, and is joyful. For from
that truth which was in our forefather Abraham, when he changed his way
Thou didst guide him by a vision, and didst teach him what kind of
state this world is; and knowledge went before his faith, and faith was
the consequence of his knowledge; and the covenant did follow after his
faith. For Thou saidst: "I will make thy seed as the stars of heaven,
and as the sand which is by the seashore."(3) Moreover, when Thou hadst
given him Isaac, and knewest him to be like him in his mode of life,
Thou wast then called his God, saying: "I will be a God to thee, and to
thy seed after thee."(4) And when our father Jacob was sent into
Mesopotamia, Thou showedst him Christ, and by him speakest, saying:
"Behold, I am with thee, and I will increase thee, and multiply thee
exceedingly."(5) And so spakest Thou to Moses, Thy faithful and holy
servant, at the vision of the bush: "I am He that is; this is my name
for ever, and my memorial for generations of generations."(6) O Thou
great protector of the posterity of Abraham, Thou art blessed for ever.
A PRAYER DECLARATIVE OF GOD'S VARIOUS CREA-
TION.
XXXIV. Thou art blessed, O Lord, the King of ages,
who by Christ hast made the whole world, and by Him in the beginning
didst reduce into order the disordered parts; who dividedst the waters
from the waters by a firmament, and didst put into them a spirit of
life; who didst fix the earth, and stretch out the heaven, and didst
dispose every creature by an accurate constitution. For by Thy power, O
Lord, the world is beautified, the heaven is fixed as an arch over us,
and is rendered illustrious with stars for our comfort in the darkness.
The light also and the sun were begotten for days and the production of
fruit, and the moon for the change of seasons, by its increase and
diminutions; and one was called Night, and the other Day. And the
firmament was exhibited in the midst of the abyss, and Thou commandedst
the waters to be gathered together, and the dry land to appear. But as
for the sea itself, who can possibly describe it, which comes with fury
from the ocean, yet rims back again, being stopped by the sand at Thy
command? For Thou hast said: "Thereby shall her waves be broken."(7)
Thou hast also made it capable of supporting little and great
creatures, and made it navigable for ships. Then did the earth become
green, and was planted with all sorts of flowers, and the variety of
several trees; and the shining luminaries, the nourishers of those
plants, preserve their unchangeable course, and in nothing depart from
Thy command. But where Thou biddest them, there do they rise and set
for signs of the seasons and of the years, making a constant return of
the work of men. Afterwards the kinds of the several animals were
created--those belonging to the land, to the water, to the air, and
both to air and water; and the artificial wisdom of Thy providence does
still impart to every one a suitable providence. For as He was not
unable to produce different kinds, so neither has He disdained to
exercise a
473
different providence towards every one. And at the conclusion of the
creation Thou gavest direction to Thy Wisdom, and formedst a reasonable
creature as the citizen of the world, saying, "Let us make man after
our image, and after our likeness;"(1) and hast exhibited him as the
ornament of the world, and formed him a body out of the four elements,
those primary bodies, but hadst prepared a soul out of nothing, and
bestowedst upon him his five senses, and didst set over his sensations
a mind as the conductor of the soul. And besides all these things, O
Lord God, who can worthily declare the motion of the rainy clouds, the
shining of the lightning, the noise of the thunder, in order to the
supply of proper food, and the most agreeable temperature of the air?
But when man was disobedient, Thou didst deprive him of the life which
should have been his reward. Yet didst Thou not destroy him for ever,
but laidst him to sleep for a time; and Thou didst by oath call him to
a resurrection, and loosedst the bond of death, O Thou reviver of the
dead, through Jesus Christ, who is our hope.
A PRAYER, WITH THANKSGIVING, DECLARATIVE OF GOD'S PROVIDENCE OVER THE
BEINGS HE HAS MADE.
XXXV. Great art thou, O Lord Almighty, and great is
Thy power, and of Thy understanding there is no number. Our Creator and
Saviour, rich in benefits, long-suffering, and the bestower of mercy,
who dost not take away Thy salvation from Thy creatures: for Thou art
good by nature, and sparest sinners, and invitest them to repentance;
for admonition is the effect of Thy bowels of compassion. For how
should we abide if we were required to come to judgment immediately,
when, after so much long-suffering, we hardly get clear of our
miserable condition? The heavens declare Thy dominion, and the earth
shakes with earthquakes, and, hanging upon nothing, declares Thy
unshaken stedfastness. The sea raging with waves, and feeding a flock
of ten thousand creatures, is bounded with sand, as standing in awe at
Thy command, and compels all men to dry out: "How great are Thy works,
O Lord! in wisdom hast Thou made them all: the earth is full of Thy
creation."(2) And the bright host of angels and the intellectual
spirits say to Palmoni,(3) "There is but one holy Being;"(4) and the
holy seraphim, together with the six-winged cherubim, who sing to Thee
their triumphal song, cry out with neverceasing voices, "Holy, holy,
holy, Lord God of hosts! heaven and earth are full of Thy
glory;"(5) and the other multitudes of the orders, angels
archangels, thrones, dominions, principalities, authorities, and
powers cry aloud, and say, "Blessed be the glory of the Lord out
of His place."(6) But lsrael, Thy Church on earth, taken
out of the Gentiles, emulating the heav enly powers night and day, with
a full heart and a willing soul sings, "The chariot of God
is ten thousandfold thousands of them that rejoice: the Lord is
among them in Sinai, in the holy place."(7) The heaven knows Him
who fixed it as a cube of stone, in the form of an arch, upon nothing,
who united the land and water to one another, and scattered the vital
air all abroad, and conjoined fire therewith for warmth, and the
comfort against darkness. The choir of stars strikes us with
admiration, declaring Him that numbers them, and showing Him that names
them; the animals declare Him that puts life into them; the trees show
Him that makes them grow: all which creatures, being
made by Thy word, show forth the greatness of Thy power. Wherefore
every man ought to send up an hymn from his very soul to Thee, through
Christ, in the name of all the rest, since He has power over them all
by Thy appointment. For Thou art kind in Thy benefits, and beneficent
in Thy bowels of compassion, who alone art almighty: for when Thou
willest, to be able is present with Thee; for Thy eternal power both
quenches flame, and stops the mouths of lions, and tames whales, and
raises up the sick, and overrules the power of all things, and
over, turns the host of enemies, and casts down a people numbered in
their arrogance. Thou art He who art in heaven, He who art on earth,
He who art in the sea, He who art in finite things, Thyself
unconfined by anything. For of Thy majesty there is no boundary; for it
is not ours, O Lord, but the oracle of Thy servant, who said, "And thou
shalt know in thine heart that the Lord thy God He is God in heaven
above, and on earth beneath, and there is none other besides Thee:"(8)
for there is no God besides Thee alone, there is none holy besides
Thee, the Lord, the God of knowledge, the God of the saints, holy above
all holy beings; for they are sanctified by Thy hands. Thou art
glorious, and highly exalted, invisible by nature, and unsearchable in
Thy judgments; whose life is without want, whose duration can never
alter or fail, whose operation is without toil, whose greatness is
unlimited, whose excellency is perpetual, whose habitation is
inaccessible, whose dwelling is unchangeable, whose knowledge is
without beginning, whose truth is immutable, whose work is without
assistants, whose dominion cannot be
474
taken away, whose monarchy is without succession, whose kingdom is
without end, whose strength is irresistible, whose army is very
numerous: for Thou art the Father of wisdom, the Creator of the
creation, by a Mediator, as the cause; the Bestower of providence,
the Giver of laws, the Supplier of want, the Punisher of the
ungodly, and the Rewarder of the righteous; the God and Father of
Christ, and the Lord of those that are pious towards Him, whose promise
is infallible, whose judgment without bribes, whose sentiments are
immutable, whose piety is incessant, whose thanksgiving is everlasting,
through whom(1) adoration is worthily due to Thee from every rational
and holy nature.
A PRAYER COMMEMORATIVE OF THE INCARNATION OF CHRIST, AND HIS VARIOUS
PROVIDENCE TO THE SAINTS.
XXXVI. O Lord Almighty Thou hast created the world
by Christ, and hast appointed the Sabbath in memory thereof, because
that on that day Thou hast made us rest from our works, for the
meditation upon Thy laws. Thou hast also appointed festivals for the
rejoicing of our souls, that we might come into the remembrance of that
wisdom which was created by Thee; how He submitted to be made of a
woman on our account;(2) He appeared in life, and demonstrated Himself
m His baptism; how He that appeared is both God and man; He suffered
for us by Thy permission, and died, and rose again by Thy power: on
which account we solemnly assemble to celebrate the feast of the
resurrection on the Lord's day, and rejoice on account of Him who
has conquered death, and has brought life and immortality to light. For
by Him Thou hast brought home the Gentiles to Thyself for a
peculiar people, the true Israel beloved of God, and seeing God. For
Thou O Lord, broughtest our fathers out of the land of Egypt, and didst
deliver them out of the iron furnace, from clay and brick-making, and
didst redeem them out of the hands of Pharaoh, and of those under him,
and didst lead them through the sea as through dry land, and didst bear
their manners in the wilderness, and bestow on them all sorts of good
things. Thou didst give them the law or decalogue, which was pronounced
by Thy voice and written with Thy hand. Thou didst enjoin the
observation of the Sabbath, not affording them an occasion of idleness,
but an opportunity of piety, for their knowledge of Thy power, and the
prohibition of evils; having limited them as within an holy circuit for
the sake of doctrine, for the rejoicing upon the seventh period. On
this account was there appointed one week, and seven weeks, and the
seventh month, and the seventh year, and the revolution of these, the
jubilee, which is the fiftieth year for remission, that men might have
no occasion to pretend ignorance.(3) On this account He permitted men
every Sabbath to rest, that so no one might be willing to send one word
out of his mouth in anger on the day of the Sabbath. For the Sabbath is
the ceasing of the creation, the completion of the world,
the inquiry after laws, and the grateful praise to God for the
blessings He has bestowed upon men. All which the Lord's day excels,(4)
and shows the Mediator Himself, the Provider, the Lawgiver, the Cause
of the resurrection, the First-born of the whole creation, God the
Word, and man, who was born of Mary alone, without a man, who lived
holily, who was crucified under Pontius Pilate, and died, and rose
again from the dead. So that the Lord's day commands us to offer unto
Thee, O Lord, thanksgiving for all.(5) For this is the grace afforded
by Thee, which on account of its greatness has obscured all other
blessings.
A PRAYER CONTAINING THE MEMORIAL OF HIS PROVIDENCE, AND AN ENUMERATION
OF THE VARIOUS BENEFITS AFFORDED THE SAINTS BY THE PROVIDENCE OF GOD
THROUGH CHRIST.
XXXVII. Thou who hast fulfilled Thy promises made by
the prophets, and hast had mercy on Zion, and compassion on Jerusalem,
by exalting the throne of David, Thy servant, in the midst of her, by
the birth of Christ, who was born of his seed according to the flesh,
of a virgin alone; do Thou now, O Lord God, accept the prayers which
proceed from the lips of Thy people which are of the Gentiles, which
call upon Thee in truth, as Thou didst accept of the gifts of the
righteous in their generations. In the first place Thou did respect the
sacrifice of Abel,(6) and accept it as Thou didst accept of the
sacrifice of Noah when he went out of the ark;(7) of Abraham, when he
went out of the land of the Chaldeans;(8) of Isaac at the Well of the
Oath;(9) of Jacob in Bethel;(10) of Moses in the desert;(11) of Aaron
between the dead and the living;(12) of Joshua the son of Nun in
Gilgal;(13) of Gideon at the rock, and the fleeces, before his sin;(14)
of Manoah and his wife in the field; of Samson in his thirst before the
transgression;(15) of Jephtha
475
in the war before his rash vow; of Barak and Deborah in the days of
Sisera;(1) of Samuel in Mizpeh;(2) of David in the threshing-floor of
Ornan the Jebusite;(3) of Solomon in Gibeon and in Jerusalem:(4) of
Elijah in Mount Carmel;(5) of Elisha at the barren fountain;(6) of
Jehoshaphat in war;(7) of Hezekiah in his sickness, and concerning
Sennacherib;(8) of Manasseh in the land of the Chaldeans, after his
transgression;(9) of Josiah in Phassa;(10) of Ezra at the return;(11)
of Daniel in the den of lions;(12) of Jonah in the whale's belly;(13)
of the three children in the fiery furnace;(14) of Hannah in the
tabernacle before the ark;(15) of Nehemiah at the rebuilding of the
walls;(16) of Zerubbabel; of Mattathias and his sons in their zeal;(17)
of Jael in blessings. Now also do Thou receive the prayers
of Thy people which are offered to Thee with knowledge, through Christ
in the Spirit.
A PRAYER FOR THE ASSISTANCE OF THE RIGHT-
EOUS.
XXXVIII. We give Thee thanks for all things, O Lord
Almighty, that Thou hast not taken away Thy mercies and Thy compassions
from us; but in every succeeding generation Thou dost save, and
deliver, and assist, and protect for Thou didst assist in the days of
Enos and Enoch, in the days of Moses and Joshua, in the days of the
judges, in the days of Samuel and of Elijah and of the prophets, in the
days of David and of the kings, in the days of Esther and Mordecai, in
the days of Judith, in the days of Judas Maccabeus and his brethren,
and in our days hast Thou assisted us by Thy great High Priest, Jesus
Christ Thy Son. For He has delivered us from the sword, and
hath freed us from famine, and sustained us; has delivered us from
sickness, has preserved us from an evil tongue. For all which things do
we give Thee thanks through Christ, who has given us an articulate
voice to confess withal, and added to it a suitable tongue as an
instrument to modulate withal, and a proper taste, and a suitable
touch, and a sight for contemplation, and the hearing of sounds, and
the smelling of vapours, and hands for work, and feet for walking. And
all these members dost Thou form from a little drop in the womb; and
after the formation dost Thou bestow on it an immortal soul, and
producest it into the light as a rational creature, even man. Thou hast
instructed him by Thy laws, improved him by Thy statutes; and when Thou
bringest on a dissolution for a while, Thou hast promised a
resurrection. Wherefore what life is sufficient, what length of ages
will be long enough, for men to be thankful? To do it worthily it is
impossible, but to do it according to our ability is just and right.
For Thou hast delivered us from the impiety of polytheism, and from the
heresy of the murderers of Christ; Thou hast delivered us from error
and ignorance; Thou hast sent Christ among men as a man, being the only
begotten God; Thou hast made the Comforter to inhabit among us; Thou
hast set angels over us; Thou hast put the devil to shame; Thou hast
brought us into being when we were not. Thou takest care of us when
made; Thou measurest out life to us; Thou affordest us food; Thou
hast promised repentance. Glory and worship be to Thee for all these
things, through Jesus Christ,(8) now and ever, and through all
ages. Amen. Meditate on these things, brethren; and the Lord be With
you upon earth, and in the kingdom of His Father, who both sent Him,
and has "delivered us by Him from the bondage of corruption into His
glorious liberty;"(19) and has promised life to those who through Him
have believed in the God of the whole world.
SEC. III.--ON THE INSTRUCTION OF CATECHUMENS, AND THEIR INITIATION INTO
BAPTISM.
Now, after what manner those ought to live that are
initiated into Christ, and what thanksgivings they ought to send up to
God through Christ, has been said in the foregoing directions. But it
is reasonable not to leave even those who are not yet initiated without
assistance.
HOW THE CATECHUMENS ARE TO BE INSTRUCTED
IN THE ELEMENTS.
XXXIX. Let him, therefore, who is to be taught the
truth in regard to piety be instructed before his baptism in the
knowledge of the unbegotten God, in the understanding of His only
begotten Son, in the assured acknowledgment of the Holy
Ghost. Let him learn the order of the several parts of the creation,
the series of providence, the different dispensations of Thy laws. Let
him be instructed why the world was made, and why man was
appointed to be a citizen therein;
476
let him also know his own nature, of what sort it is; let him be taught
how God punished the wicked with water and fire, and did glorify the
saints in every generation--I mean Seth, and Enos, and Enoch, and Noah,
and Abraham and his posterity, and Melchizedek, and Job, and Moses, and
Joshua, and Caleb, and Phineas the priest, and those that were holy in
every generation; and how God still took care of and did not reject
mankind, but called them from their error and vanity to the
acknowledgment of the truth at various seasons, reducing them from
bondage and impiety unto liberty and piety, from injustice to
righteousness, from death eternal to everlasting life. Let him that
offers himself to baptism learn these and the like things during the
time that he is a catechumen; and let him who lays his hands upon him
adore God, the Lord of the whole world, and thank Him for His creation,
for His sending Christ His only begotten Son, that He might save man by
blot-ring out his transgressions, and that He might remit ungodliness
and sins, and might "purify him from all filthiness of flesh and
spirit,"(1) and sanctify man according to the good pleasure
of His kindness, that He might inspire him with the
knowledge of His will, and enlighten the eyes of his heart to
consider of His wonderful works, and make known to him the judgments of
righteousness, that so he might hate every way of iniquity, and walk in
the way of truth, that he might be thought worthy of the layer of
regeneration, to the adoption of sons, which is in Christ, that "being
planted together in the likeness of the death of
Christ,"(2) in hopes of a glorious communication, he may be
mortified to sin, and may live to God, as to his mind, and word,
and deed, and may be numbered together in the book of the living.
And after this thanksgiving, let him instruct him in the doctrines
concerning our Lord's incarnation, and in those concerning His passion,
and resurrection from the dead, and assumption.
A CONSTITUTION HOW THE CATECHUMENS ARE TO BE BLESSED BY THE PRIESTS IN
THEIR INITIATION, AND WHAT THINGS ARE TO BE TAUGHT THEM.
XL. And when it remains that the catechumen is to be
baptized, let him learn what concerns the renunciation of the devil,
and the joining himself with Christ; for it is fit that he should first
abstain from things contrary, and then be admitted to the mysteries. He
must beforehand purify his heart from all wickedness of disposition,
from all spot and wrinkle, and then partake of the
holy things; for as the skilfullest husbandman does
first purge his ground of the thorns which are grown up therein,
and does then sow his wheat, so ought you also to take away all impiety
from them, and then to sow the seeds of piety in them, and vouchsafe
them baptism. For even our Lord did in this manner exhort us, saying
first, "Make disciples of all nations;"(3) and then He adds this, "and
baptize them into the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the
Holy Ghost." Let, therefore, the candidate for baptism declare thus in
his renunciation:(4)--
THE RENUNCIATION OF THE ADVERSARY, AND THE DEDICATION TO THE CHRIST OF
GOD.
XLI. I renounce Satan, and his works, and his pomps,
and his worships, and his angels, and his inventions, and all things
that are under him. And after his renunciation let him in his
consociation say: And I associate myself to Christ, and believe, and am
baptized into one unbegotten Being, the only true God Almighty, the
Father of Christ, the Creator and Maker of all things, from whom are
all things; and into the Lord Jesus Christ, His only begotten Son, the
First-born of the whole creation, who before the ages was begotten by
the good pleasure of the Father, by whom all things were made, both
those in heaven and those on earth, visible and invisible; who in the
last days descended from heaven, and took flesh, and was born of the
holy Virgin Mary, and did converse holily according to the laws of His
God and Father, and was crucified under Pontius Pilate, and died for
us, and rose again from the dead after His passion the third day, and
ascended into the heavens, and sitteth at the right hand of the Father,
and again is to come at the end of the world with glory to judge the
quick and the dead, of whose kingdom there shall be no end. And I am
baptized into the Holy Ghost, that is, the Comforter, who wrought in
all the saints from the beginning of the world, hut was afterwards sent
to the apostles by the Father, according to the promise of our Saviour
and Lord, Jesus Christ; and after the apostles, to all those that
believe in the Holy Catholic Church; into the resurrection of the
flesh, and into the remission of sins, and into the kingdom of heaven,
and into the life of the world to come. And after this vow, he comes in
order to the anointing with oil.
A THANKSGIVING CONCERNING THE ANOINTING WITH THE MYSTICAL OIL.
XLII. Now this is blessed by the high priest for the
remission of sins, and the first preparation for baptism. For he calls
thus upon the unbegotten God, the Father of Christ, the King of all
sensible and intelligible natures, that He would sanctify the oil in
the name of the Lord
477
Jesus, and impart to it spiritual grace and efficacious strength, the
remission of sins, and the first preparation for the
confession of baptism, that so the candidate for baptism, when he
is anointed may be freed from all ungodliness, and may become worthy of
initiation, according to the command of the Only-begotten.
A THANKSGIVING CONCERNING THE MYSTICAL WATER.
XLIII. After this he comes to the water, and blesses
and glorifies the Lord God Almighty, the Father of the only begotten
God;(1) and the priest returns thanks that He has sent His Son to
become man on our account, that He might save us; that He has permitted
that He should in all things become obedient to the laws of that
incarnation, to preach the kingdom of heaven, the remission of sins,
and the resurrection of the dead. Moreover, he adores the only begotten
God Himself, after His Father, and for Him, giving Him thanks that He
undertook to die for all men by the cross, the type of which He has
appointed to be the baptism of regeneration. He glorifies Him also, for
that God who is the Lord of the whole world, in the name of Christ and
by His Holy Spirit, has not cast off mankind but has suited His
providence to the difference of seasons: at first giving to Adam
himself paradise for an habitation of pleasure, and afterwards giving a
command on account of providence, and casting out the offender justly,
but through His goodness not utterly casting him off, but instructing
his posterity in succeeding ages after various manners; on whose
account, in the conclusion of the world, He has sent His Son to become
man for man's sake, and to undergo all human passions without sin. Him,
therefore, let the priest even now call upon in baptism, and let him
say: Look down from heaven, and sanctify this water, and give it grace
and power, that so he that is to be baptized, according to the command
of Thy Christ, may be crucified with Him, and may die with Him, and may
be buried with Him, and may rise with Him to the adoption which is in
Him, that he may be dead to sin and live to righteousness. And after
this, when he has baptized him in the name of the Father, and of the
Son, and of the Holy Ghost, he shall anoint him with ointment, and
shall add as follows:--
A THANKSGIVING CONCERNING THE MYSTICAL OINT-
MENT.
XLIV. O Lord God, who art without generation, and
without a superior, the Lord of the whole world, who hast scattered the
sweet odour of the knowledge of the Gospel among all nations, do Thou
grant at this time that this ointment may be efficacious upon him that
is baptized, that so the sweet odour of Thy Christ may continue upon
him firm and fixed; and that now he has died with Him, he may arise and
live with Him. Let him say these and the like things, for this is the
efficacy of the laying on of hands on every one; for unless there be
such a recital made by a pious priest over every one of these, the
candidate for baptism does only descend into the water as do the Jews,
and he only puts off the filth of the body, not the filth of the soul.
After this let him stand up, and pray that prayer which the Lord taught
us. But, of necessity, he who is risen again ought to stand up and
pray, because he that is raised up stands upright. Let him, therefore,
who has been dead with Christ, and is raised up with Him, stand up. But
let him pray towards the east.(2) For this also is written in the
second book of the Chronicles, that after the temple of the Lord was
finished by King Solomon, in the very feast of dedication the priests
and the Levites and the singers stood up towards the east, praising and
thanking God with cymbals and psalteries, and saying, "Praise the Lord,
for He is good; for His mercy endureth for ever."(3)
A PRAYER FOR THE NEW FRUITS.
XLV. But let him pray thus after the foregoing
prayer, and say: O God Almighty, the Father of Thy Christ, Thy only
begotten Son, give me a body undefiled, a heart pure, a mind watchful,
an unerring knowledge, the influence of the Holy Ghost for the
obtaining and assured enjoying of the truth, through Thy Christ, by
whom(4) glory be to Thee, in the Holy Spirit, for ever. Amen. We have
thought it reasonable to make these constitutions concerning the
catechumens.
SEC. IV.--ENUMERATION ORDAINED BY APOSTLES.
WHO WERE THEY THAT THE HOLY APOSTLES SENT
AND ORDAINED?
XLVI. Now concerning those bishops which have been
ordained in our lifetime, we let you know that they are these:--James
the bishop of Jerusalem, the brother of our Lord;(5) upon whose death
the second was Simeon the son of Cleopas; after whom the third was
Judas the son of James. Of Caesarea of Palestine, the
478
first was Zacchaeus, who was once a publican; after whom was Cornelius,
and the third Theophilus. Of Antioch, Euodius, ordained by me Peter;
and Ignatius by Paul. Of Alexandria, Annianus was the first, ordained
by Mark the evangelist; the second Avilius by Luke, who was also an
evangelist. Of the church of Rome, Linus the son of Claudia was the
first, ordained by Paul;(1) and Clemens, after Linus' death, the
second, ordained by me Peter.(2) Of Ephesus, Timotheus, ordained by
Paul; and John, by me John. Of Smyrna, Aristo the first; after whom
Strataeas the son of Lois;(3) and the third Aristo. Of Pergamus, Gains.
Of Philadelphia, Demetrius, by me. Of Cenchrea, Lucius, by Paul. Of
Crete, Titus. Of Athens, Dionysius. Of Tripoli in Phoenicia,
Marathones. Of Laodicea in Phrygia, Archippus.(4) Of Colossae,
Philemon.(5) Of Borea in Macedonia, Onesimus, once the servant of
Philemon.(6) Of the churches of Galatia, Crescens.(7) Of the parishes
of Asia, Aquila and Nicetas. Of the church of AEginae, Crispus. These
are the bishops who are entrusted by us with the parishes in the Lord;
whose doctrine keep ye always in mind, and observe our words. And may
the Lord be with you now, and to endless ages, as Himself said to us
when He was about to be taken up to His own God and Father. For says
He, "Lo, I am with you all the days, until the end of the world.
Amen."(8)
SEC. V.--DAILY PRAYERS.
A MORNING PRAYER.
XLVII. "Glory be to God in the highest, and upon
earth peace, good-will among men."(9) We praise Thee, we sing hymns to
Thee, we bless Thee; we glorify Thee, we worship Thee by Thy great High
Priest; Thee who art the true God, who art the One Unbegotten, the only
inaccessible Being. For Thy great glory, O Lord and heavenly King, O
God the Father Almighty, O Lord God,(10) the Father of Christ the
immaculate Lamb, who taketh away the sin of the world, receive our
prayer, Thou that sittest upon the cherubim. For Thou only art holy,
Thou only art the Lord Jesus, the Christ of the God of all created
nature, and our King, by whom glory, honour, and worship be to Thee.
AN EVENING PRAYER.
XLVIII. "Ye children, praise the Lord: praise the
name of the Lord."(11) We praise Thee, we sing hymns to Thee, we bless
Thee for Thy great glory, O Lord our King, the Father of Christ the
immaculate Lamb, who taketh away the sin of the world. Praise becomes
Thee, hymns become Thee, glory becomes Thee, the God and Father,(12)
through the Son, in the most holy Spirit, for ever and ever. Amen.
"Now, O Lord, lettest Thou Thy servant depart in peace, according to
Thy word; for mine eyes have seen Thy salvation, which Thou hast
prepared before the face of all people, a light for the revelation to
the Gentiles, and the glory of Thy people Israel."(13)
A PRAYER AT DINNER.
XLIX. Thou art blessed, O Lord, who nourishest me
from my youth, who givest food to all flesh. Fill our hearts with joy
and gladness, that having always what is sufficient for us, we may
abound to every good work, in Christ Jesus our Lord, through whom(14)
glory, honour, and power be to Thee for ever. Amen.
GENERAL NOTE.
COMPARING the Teaching with chapters xxv. and xxvi.
of these Constitutions, it seems to me that the nature of the
eucharistic(thanksgiving) prayers becomes apparent. They presuppose the
formulas to be found in the eighth book of the Constitutions,(1) and
are such instructions as were imparted only to catechumens; the part
peculiar to presbyters being withheld, of course, as esoteric
mysteries, until further knowledge was canonically appropriate. See
Elucidation IV. vol. vi. p. 236; and in this volume, Elucidation I. p.
382. The Bryennios MS. is cleared from nearly all difficulties by Dr.
Riddle's lucid notes, when compared with corresponding passages in the
Constitutions, or illustrated by such as are supplementary.
479
CONSTITUTIONS OF THE HOLY APOSTLES
BOOK VIII.
CONCERNING GIFTS, AND ORDINATIONS, AND THE ECCLESIASTICAL CANONS.
SEC. I.--ON THE DIVERSITY OF SPIRITUAL GIFTS.
ON WHOSE ACCOUNT THE POWERS OF MIRACLES ARE PERFORMED.
1. JESUS CHRIST, our God and Saviour, delivered to
us the great mystery of godliness, and called both Jews and Gentiles to
the acknowledgment of the one and only[1] true God His Father,[2] as
Himself somewhere says, when He was giving thanks for the salvation of
those that had believed, "I have manifested Thy name to men, I have
finished the work Thou gavest me ;"[3] and said concerning us to His
Father, "Holy Father, although the world has not known Thee, yet have I
known Thee; and these have known Thee."[4] With good reason did He say
to all of us together, when we were perfected concerning those gifts
which were given from Him by the Spirit: "Now these signs shall follow
them that have believed in my name: they shall cast out devils; they
shall speak with new tongues; they shall take up serpents; and if they
drink any deadly thing, it shall by no means hurt them: they shall lay
their hands on the sick, and they shall recover."[5] These gifts were
first bestowed on us the apostles when we were about to preach the
Gospel to every creature, and afterwards were of necessity afforded to
those who had by our means believed; not for the advantage of those who
perform them, but for the conviction of the unbelievers, that those
whom the word did not persuade, the power of signs might put to shame:
for signs are not for us who believe, but for the unbelievers, both for
the Jews and Gentiles. For neither is it any profit to us to cast out
demons, but to those who are so cleansed by the power of the Lord; as
the Lord[6] Himself somewhere instructs us, and shows, saying: "Rejoice
ye, not because the spirits are subject unto you; but rejoice, because
your names are written in heaven."[7] Since the former is done by His
power, but this by our good disposition and diligence, yet (it is
manifest) by His assistance. It is not therefore necessary that every
one of the faithful should cast out demons, or raise the dead, or speak
with tongues; but such a one only who is vouchsafed this gift, for some
cause which may be advantage to the salvation of the unbelievers, who
are often put to shame, not with the demonstration of the world, but by
the power of the signs; that is, such as are worthy of salvation: for
all the ungodly are not affected by wonders; and hereof God Himself is
a witness, as when He says in the law: "With other tongues will I speak
to this people, and with other lips, and yet will they by no means
believe."[8] For neither did the Egyptians believe in God, when Moses
had done so many signs and wonders;[9] nor did the multitude of the
Jews believe in Christ, as they believed Moses, who yet had healed
every sickness and every disease among them.[10] Nor were the former
shamed by the rod which was turned into a living serpent, nor by the
hand which was made white with leprosy, nor by the river Nile turned
into blood; nor the latter by the blind who recovered their sight, nor
by the lame who walked, nor by the dead who were raised." The one was
resisted by Jannes and Jambres, the other by Annas and Caiaphas.[12]
Thus signs do not shame all into belief, but only those of a good
disposition; for whose sake also it is that God is pleased, as a wise
steward of a family, to appoint miracles to be wrought, not
480
by the power of men, but by His own will. Now we say these things, that
those who have received such gifts may not exalt themselves against
those who have not received them; such gifts, we mean, as are for the
working of miracles. For otherwise there is no man who has believed in
God through Christ,[1] that has not received some spiritual gift: for
this very thing, having been delivered from the impiety of polytheism,
and having believed in God the Father through Christ,[2] this is a gift
of God. And the having cast off the veil of Judaism, and having
believed that, by the good pleasure of God, His only begotten Son, who
was before all ages,[3] was in the last time born of a virgin,[4]]
without the company of a man, and that He lived as a man, yet without
sin, and fulfilled all that righteousness which is of the law; and
that, by the permission of God, He who was God the Word endured the
cross, and despised the shame; and that He died, and was buried, and
rose within three days; and that after His resurrection, having
continued forty days with His apostles, and completed His whole
constitutions, He was taken up in their sight to His God and Father,
who sent Him: he who has believed these things, not at random and
irrationally, but with judgment and full assurance, has received the
gift of God. So also has He who is delivered from every heresy. Let
not, therefore, any one that works signs and wonders judge any one of
the faithful who is not vouchsafed the same: for the gifts of God which
are bestowed by Him through Christ are various; and one man receives
one gift, and another another. For perhaps one has the word of wisdom,
and another the word of knowledge;[5] another, discerning of spirits;
another, foreknowledge of things to come; another, the word of
teaching; another, long-suffering; another, continence according to the
law: for even Moses, the man of God, when he wrought signs in Egypt,
did not exalt himself against his equals: and when he was called a god,
he did not arrogantly despise his own prophet Aaron.[6] Nor did Joshua
the son of Nun, who was the leader of the people after him, though in
the war with the Jebusites he had made the sun stand still over against
Gibeon, and the moon over against the valley of Ajalon[7] because the
day was not long enough for their victory, insult over Phineas or
Caleb. Nor did Samuel, who had done so many surprising things,
disregard David the beloved of God: yet they were both prophets, and
the one was high priest, and the other was king. And when there were
only seven thousand holy men in Israel who had not bowed the knee to
Baal,[8] Elijah alone among them, and his disciple Elisha, were workers
of miracles. Yet neither did Elijah despise Obadiah the steward, who
feared God, but wrought no signs; nor did Elisha despise his own
disciple when he trembled at the enemies.[9] Moreover, neither did the
wise Daniel who was twice delivered from the mouths of the lions, nor
the three children who were delivered from the furnace of fire,[10]
despise the rest of their fellow-Israelites: for they knew that they
had not escaped these terrible miseries by their own might; but by the
power of God did they both work miracles, and were delivered from
miseries. Wherefore let none of you exalt himself against his brother,
though he be a prophet, or though he be a worker of miracles: for if it
happens that there be no longer an unbeliever, all the power of signs
will thenceforwards be superfluous. For to be pious is from any one's
good disposition; but to work wonders is from the power of Him that
works them by us: the first of which respects ourselves; but the second
respects God that works them, for the reasons which we have already
mentioned. Wherefore neither let a king despise his officers that are
under him, nor the rulers those who are subject. For where there are
none to be ruled over, rulers are superfluous; and where there are no
officers, the kingdom will not stand. Moreover, let not a bishop be
exalted against his deacons and presbyters, nor the presbyters against
the people: for the subsistence of the congregation depends on each
other. For the bishops and the presbyters are the priests with relation
to the people; and the laity are the laity with relation to the clergy.
And to be a Christian is in our own power; but to be an apostle, or a
bishop, or in any other such office, is not in our own power, but at
the disposal of God, who bestows the gifts. And thus much concerning
those who are vouchsafed gifts and dignities.
CONCERNING UNWORTHY BISHOPS AND PRESBYTERS.
11. We add, in the next place, that neither is every
one that prophesies holy, nor every one that casts out devils
religious: for even Balaam the son of Beor the prophet did
prophesy,[11] though he was himself ungodly; as also did Caiaphas, the
falsely-named high priest.[12] Nay, the devil foretells many things,
and the demons, about Him; and yet for all that, there is not a spark
of piety in them: for they are oppressed
481
with ignorance, by reason of their voluntary wickedness. It is
manifest, therefore, that the ungodly, although they prophesy, do not
by their prophesying cover their own impiety; nor will those who cast
out demons be sanctified by the demons being made subject to them: for
they only mock one another, as they do who play childish tricks for
mirth, and destroy those who give heed to them. For neither is a wicked
king any longer a king, but a tyrant; nor is a bishop oppressed with
ignorance or an evil disposition a bishop, but falsely so called, being
not one sent out by God, but by men, as Ananiah and Samecab in
Jerusalem, and Zedekiah and Achiah the false prophets in Babylon.[1]
And indeed Balaam the prophet, when he had corrupted Israel by
Baal-peor, suffered punishment;[2] and Caiaphas at last was his own
murderer; and the sons of Sceva, endeavouring to cast out demons, were
wounded by them, and fled away in an unseemly manner;[3] and the kings
of Israel and of Judah, when they became impious, suffered all sorts of
punishments. It is therefore evident how bishops and presbyters, also
falsely so called, will not escape the judgment of God. For it will be
said to them even now: "O ye priests that despise my name,[4] I will
deliver you up to the slaughter, as I did Zedekiah and Achiah, whom the
king of Babylon fried in a frying-pan," as says Jeremiah the
prophet.[5] We say these things, not in contempt of true prophecies,
for we know that they are wrought in holy men by the inspiration of
God, but to put a stop to the boldness of vainglorious men; and add
this withal, that from such as these God takes away His grace: for "God
resisteth the proud, but giveth grace to the humble."[6] Now Silas and
Agabus prophesied in our times;[7] yet did they not equal themselves to
the apostles, nor did they exceed their own measures though they were
beloved of God. Now women prophesied also. Of old, Miriam the sister of
Moses and Aaron,[8] and after her Deborah,[9] and after these
Huldah[10] and Judith(11)"--the former under Josiah, the latter under
Darius. The mother of the Lord did also prophesy, and her kinswoman
Elisabeth, and Anna;[12] and in our time the daughters of Philip:[13]
yet were not these elated against their husbands, but preserved their
own measures.[14] Wherefore if among you also there be a man or a
woman, and such a one obtains any gift let him be humble that God ma be
pleased with him. For says He: Upon whom will I look, but upon him
thatis humble and quiet, and trembles at my words?"[15]
SEC. lI.--ELECTION AND ORDINATION OF BISHOPS: FORM OF SERVICE
ON SUNDAYS.
THAT TO MAKE CONSTITUTIONS ABOUT THE OFFICES TO BE
PERFORMED IN THE CHURCHES IS OF GREAT CONSEQUENCE.
III. We have now finished the first part of this
discourse concerning gifts, whatever they be, which God has bestowed
upon men according to His own will; and how He rebuked the ways of
those who either attempted to speak lies, or were moved by the spirit
of the adversary; and that God often employed the wicked[16] For
prophecy and the performance of wonders. But now our discourse hastens
as to the principal part, that is, the constitution of ecclesiastical
affairs, that so, when ye have learned this constitution from us, ye
who are ordained bishops by us at the command of Christ, may perform
all things according to the commands delivered you, knowing that he
that heareth us heareth Christ, and he that heareth Christ heareth His
God and Father,[17] to whom be glory for ever. Amen.
CONCERNING ORDINATIONS.
iv. Wherefore we, the twelve apostles of the Lord,
who are now together, give you in charge those divine constitutions
concerning every ecclesiastical form, there being present with us Paul
the chosen vessel, our fellow-apostle, and James the bishop, and the
rest of the presbyters, and the seven deacons.[18] In the first place,
therefore, I Peter say,[19] that a bishop ordained is to be, as we have
already, all of us, appointed, unblamable in all things, a select
person,[20] chosen by the whole people, who, when he is named and
approved, let the people assemble, with the presbytery and
bishops that are present, an the Lord's day, and let them give their
consent. And let the principal of the bishops ask the presbytery and
482
people whether this be the person whom they desire for their ruler. And
if they give their consent, let him ask further whether he has a good
testimony from all men as to his worthiness for so great and glorious
an authority; whether all things relating to his piety towards God be
right; whether justice towards men has been observed by him; whether
the affairs of his family have been well ordered by him; whether he has
been unblameable in the course of his life. And if all the assembly
together do according to truth, and not according to prejudice, witness
that he is such a one, let them the third time, as before God the
Judge, and Christ, the Holy Ghost being also present, as well as all
the holy and ministering spirits, ask again whether he be truly worthy
of this ministry, that so "in the mouth of two or three witnesses every
word may be established."[1] And if they agree the third time that he
is worthy, let them all be demanded their vote; and when they all give
it willingly, let them be heard. And silence being made, let one of the
principal bishops, together with two others, stand near to the altar,
the rest of the bishops and presbyters praying silently, and the
deacons holding the divine Gospels open upon the head of him that is to
be ordained, and say to God thus:[2]--
THE FORM OF PRAYER FOR THE ORDINATION OF A BISHOP.
v. O Thou the great Being, O Lord God Almighty, who
alone art unbegotten, and ruled over by none; who always art, and wast
before the world; who standest in need of nothing, and art above all
cause and beginning; who only art true, who only art wise; who alone
art the most high; who art by nature invisible; whose knowledge is
without beginning; who only art good, and beyond compare; who knowest
all things before they are; who art acquainted with the most secret
things; who art inaccessible, and without a superior; the God and
Father of Thy only begotten Son, of our God and Saviour; the Creator of
the whole world by Him; whose providence
OXFORD MS.[3]
v. God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, the Father of mercies and
the God of all consolation, who knowest all things before they take
place; Thou who didst appoint the rules of the Church through the word
of Thy grace who didst appoint beforehand the race righteous from the
beginning that came from Abraham to be rulers, and didst constitute
them priests, not leaving Thy sanctuary without ministers; who from the
foundation of the world didst deprovides for and takes the care of all;
the Father of mercies, and God of all consolation;[4] who dwellest in
the highest heavens,[5] and yet lookest down on things below: Thou who
didst appoint the rules of the Church, by the coming of Thy Christ in
the flesh; of which the Holy Ghost is the witness, by Thy apostles, and
by us the bishops, who by Thy grace are here present; who hast
fore-ordained priests from the beginning for the government of Thy
people--Abel in the first place, Seth and Enos, and Enoch and Noah, and
Melchisedec and Job; who didst appoint Abraham, and the rest of the
patriarchs, with Thy faithful servants Moses and Aaron, and
Eleazar and Phineas; who didst choose from among them rulers and
priests in the tabernacle of Thy testimony; who didst choose Samuel for
a priest and a prophet; who didst not leave Thy sanctuary without
ministers; who didst delight in those whom Thou chosest to be glorified
in. Do Thou, by us, pour down the influence of Thy free Spirit, through
the mediation of Thy Christ, which is committed to Thy beloved Son
Jesus Christ; which He bestowed according to Thy will on the holy
apostles of Thee the eternal God. Grant by Thy name, O God, who
searchest the hearts, that this Thy servant, whom Thou hast chosen to
be a bishop, may feed Thy holy flock, and discharge the office of an
high priest to Thee, and minister to Thee, unblameably night and day;
that he may appease Thee, and gather together the number of those that
shall be saved, and may light in those whom Thou chosest to be
glorified in; and now pour down the influence of Thy free Spirit, which
through Thy beloved Son Jesus Christ Thou hast bestowed on Thy holy
apostles, who set up the Church in the place of the sanctuary, to
unending glory and praise of Thy name: O Thou, who knowest the hearts
of all, grant that this Thy servant whom Thou hast chosen to the holy
office of Thy bishop, may discharge the duty of a high priest to Thee,
and minister to Thee unblameably night and day; that he may appease T h
e e unceasingly, and present to Thee the gifts of Thy holy Church, and
in the spirit of the high-priesthood have power to remit sins according
to Thy commandment, to give lots according to Thy injunction, to loose
every bond according to the power which Thou hast given to the
apostles, and be well-pleasing to Thee, in meekness and a pure heart
offering a smell of sweet savour through Thy Son Jesus Christ o u r
Lord, with whom to Thee be glory, power, and honour, along with the
Holy Spirit, now and for ever. Amen.
483
offer to Thee the girls of Thy holy Church. Grant to him, O Lord
Almighty, through Thy Christ, the fellowship of the Holy Spirit, that
so he may have power to remit sins according to Thy command; to give
forth lots according to Thy command; to loose every bond, according to
the power which Thou gavest the apostles; that he may please Thee in
meekness and a pure heart, with a sledfast, unblameable, and
unreprovable mind; to offer to Thee a pure and unbloody sacrifice,
which by Thy Christ Thou hast appointed as the mystery of the new
covenant, for a sweet savour, through Thy holy child Jesus Christ, our
God and Saviour, through whom [1] glory, honour, and worship be to Thee
in the Holy Spirit, now and always, and for all ages. And when he has
prayed for these things, let the rest of the priests add, Amen; and
together with them all the people. And after the prayer let one of the
bishops elevate the sacrifice upon the hands of him that is ordained,
and early in the morning let him be placed in his throne, in a place
set apart far him among the rest of the bishops, they all giving
him the kiss in the Lord.[2] And after the reading of the Law[3] and
the Prophets, and our Epistles, and Acts, and the Gospels, let him that
is ordained salute they Church, saying, The grace of our Lord
Jesus Christ, the love of God and the Father, and the
fellowship of the Holy Ghost, be with you all; and let them all answer,
and with Thy Spirit. And after these words let him speak to the
people the words of exhortation; and when he has ended his word of
doctrine (I Andrew[4] the brother of Peter speak), all standing
up, let the deacon ascend upon some high seat, and proclaim, Let none
of the hearers, let none of the unbelievers stay; and silence being
made, let him say:--
THE DIVINE LITURGY, WHEREIN IS THE BIDDING
PRAYER FOR THE CATECHUMENS.
VI. Ye catechumens, pray, and let all the faithful pray
for them in their mind, saying: Lord, have mercy upon them. And let the
deacon bid prayers for them, saving: Let us all pray unto God for the
catechumens, that He that is good, He that is the lover of mankind,
will mercifully hear their prayers and their supplications, anti so
accept their petitions as to assist them and give them those desires of
their hearts which are for their advantage, and reveal to them the
Gospel of His Christ; give them illumination and understanding,
instruct them in the knowledge of God, teach them His commands and His
ordinances, implant in them His pure and saving fear, open the ears of
their hearts, that they may exercise themselves in His law day and
night; strengthen them in piety, unite them to and number them with His
holy flock; vouchsafe them the layer of regeneration, and the garment
of incorruption, which is the true life; and deliver them from all
ungodliness, and give no place to the adversary against them; "and
cleanse them from all filthiness of flesh and spirit, and dwell in
them, and walk in them, by His Christ; bless their goings out and their
comings in, and order their affairs for their good."[5] Let us still
earnestly put up our supplications for them, that they may obtain the
forgiveness of their transgressions by their admission, and so may be
thought worthy of the holy mysteries, and of constant communion with
the saints. Rise up, ye catechumens, beg for yourselves the peace of
God through His Christ, a peaceable day, and free from sin, and the
like for the whole time of your life, and your Christian ends of it; a
compassionate and merciful God; and the forgiveness of your
transgressions. Dedicate yourselves to the only unbegotten God, through
His Christ. Bow down your heads, and receive the blessing. But at the
naming of every one by the deacon, as we said before, let the people
say, Lord, have mercy upon him; and let the children say it first. And
as they have bowed down their heads, let the bishop who is newly
ordained bless them with this blessing: O God Almighty, unbegotten and
inaccessible, who only art the true God, the God and Father of Thy
Christ, Thy only begotten Son; the God[6] of the Comforter, and Lord of
the whole world; who by Christ didst appoint Thy disciples to be
teachers for the teaching of piety; do Thou now also look down upon Thy
servants, who are receiving instruction in the Gospel of Thy Christ,
and "give them a new heart, and renew a
right
spirit in their inward parts,[7] that they may both know and do
Thy will with full purpose of heart, and with a willing soul. Vouchsafe
them an holy admission, and unite them to Thy holy Church, and make
them partakers of Thy divine mysteries, through Christ, who is our
hope, and who died for them; by whom glory and worship be given to Thee
in the Holy Spirit for ever. Amen. And after this, let the deacon say:
Go out, ye catechumens, in peace. And after they are gone out, let him
say: Ye energumens, afflicted with unclean spirits, pray, and let us
all earnestly, pray for them, that God, the lover of mankind, will
484
by Christ rebuke the unclean and wicked spirits, and deliver His
supplicants from the dominion of the adversary. May He that rebuked the
legion of demons, and the devil, the prince of wickedness,[1] even now
rebuke these apostates from piety, and deliver His own workmanship from
his power, and cleanse those creatures which He has made with great
wisdom. Let us still pray earnestly for them. Save them, O God, and
raise them up by Thy power. Bow down your heads, ye energumens, and
receive the blessings. And let the bishop add this prayer, and say:--
FOR THE ENERGUMENS.
VII. Thou, who hast bound the strong man, and
spoiled all that was in his house, who hast given us power over
serpents and scorpions to tread upon them, and upon all the power of
the enemy;[2] who hast delivered the serpent, that murderer of men,
bound to us, as a sparrow to children, whom all things dread, and
tremble before the face of Thy power;[3] who hast cast him down as
lightning from heaven to earth,[4] not with a fall from a place, but
from honour to dishonour, on account of his voluntary evil disposition;
whose look dries the abysses, and threatening melts the mountains, and
whose truth remains for ever; whom the infants praise, and sucking
babes bless; whom angels sing hymns to, and adore; who lookest upon the
earth, and makest it tremble; who touchest the mountains, and they
smoke; who threatenest the sea, and driest it up, and makest all its
rivers as desert, and the clouds are the dust of His feet; who walkest
upon the sea as upon the firm ground;[5] Thou only begotten God,[6] the
Son of the great Father, rebuke these wicked spirits, and deliver the
works of Thy hands from the power of the adverse spirit. For to Thee is
due glory, honour, and worship, and by Thee to Thy Father, in the Holy
Spirit, for ever. Amen. And let the deacon say: Go out, ye energumens.
And after them, let him cry aloud: Ye that are to be illuminated, pray.
Let all us, the faithful, earnestly pray for them, that the Lord will
vouchsafe that, being initiated into the death of Christ, they may rise
with Him, and become partakers of His kingdom, and may be admitted to
the communion of His mysteries; unite them to, number them among, those
that are saved in His holy Church. Save them, and raise them up by Thy
grace. And being sealed to God through His Christ, let them bow down
their heads, and receive this blessing from the bishop:--
FOR THE BAPTIZED.
VIII. Thou who hast formerly said by Thy holy
prophets to those that be initiated, "Wash ye, become clean,"[7] and
hast appointed spiritual regeneration by Christ, do Thou now also look
down upon these that are baptized, and bless them, and sanctify them,
and prepare them that they may become worthy of Thy spiritual gift, and
of the true adoption of Thy spiritual mysteries, of being gathered
together with those that are saved through Christ our Saviour; by whom
glory, honour, and worship be to Thee, in the Holy Ghost, for ever.
Amen. And let the deacon say: Go out, ye that are preparing for
illumination. And after that let him proclaim: Ye penitents, pray; let
us all earnestly pray for our brethren in the state of penitence, that
God, the lover of compassion, will show them the way of repentance, and
accept their return and their confession, and bruise Satan under their
feet suddenly,[8] and redeem them from the snare of the devil,
and the ill-usage of the demons, and free them from every
unlawful word, and every absurd practice and wicked thought; forgive
them all their offences, both voluntary and involuntary, and blot out
that handwriting which is against them,[9] and write them in the book
of life;[10] cleanse them from all filthiness of flesh and spirit,[11]
and restore and unite them to His holy flock. For He knoweth our frame.
For who can glory that he has a clean heart? And who can boldly say,
that he is pure from sin?[12] For we are all among the blameworthy. Let
us still pray for them more earnestly, for there is joy in heaven over
one sinner that repenteth,[13] that, being converted from every evil
work, they may be joined to all good practice; that God, the lover of
mankind, will suddenly accept their petitions, will restore[14] to them
the joy of His salvation, and strengthen them with His free Spirit;[15]
that they may not be any more shaken,[16] but be admitted to the
communion of His most holy things, and become partakers of His divine
mysteries, that appearing worthy of His adoption, they may obtain
eternal life. Let us all still earnestly say on their account: Lord,
have mercy upon them. Save them, O God, and raise them up by Thy mercy.
Rise up, and bow your heads to God through His Christ, and receive the
blessings. Let the bishop then add this prayer:--
485
IMPOSITION OF HANDS; PRAYER FOR PENlTENTS.
IX. Almighty, eternal God, Lord of the whole world,
the Creator and Governor of all things, who hast exhibited man as the
ornament of the world through Christ, and didst give him a law both
naturally implanted and written, that he might live according to law,
as a rational creature; and when he had sinned, Thou gavest him Thy
goodness as a pledge in order to his repentance: Look down upon these
persons who have bended the neck of their soul and body to Thee; for
Thou desirest not the death of a sinner, but his repentance, that he
turn from his wicked way, and live.(1) Thou who didst accept the
repentance of the Ninevites, who willest that all men be saved, and
come to the acknowledgment of the truth;(2) who didst accept of that
son who had consumed his substance in riotous Iiving,(3) with the
bowels of a father, on account of his repentance; do Thou now accept of
the repentance of Thy supplicants: for there is no man that will not
sin; for "if Thou, O Lord, markest iniquities, O Lord, who shall stand?
For with Thee there is propitiation."(4) And do Thou restore them to
Thy holy Church, into their former dignity and honour, through Christ
our God and Saviour, by whom glory and adoration be to Thee, in the
Holy Ghost, for ever. Amen. Then let the deacon say, Depart, ye
penitents; and let him add, Let none of those who ought not to come
draw near. All we of the faithful, let us bend our knee: let us all
entreat God through His Christ; let us earnestly beseech God through
His Christ.
THE BIDDING PRAYER FOR THE FAITHFUL.
x. Let us pray for the peace and happy settlement of
the world, and of the holy churches; that the God of the whole world
may afford us His everlasting peace, and such as may not be taken away
from us; that He may preserve us in a full prosecution of such virtue
as is according to godliness. Let us pray for the Holy Catholic and
Apostolic Church which is spread from one end of the earth to the
other; that God would preserve and keep it unshaken, and free from the
waves of this life, until the end of the world, as founded upon a rock;
and for the holy parish in this place, that the Lord of the whole world
may vouchsafe us without failure to follow after His heavenly hope, and
without ceasing to pay Him the debt of our prayer. Let us pray for
every episcopacy which is under the whole heaven, of those that rightly
divide the word of Thy truth. And let us pray for our bishop James,(5)
and his parishes; let us pray for our bishop Clement, and his parishes;
let us pray for our bishop Euodius, and his parishes; let us pray for
our bishop Annianus, and his parishes: that the compassionate God may
grant them to continue in His holy churches in health, honour, and long
life, and afford them an honourable old age in godIiness and
righteousness. And let us pray for our presbyters, that the Lord may
deliver them from every unreasonable and wicked action, and
afford them a presbyterate in health and honour. Let us pray for all
the deacons and ministers in Christ, that the Lord may grant them an
unblameable ministration. Let us pray for the readers, singers,
virgins, widows, and orphans. Let us pray for those that are in
marriage and in child-bearing, that the Lord may have mercy upon them
all. Let us pray for the eunuchs who walk holily. Let us pray for those
in a state of continence and piety. Let us pray for those that bear
fruit in the holy Church, and give alms to the needy. And let us pray
for those who offer sacrifices and oblations to the Lord our God, that
God, the fountain of all goodness, may recompense them with His
heavenly gifts, and "give them in this world an hundredfold, and
in the world to come life everlasting;"(6) and bestow upon them for
their temporal things, those that are eternal; for earthly things,
those that are heavenly. Let us pray for our brethren newly
enlightened, that the Lord may strengthen and confirm them. Let us pray
for our brethren exercised with sickness, that the Lord may deliver
them from every sickness and every disease, and restore them sound into
His holy Church. Let us pray for those that travel by water or by land.
Let us pray for those that are in the mines, in banishments, in
prisons, and in bonds, for the name of the Lord. Let us pray for those
that are afflicted with bitter servitude. Let us pray for our enemies,
and those that hate us. Let us pray for those that persecute us for the
name of the Lord, that the Lord may pacify their anger, and scatter
their wrath against us. Let us pray for those that are without,
and are wandered out of the way, that the Lord may convert them. Let us
be mindful of the infants of the Church, that the Lord may
perfect them in His fear, and bring them to a complete age. Let us pray
one for another, that the Lord may keep us and preserve us by His grace
to the end, and deliver us from the evil one. and from all the scandals
of those that work iniquity, and preserve us unto His heavenly kingdom.
Let us pray for every Christian soul. Save us, and raise us up, O God,
by Thy mercy. Let us rise up, and let us pray earnestly, and dedicate
ourselves and one another to the living God, through His Christ. And
let the high priest add this prayer, and say:--
486
THE FORM OF PRAYER FOR THE FAITHFUL.
XI. O Lord Almighty, the Most High, who dwellest on
high, the Holy One, that restest among the saints, without beginning,
the Only Potentate, who hast given to us by Christ the preaching of
knowledge, to the acknowledgment of Thy glory and of Thy name, which He
has made known to us, for our comprehension, do Thou now also look down
through Him upon this Thy flock, and deliver it from all ignorance and
wicked practice, and grant that we may fear Thee in earnest, and love
Thee with affection, and have a due reverence of Thy glory. Be gracious
and merciful to them, and hearken to them when they pray unto Thee; and
keep them, that they may be unmoveable, unblameable, and unreprovable,
that they may be holy in body and spirit, not having spot or wrinkle,
or any such thing; but that they may be complete, and none of them may
be defective or imperfect. O our support, our powerful God, who dost
not accept persons, be Thou the assister of this Thy peopled which Thou
hast redeemed with the precious blood of Thy Christ; be Thou their
protector, aider, provider, and guardian, their strong wall of defence,
their bulwark and security. For "none can snatch out of Thy hand:"(2)
for there is no other God like Thee; for on Thee is our reliance.
"Sanctify them by Thy truth: for Thy word is truth."(3) Thou who dost
nothing for favour, Thou whom none can deceive, deliver them from every
sickness, and every disease, and every offence, every injury and
deceit, "from fear of the enemy, from the dart that flieth in the day,
from the mischief that walketh about in darkness;"(4) and vouchsafe
them that everlasting life which is in Christ Thy only begotten Son,
our God and Saviour, through whom glory and worship be to Thee,
in the Holy Spirit, now and always, and for ever and ever. Amen. And
after this let the deacon say, Let us attend. And let the bishop salute
the church, and say, The peace of God be with you all. And let the
people answer, And with thy spirit; and let the deacon say to all,
Salute ye one another with the holy kiss. And let the clergy salute the
bishop, the men of the laity salute the men, the women the women.
' And let the children stand at the reading-desk; and let another
deacon stand by them, that they may not be disorderly.(5) And let other
deacons walk about and watch the men and women, that no tumult may be
made, and that no one nod, or whisper, or slumber; and let the
deacons(6) stand at the doors of the men, and the sub-deacons at those
of the women, that no one go out, nor a door be opened, although
it be for one of the faithful, at the the of the oblation. But let one
of the sub-deacons bring water to wash the hands of the priests, which
is a symbol of the purity of those souls that are devoted to God.
THE CONSTITUTION OF JAMES THE BROTHER OF JOHN, THE SON OF ZEBEDEE.
XII. And I James,(7) the brother of John, the son of
Zebedee, say, that the deacon shall immediately say, Let none of the
catechumens, let none of the hearers, let none of the unbelievers, let
none of the heterodox, stay here. You who have prayed the foregoing
prayer, depart.(8) Let the mothers receive their children; let no one
have anything against any one; let no one come in hypocrisy; let us
stand upright before the Lord with fear and trembling, to offer. When
this is done, let the deacons bring the gifts to the bishop at the
altar; and let the presbyters stand on his right hand, and on his left,
as disciples stand before their Master. But let two of the deacons, on
each side of the altar, hold a fan, made up of thin membranes, or of
the feathers of the peacock, or of fine cloth, and let them silently
drive away the small animals that fly about, that they may not come
near to the cups. Let the high priest, therefore, together with the
priests, pray(9) by himself; and let him put on his shining garment,
and stand at the altar, and make the sign of the cross upon his
forehead with his hand,(10) and say: The grace of Almighty God, and the
love of our Lord Jesus Christ, and the fellowship of the Holy Ghost, be
with you all. And let all with one voice say: And with thy spirit. The
high priest: Lift up your mind. All the people: We lift it up unto the
Lord. The high priest: Let us give thanks to the Lord. All the people:
It is meet and right so to do. Then let the high priest say: It is very
meet and fight before all things to sing an hymn to Thee, who art the
true God, who art before all beings, "from whom the whole family in
heaven and earth is named;"(11) who only art unbegotten, and without
beginning, and without a ruler, and without a master; who standest in
need of nothing; who art the bestower of everything that is good; who
art beyond all cause and generation; who art alway and immutably the
same; from whom all things came into being, as from their proper
original. For Thou art eternal knowledge, ever-
487
lasting sight, unbegotten hearing, untaught wisdom, the first by
nature, and the measure of being, and beyond all number; who didst
bring all things out of nothing into being by Thy only begotten Son,
but didst beget Him before all ages by Thy will, Thy power, and Thy
goodness, without any instrument, the only begotten Son, God the Word,
the living Wisdom, "the First-born of every creature, the angel of Thy
Great Counsel,"(1) and Thy High Priest, but the King and Lord of every
intellectual and sensible nature, who was before all things, by whom
were all things. For Thou, O eternal God, didst make all things by Him,
and through Him it is that Thou vouchsafest Thy suitable providence
over the whole world; for by the very same that Thou bestowedst being,
didst Thou also bestow well-being: the God and Father of Thy only
begotten Son, who by Him didst make before all things the cherubim and
the seraphim, the aeons and hosts, the powers and authorities, the
principalities and thrones, the archangels and angels; and after all
these, didst by Him make this visible world, and all things that are
therein. For Thou art He who didst frame the heaven as an arch, and
"stretch it out like the covering of a tent,"(2) and didst found the
earth upon nothing by Thy mere will; who didst fix the firmament, and
prepare the night and the day; who didst bring the light out of Thy
treasures, and on its departure didst bring on darkness, for the rest
of the living creatures that move up and down in the world; who didst
appoint the sun in heaven to rule over the day, and the moon to rule
over the night, and didst inscribe in heaven the choir of stars to
praise Thy glorious majesty; who didst make the water for drink and for
cleansing, the air in which we live for respiration and the affording
of sounds, by the means of the tongue, which strikes the air, and the
hearings which co-operates therewith, so as to perceive speech when it
is received by it, and falls upon it; who madest fire for our
consolation in darkness, for the supply of our want, and that we might
be warmed and enlightened by it; who didst separate the great sea from
the land, and didst render the former navigable and the latter fit for
walking, and didst replenish the former with small and great living
creatures, and filledst the latter with the same, both tame and
wild; didst furnish it with various plants, and crown it with herbs,
and beautify it with flowers, and enrich it with seeds; who didst
ordain the great deep, and on every side madest a mighty cavity for it,
which contains seas of salt waters heaped together,(3) yet didst Thou
every way bound them with barriers of the smallest sand;(4) who
sometimes dost raise it to the height of mountains by the winds,
and sometimes dost smooth it into a plain; sometimes dost enrage it
with a tempest, and sometimes dost still it with a calm, that it may be
easy to seafaring men in their voyages; who didst encompass this world,
which was made by Thee through Christ, with rivers, and water it with
currents, and moisten it with springs that never fail, and didst bind
it round with mountains for the immoveable and secure consistence of
the earth: for Thou hast replenished Thy world, and adorned it with
sweet-smelling and with healing herbs, with many and various
living creatures, strong and weak, for food and for labour, tame and
wild; with the noises of creeping things, the sounds of various sorts
of flying creatures; with the circuits of the years, the numbers of
months and days, the order of the seasons, the courses of the rainy
clouds, for the production of the fruits and the support of living
creatures. Thou hast also appointed the station of the winds, which
blow when commanded by Thee, and the multitude of the plants and herbs.
And Thou hast not only created the world itself, but hast also made man
for a citizen of the world, exhibiting him as the ornament of the
world; for Thou didst say to Thy Wisdom: "Let us make man according to
our image, and according to our likeness; and let them have
dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the fowls of the
heaven."(5) Wherefore also Thou hast made him of an immortal soul and
of a body liable to dissolution--the former out of nothing, the latter
out of the four elements--and hast given him as to his soul
rational knowledge, the discerning of piety and impiety, and the
observation of right and wrong; and as to his body, Thou hast
granted him five senses and progressive motion: for Thou, O
God
Almighty, didst by Thy Christ plant a paradise in Eden,(6) in the
east, adorned with all plants fit for food, and didst introduce
him into it, as into a rich banquet. And when Thou madest him, Thou
gavest him a law implanted within him, that so he might have at home
and within himself the seeds of divine knowledge; and when Thou hadst
brought him into the paradise of pleasure, Thou allowedst him the
privilege of enjoying all things, only forbidding the tasting of one
tree, in hopes of greater blessings; that in case he would keep that
command, he might receive the reward of it, which was immortality. But
when he neglected that command, and tasted of the forbidden fruit, by
the seduction of the serpent and the counsel of his wife, Thou didst
justly cast him out of paradise. Yet of Thy goodness
488
Thou didst not overlook him, nor suffer him to perish utterly, for he
was Thy creature; but Thou didst subject the whole creation to him, and
didst grant him liberty to procure himself food by his own sweat and
labours, whilst Thou didst cause all the fruits of the earth to spring
up, to grow, and to ripen. But when Thou hadst laid him asleep for a
while, Thou didst with an oath call him to a restoration again, didst
loose the bond of death, and promise him life after the resurrection.
And not this only; but when Thou hadst increased his posterity to an
innumerable multitude, those that continued with Thee Thou didst
glorify, and those who did apostatize from Thee Thou didst punish. And
while Thou didst accept of the sacrifice of Abel(1) as of an holy
person, Thou didst reject the gift of Cain, the murderer of his
brother, as of an abhorred wretch. And besides these, Thou didst accept
of Seth and Enos,(2) and didst translate Enoch:(3) for Thou art the
Creator of men, and the giver of life, and the supplier of want, and
the giver of laws, and the rewarder of those that observe them, and the
avenger of those that transgress them; who didst bring the great flood
upon the world by reason of the multitude of the ungodly,(4) and didst
deliver righteous Noah from that flood by an ark,(5) with eight souls,
the end of the foregoing generations, and the beginning of those that
were to come; who didst kindle a fearful fire against the five cities
of Sodom, and "didst turn a fruitful land into a salt lake for the
wickedness of them that dwelt therein,"(6) but didst snatch holy Lot
out of the conflagration. Thou art He who didst deliver Abraham from
the impiety of his fore-fathers, and didst appoint him to be the heir
of the world, and didst discover to him Thy Christ; who didst
aforehand ordain Melchisedec an high priest for Thy worship;(7) who
didst render Thy patient servant Job the conqueror of that serpent who
is the patron of wickedness; who madest Isaac the son of the promise,
and Jacob the father of twelve sons, and didst increase his posterity
to a multitude, and bring him into Egypt with seventy-five souls.(8)
Thou, O Lord, didst not overlook Joseph, but grantedst him, as a reward
of his chastity for Thy sake, the government over the Egyptians. Thou,
O Lord, didst not overlook the Hebrews when they were afflicted by the
Egyptians, on account of the promises made unto their fathers; but Thou
didst deliver them and punish the Egyptians.(9) And when men had
corrupted the law of nature, and had sometimes esteemed the creation
the effect of chance, and sometimes honoured it more than they ought,
and equalled it to the God of the universe, Thou didst not, however,
suffer them to go astray, but didst raise up Thy holy servant
Moses, and by him didst give the written law for the assistance of the
law of nature,(10) and didst show that the creation was Thy work, and
didst banish away the error of polytheism. Thou didst adorn Aaron and
his posterity with the priesthood, and didst punish the Hebrews when
they sinned, and receive them again when they returned to Thee. Thou
didst punish the Egyptians with a judgment of ten plagues, and didst
divide the sea, and bring the Israelites through it, and drown and
destroy the Egyptians who pursued after them. Thou didst sweeten the
bitter water with wood; Thou didst bring water out of the rock of
stone; Thou didst rain manna from heaven, and quails, as meat out of
the air; Thou didst afford them a pillar of fire by night to give them
light, and a pillar of a cloud by day to overshadow them from the heat;
Thou didst declare Joshua to be the general of the army, and didst
overthrow the seven nations of Canaan by him;(11) Thou didst divide
Jordan, and dry up the rivers of Etham;(12) Thou didst overthrow walls
without instruments or the hand of man.(13) For all these things, glory
be to Thee, O Lord Almighty. Thee do the innumerable hosts of angels,
archangels, thrones, dominions, principalities, authorities, and
powers, Thine everlasting armies, adore. The cherubim and the
six-winged seraphim, with twain covering their feet, with twain their
heads, and with twain flying,(14) say, together with thousand thousands
of archangels, and ten thousand times ten thousand of angels,(15)
incessantly, and with constant and loud voices, and let all the people
say it with them: "Holy, holy, holy, Lord of hosts, heaven and earth
are full of His glory: be Thou blessed for ever. Amen."(16) And
afterwards let the high priest say: For Thou art truly holy, and most
holy, the highest and most highly exalted for ever. Holy also is Thy
only begotten Son our Lord and God, Jesus Christ, who in all things
ministered to His God and Father, both in Thy various creation and Thy
suitable providence, and has not overlooked lost mankind. But after the
law of nature, after the exhortations in the positive law, after the
prophetical reproofs and the government of the angels, when men had
perverted both the positive law and that of nature, and had cast out of
their mind the memory of the flood, the burn-
489
ing of Sodom, the plagues of the Egyptians, and the slaughters of the
inhabitant of Palestine, and being just ready to perish
universally after an unparalleled manner, He was pleased by Thy good
will to become man, who was man's Creator; to be under the laws, who
was the Legislator; to be a sacrifice, who was an High Priest; to be a
sheep, who was the Shepherd. And He appeased Thee, His God and Father,
and reconciled Thee to the world, and freed all men from the wrath to
come, and was made of a virgin, and was in flesh, being God the Word,
the beloved Son, the first-born of the whole creation, and was,
according to the prophecies which were foretold concerning Him by
Himself, of the seed of David and Abraham, of the tribe of Judah. And
He was made in the womb of a virgin, who formed all mankind that are
born into the world; He took flesh, who was without flesh; He who was
begotten before time, was born in time; He lived holily, and taught
according to the law; He drove away every sickness and every disease
from men, and wrought signs and wonders among the people; and He was
partaker of meat, and drink, and sleep, who nourishes all that stand in
need of food, and "fills every living creature with His goodness;"(1)
"He manifested His name to those that knew it not;"(2) He drave away
ignorance; He revived piety, and fulfilled Thy will; He finished the
work which Thou gavest Him to do; and when He had set all these things
right, He was seized by the hands of the ungodly, of the
high priests and priests, falseIy so called, and of the disobedient
people, by the betraying of him who was possessed of wickedness as with
a confirmed disease; He suffered many things from them, and endured all
sorts of ignominy by Thy permission; He was delivered to Pilate the
governor, and He that was the Judge was judged, and He that was the
Saviour was condemned; He that was impassible was nailed to the cross,
and He who was by nature immortal died, and He that is the giver of
life was buried, that He might loose those for whose sake He came from
suffering and death, and might break the bonds of the devil, and
deliver mankind from his deceit. He arose from the dead the third day;
and when He had continued with His disciples forty days, He was taken
up into the heavens, and is sat down on the right hand of Thee, who art
His God and Father. Being mindful, therefore, of those things that He
endured for our sakes, we give Thee thanks, O God Almighty, not in such
a manner as we ought, but as we are able, and fulfil His constitution:
"For in the same night that He was betrayed, He took bread"(3) in His
holy and undefiled hands, and, looking up to Thee His God and Father,
"He brake it, and gave it to His disciples, saying, This is the mystery
of the new covenant: take of it, and eat. This is my body, which is
broken for many, for the remission of sins."(4) In like manner also "He
took the cup," and mixed it of wine and water, and sanctified it, and
delivered it to them, saying: "Drink ye all of this; for this is my
blood which is shed for many, for the remission of sins: do this in
remembrance of me. For as often as ye eat this bread and drink this
cup, ye do show forth my death until I come." Being mindful, therefore,
of His passion, and death, and resurrection from the dead, and return
into the heavens, and His future second appearing, wherein He is to
come with glory and power to judge the quick and the dead, and to
recompense to every one according to his works, we offer to Thee, our
King and our God, according to His constitution, this bread and
this cup, giving Thee thanks, through Him, that Thou hast thought us
worthy to stand before Thee, and to sacrifice to Thee; and we beseech
Thee that Thou wilt mercifully look down upon these gifts which are
here set before Thee, O Thou God, who standest in need of none of our
offerings. And do Thou accept them, to the honour of Thy Christ, and
send down upon this sacrifice Thine Holy Spirit, the Witness of the
Lord Jesus' sufferings, that He may show this bread to be the body of
Thy Christ, and the cup to be the blood of Thy Christ, that those who
are partakers thereof may be strengthened for piety, may obtain the
remission of their sins, may be delivered from the devil and his
deceit, may be filled with the Holy Ghost, may be made worthy of Thy
Christ, and may obtain eternal, life upon Thy reconciliation to them, O
Lord Almighty. We further pray unto Thee, O Lord, for thy holy Church
spread from one end of the world to another, which Thou hast purchased
with the precious blood of Thy Christ, that Thou wilt preserve it
unshaken and free from disturbance until the end of the world; for
every episcopate who rightly divides the word of truth. We further pray
to Thee for me, who am nothing, who offer to Thee, for the whole
presbytery, for the deacons and all the clergy, that Thou wilt make
them wise, and replenish them with the Holy Spirit. We further pray to
Thee, O Lord, "for the king and all in authority,"(5) for the whole
army, that they may be peaceable towards us, that so, leading
the whole time of our life in quietness and unanimity, we
may glorify Thee through Jesus Christ, who is our hope. We further
offer to Thee also for all those holy persons who have pleased Thee
from the beginning of the world--patri-
490
archs, prophets, righteous men, apostles, martyrs, confessors, bishops,
presbyters, deacons, sub-deacons, readers, singers, virgins, widows,
and lay persons, with all whose names Thou knowest. We further offer to
Thee for this people, that Thou wilt render them, to the praise
of Thy Christ, "a royal priesthood and an holy nation;"(1) for those
that are in virginity and purity; for the widows of the Church;
for those in honourable marriage and child-bearing; for the infants of
Thy people, that Thou wilt not permit any of us to "become castaways."
We further beseech Thee also for this city and its inhabitants; for
those that are sick; for those in bitter servitude; for those in
banishments; for those in prison; for those that travel by water or by
land; that Thou, the helper and assister of all men, wilt be their
supporter. We further also beseech Thee for those that hate us and
persecute us for Thy name's sake; for those that are without, and
wander out of the way; that Thou wilt convert them to goodness, and
pacify their anger. We further also beseech Thee for the catechumens of
the Church, and for those that are vexed by the adversary, and for our
brethren the penitents, that Thou wilt perfect the first in the faith,
that Thou wilt deliver the second from the energy of the evil one, and
that Thou wilt accept the repentance of the last, and forgive both them
and us our offences. We further offer to Thee also for the good
temperature of the air, and the fertility of the fruits, that so,
partaking perpetually of the good things derived from Thee, we may
praise Thee without ceasing, "who gavest food to all flesh."(2) We
further beseech Thee also for those who are absent on a just cause,
that Thou wilt keep us all in piety, and gather us together in the
kingdom of Thy Christ, the God of all sensible and intelligent nature,
our King that Thou wouldst keep us immoveable, unblameable, and
unreprovable: for to Thee belongs all glory and worship, and
thanksgiving, honour and adoration, the Father, with the Son, and
to the Holy Ghost, both now and always, and for everlasting, and
endless ages for ever. And let all the people say, Amen. And let the
bishop say, "The peace of God be with you all." And let all the people
say, "And with thy spirit." And let the deacon proclaim again:--
THE BIDDING PRAYER FOR THE FAITHFUL AFTER THE DlVINE
OBLATION.
XIII. Let us still further beseech God through His
Christ, and let us beseech Him on account of the gift which is offered
to the Lord God, that the good God will accept it, through
the mediation of His Christ, upon His heavenly altar, for a
sweet-smelling savour. Let us pray for this church and people. Let us
pray for every episcopate, every presbytery, all the
deacons and ministers in Christ, for the whole congregation, that the
Lord will keep and preserve them all. Let us pray "for kings and those
in authority," that they may be peaceable toward us, "that so we may
have and lead a quiet and peaceable life in all godliness and
honesty."(3) Let us he mindful of the holy martyrs, that we may be
thought worthy to be partakers of their trial. Let us pray for those
that are departed in the faith. Let us pray for the good temperature of
the air, and the perfect maturity of the fruits. Let us pray for those
that are newly enlightened, that they may be strengthened in the faith,
and all may be mutually comforted by one another.(4) Raise us up, O
God, by Thy grace. Let us stand up, and dedicate ourselves to God,
through His Christ. And let the bishop say: O God, who art great, and
whose name is great, who art great in counsel and mighty in works, the
God and Father of Thy holy child Jesus, our Saviour; look down upon us,
and upon this Thy flock, which Thou hast chosen by Him to the glory of
Thy name; and sanctify our body and soul, and grant us the favour
to be "made pure from all filthiness of flesh and spirit,"(5) and may
obtain the good things laid up for us, and do not account any of us
unworthy; but be Thou our comforter, helper, and protector, through Thy
Christ, with whom glory, honour, praise, doxology, and thanksgiving be
to Thee and to the Holy Ghost for ever. Amen. And after that all have
said Amen, let the deacon say: Let us attend. And let the bishop speak
thus to the people: Holy things for holy persons. And let the people
answer: There is One that is holy; there is one Lord, one Jesus
Christ, blessed for ever, to the glory of God the Father. Amen. "Glory
to God in the highest, and on earth peace, good-will among men. Hosanna
to the son of David! Blessed be He that cometh in the name of the
Lord," being the Lord God who appeared to us, "Hosanna in the
highest."(6) And after that, let the bishop partake, then the
presbyters, and deacons, and(7) sub-deacons, and the readers, and the
singers, and the ascetics; and then of the women, the deaconesses, and
the virgins, and the widows; then the children; and then all the people
in order, with reverence and godly fear, without tumult. And let the
bishop give the oblation, saying, The body of Christ; and let him that
receiveth say, Amen.
491
And let the deacon take the cup; and when he gives it, say, The blood
of Christ, the cup of life; and let him that drinketh say, Amen.(1) And
let the thirty-third psalm be said, while the rest are partaking; and
when all,(2) both men and women, have partaken, let the deacons carry
what remains into the vestry. And when the singer has done, let the
deacon say:--
THE BIDDING PRAYER AFTER THE PARTICIPATION.
XIV. Now we have received the precious body
and the precious blood of Christ, let us give thanks to Him who has
thought us worthy to partake of these His holy(3) mysteries; and let us
beseech Him that it may not be to us for condemnation, but for
salvation, to the advantage of soul and body, to the preservation of
piety, to the remission of sins, and to the life of the world to
come. Let us arise, and by the grace of Christ let us
dedicate ourselves to God, to the only unbegotten God, and to His
Christ. And let the bishop give thanks:--
THE FORM OF PRAYER AFTER THE PARTICIPATION.
XV. O Lord God Almighty, the Father of Thy Christ,
Thy blessed Son, who hearest those who call upon Thee with uprightness,
who also knowest the supplications of those who are silent; we thank
Thee that Thou hast thought us worthy to partake of Thy holy mysteries,
which Thou hast bestowed upon us, for the entire confirmation of those
things we have rightly known, for the preservation of piety, for the
remission of our offences; for the name of thy Christ is called
upon us, and we are joined To Thee. O Thou that hast separated us
froth the communion of the ungodly, unite us with those that are
consecrated to Thee in holiness; confirm us in the truth, by the
assistance of Thy Holy Spirit; reveal to us what things we are ignorant
of, supply what things we are defective in, confirm us in what things
we already know, preserve the priests blameless in Thy worship; keep
the kings in peace, and the rulers in righteousness, the air in a good
temperature, the fruits in fertility, the world in an all-powerful
providence; pacify the warring nations, convert those that are gone
astray, sanctify Thy people, keep those that are in virginity, preserve
those in the faith that are in marriage, strengthen those that are in
purity, bring the infants to complete age, confirm the newly admitted;
instruct the catechumens, and render them worthy of admission; and
gather us all together into Thy kingdom of heaven, by Jesus Christ our
Lord, with whom glory, honour, and worship be to Thee, in the Holy
Ghost, for ever. Amen. And let the deacon say: Bow down to(4) God
through His Christ, and receive the blessing. And let the bishop add
this prayer, and say: O God Almighty, the true God, to whom nothing can
be compared, who art everywhere, and present in all things, and art in
nothing as one of the things themselves; who art not bounded by place,
nor grown old by time; who art not terminated by ages, nor deceived by
words; who art not subject to generation, and wantest no guardian; who
art above all corruption, free from all change, and invariable by
nature; "who inhabitest light inaccessible;"(5) who art by nature
invisible, and yet art known to all reasonable natures who seek Thee
with a good mind, and art comprehended by those that seek after Thee
with a good mind; the God of Israel, Thy people which truly see, and
which have believed in Christ: Be gracious to me, and hear me, for Thy
name's sake, and bless those that bow down their necks unto Thee, and
grant them the petitions of their hearts, which are for their good, and
do not reject any one of them from Thy kingdom; but sanctify, guard,
cover, and assist them; deliver them from the adversary and every
enemy; keep their houses, and guard "their comings in and their goings
out."(6) For to Thee belongs the glory, praise, majesty, worship, and
adoration, and to Thy Son Jesus, Thy Christ, our Lord and God and King,
and to the Holy Ghost, now and always, for ever and ever. Amen. And(7)
the deacon shall say, Depart in peace.(8) These constitutions
concerning this mystical worship, we, the apostles, do ordain for you,
the bishops, presbyters, and deacons.
SEC. III.--ORDINATION AND DUTIES OF THE CLERGY.
CONCERNING THE ORDINATION OF PRESBYTERS -THE
CONSTITUTION OF JOHN, WHO WAS BELOVED BY THE LORD.
XVI. Concerning the ordination of presbyters, I(9)
who am loved by the Lord make this constitution for you the bishops:
When thou ordainest a presbyter, O bishop, lay thy hand upon his head,
492
in the presence of the presbyters and deacons,(1) and pray, saying: O
Lord Almighty, our God, who hast created all things by Christ, and dost
in like manner take care of the whole world by Him; for He who had
power to make different creatures, has also power to take care of them,
according to their different natures; on which account, O God, Thou
takest care of immortal beings by bare preservation, but of those that
are mortal by succession--of the soul by the provision of laws, of the
body by the supply of its wants. Do Thou therefore now also look down
upon Thy holy Church, and increase the same, and multiply those that
preside in it, and grant them power, that they may labour both in word
and work for the edification of Thy people. Do Thou now also look down
upon this Thy servant, who is put into the presbytery by the vote and
determination of the whole clergy; and do Thou replenish him with the
Spirit of grace and counsel, to assist and govern Thy people with a
pure heart, in the same manner as Thou didst look down upon Thy chosen
people, and didst command Moses to choose elders, whom Thou didst fill
with Thy Spirit.(2) Do Thou also now, O Lord, grant this, and preserve
in us the Spirit of Thy grace, that this person, being filled with the
gifts of healing and the word of teaching, may in meekness instruct Thy
people, and sincerely serve Thee with a pure mind and a willing soul,
and may fully discharge the holy ministrations for Thy people, through
Thy Christ, with whom glory, honour, and worship be to Thee, and to the
Holy Ghost, for ever. Amen.
CONCERNING THE ORDINATION OF DEACONS--THE CONSTITUTION OF PHILIP.
XVII. Concerning the ordination of deacons, I
Philip(3) make this constitution: Thou shalt ordain a deacon, O bishop,
by laying thy hands upon him in the presence of the whole presbytery,
and of the deacons, and shall pray, and say:--
THE FORM OF PRAYER FOR THE ORDINATION OF A DEACON.
XVIII. O God Almighty, the true and faithful God,
who art rich unto all that call upon Thee in truth, who art fearful in
counsels, and wise in understanding, who art powerful and great, hear
our prayer, O Lord, and let Thine ears receive our supplication, and
"cause the light of Thy countenance to shine upon this Thy servant,"
who is to be ordained for Thee to the office of a deacon; and
replenish him with Thy Holy Spirit, and with power, as Thou didst
replenish Stephen, who was Thy martyr, and follower of the sufferings
of Thy Christ.(4) Do Thou render him worthy to discharge acceptably the
ministration of a deacon, steadily, unblameably, and without reproof,
that thereby he may attain an higher degree, through the mediation of
Thy only begotten Son, with whom glory, honour, and worship be to Thee
and the Holy Spirit for ever. Amen.
CONCERNING THE DEACONESS--THE CONSTITUTION OF BARTHOLOMEW.
XIX. Concerning a deaconess, I Bartholomew(5) make
this constitution: O bishop, thou shalt lay thy hands upon her in the
presence of the presbytery, and of the deacons and deaconesses, and
shall say:--
THE FORM OF PRAYER FOR THE ORDINATION OF A DEACONESS.
XX. O Eternal God, the Father of our Lord
Jesus Christ, the Creator of man and of woman, who didst replenish with
the Spirit Miriam, and Deborah, and Anna, and Huldah;(6) who didst not
disdain that Thy only begotten Son should be born of a woman; who also
in the tabernacle of the testimony, and in the temple, didst ordain
women to be keepers of Thy holy gates,--do Thou now also look
down upon this Thy servant, who is to be ordained to the office of a
deaconess, and grant her Thy Holy Spirit, and "cleanse her from all
filthiness of flesh and spirit,"(7) that she may worthily
discharge the work which is committed to her to Thy glory, and the
praise of Thy Christ, with whom glory and adoration be to Thee and the
Holy Spirit for ever. Amen.
CONCERNING THE SUB-DEACONS--THE CONSTITUTION OF THOMAS.
XXI. Concerning the sub-deacons, I Thomas(8) make
this constitution for you the bishops:(9) When thou dost ordain a
sub-deacon,(10) O bishop, thou shalt lay thy hands upon him, and say: O
Lord God, the Creator of heaven and earth, and of all things that are
therein; who also in the tabernacle of the testimony didst appoint
overseers and keepers of Thy holy vessels;(11) do Thou now look down
upon this Thy servant, appointed
493
a sub-deacon; and grant him the Holy Spirit, that he may worthily
handle the vessels of Thy ministry, and do Thy will always, through Thy
Christ, with whom glory, honour, and worship be to Thee and to the Holy
Spirit for ever. Amen.
CONCERNING THE READERS--THE CONSTITUTION OF MATTHEW.
XXII. Concerning readers,(1) I Matthew, also coiled
Levi, who was once a tax-gatherer, make a constitution: Ordain a reader
by laying thy hands upon him, and pray unto God, and say: O Eternal
God, who art plenteous in mercy and compassions, who hast made manifest
the constitution of the world by Thy operations therein, and keepest
the number of Thine elect, do Thou also now look down upon Thy servant,
who is to be entrusted to read Thy Holy Scriptures to Thy people, and
give him Thy Holy Spirit, the prophetic Spirit. Thou who didst instruct
Esdras Thy servant to read Thy laws to the people,(2) do Thou now also
at our prayers instruct Thy servant, and grant that he may without
blame perfect the work committed to him, and thereby be declared worthy
of an higher degree, through Christ, with whom glory and worship be to
Thee and to the Holy Ghost for ever. Amen.
CONCERNING THE CONFESSORS--THE CONSTITUTION OF JAMES THE SON
OF
ALPHEUS.
XXIII. And I James, the son of Alphaeus, make a
constitution in regard to confessors: A confessor is not ordained; for
he is so by choice and patience, and is worthy of great honour, as
having confessed the name of God, and of His Christ, before nations and
kings. But if there be occasion, he is to be ordained(3) either a
bishop, priest, or deacon. But if any one of the confessors who is not
ordained snatches to himself any such dignity upon account of his
confession, let the same person be deprived and rejected; for he is not
in such an office, since he has denied the constitution of Christ, and
is "worse than an infidel."(4)
THE SAME APOSTLE'S CONSTITUTION CONCERNING VIRGINS.
XXIV. I, the same, make a constitution in regard to
virgins: A virgin is not ordained, for we have no such command from the
Lord ;(5) for this is a state of voluntary trial, not for the reproach
of marriage, but an account of leisure for piety.
THE CONSTITUTION OF LEBBAEUS, WHO WAS SURNAMED THADDAEUS,
CONCERNING WIDOWS.
XXV. And I Lebbaeus,(6) surnamed Thaddaeus, make
this constitution in regard to widows: A widow is not ordained; yet if
she has lost her husband a great while, and has lived soberly and
unblameably, and has taken extraordinary care of her family, as
Judith(7) and Anna (8)--those women of great reputation--let her be
chosen into the order of widows. But if she has lately lost her
yokefellow, let her not be believed, but let her youth be judged of by
the time; for the affections do sometimes grow aged with men, if they
be not restrained by a better bridle.
THE SAME APOSTLE CONCERNING THE EXORCIST.
XXVI. I the same make a constitution in regard to an
exorcist. An exorcist is not ordained. For it is a trial of voluntary
goodness, and of the grace of God through Christ by the inspiration of
the Holy Spirit. For he who has received the gift of healing is
declared by revelation from God, the grace which is in him being
manifest to all. But if there be occasion for him, he must be
ordained(9) a bishop, or a presbyter, or a deacon.
SIMON THE CANAANITE CONCERNING THE NUMBER NECESSARY FOR THE
ORDINATION OF A BISHOP.
XXVII.(10) And I Simon the Canaanite(11) make a
constitution to determine by how many a bishop ought to be elected. Let
a bishop be ordained by three or two bishops; but if any one be
ordained by one bishop, let him be deprived, both himself and he that
ordained him. But if there be a necessity that he have only one to
ordain him, because more bishops cannot come together, as in time of
persecution, or for such like causes, let him bring the suffrage of
permission from more bishops.
THE SAME APOSTLE'S CANONS CONCERNING BISHOPS,
PRESBYTERS, DEACONS, AND THE REST OF THE CLERGY.
XXVIII. Concerning(12) the canons I the same make a
constitution. A bishop blesses, but does not receive the blessing. He
lays on hands, or-494
dains, offers, receives the blessing from bishops, but by no means from
presbyters. A bishop deprives any clergyman who deserves deprivation,
excepting a bishop; for of himself he has not power to do that. A
presbyter blesses, but does not receive the blessing; yet does he
receive the blessing from the bishop or a fellow-presbyter. In like
manner does he give it to a fellow-presbyter. He lays on hands, but
does not ordain; he does not deprive, yet does he separate those that
are under him, if they be liable to such a punishment. A deacon does
not bless, does not give the blessing, but receives it from the bishop
and presbyter: he does not baptize, he does not offer; but when a
bishop or presbyter has offered, he distributes to the people, not as a
priest, but as one that ministers to the priests. But it is not lawful
for any one of the other clergy to do the work of a deacon. A deaconess
does not bless, nor perform anything belonging to the office of
presbyters or deacons, but only is to keep the doors, and to minister
to the presbyters in the baptizing of women, on account of decency. A
deacon separates a sub-deacon, a reader, a singer, and a deaconess, if
there be any occasion, in the absence of a presbyter. It is not lawful
for a sub-deacon to separate either one of the clergy or laity; nor for
a reader, nor for a singer, nor for a deaconess, for they are the
ministers to the deacons.
SEC. IV.--CERTAIN PRAYERS AND LAWS.
CONCERNING THE BLESSING OF WATER AND OIL--THE CONSTITUTION OF MATTHIAS.
XXIX.(1) Concerning the water and the oil, I
Matthias make a constitution. Let the bishop bless the water, or the
oil. But if he be not there, let the presbyter bless it, the deacon
standing by. But if the bishop be present, let the presbyter and deacon
stand by, and let him say thus: O Lord of hosts, the God of powers, the
creator of the waters, and the supplier of oil, who art compassionate,
and a lover of mankind, who hast given water for drink and for
cleansing, and oil to give man a cheerful and joyful countenance;(2) do
Thou now also sanctify this water and this oil through Thy Christ, in
the name of him or her that has offered them, and grant them a power to
restore health, to drive away diseases, to banish demons, and to
disperse all snares through Christ our hope, with whom glory, honour,
and worship be to Thee, and to the Holy Ghost, for ever. Amen.
THE SAME APOSTLE'S CONSTITUTION CONCERNING FIRST-FRUITS AND TITHES.
XXX. I(3) the same make a constitution in regard to
first-fruits and tithes. Let all first-fruits be brought to the bishop,
and to the presbyters. and to the deacons,(4) for their maintenance;
but let all the tithe be for the maintenance of the rest of the clergy,
and of the virgins and widows, and of those under the trial of poverty.
For the first-fruits belong to the priests, and to those deacons that
minister to them.
THE SAME APOSTLE'S CONSTITUTIONS CONCERNING THE REMAINING OBLATIONS.
XXXI. I the same make a constitution in regard to remainders. Those
eulogies which re main at the mysteries, let the deacons
distribute
them among the clergy, according to the mind of the bishop or the
presbyters: to a bishop; four parts; to a presbyter, three(5) parts; to
a deacon, two(6) parts; and to the rest of the sub-deacons, or readers,
or singers, or deaconesses, one part. For this is good and acceptable
in the sight of God, that every one be honoured according to his
dignity; for the Church is the school, not of confusion, but of good
order.
VARIOUS CANONS OF PAUL THE APOSTLE CONCERNING THOSE
THAT OFFER THEMSELVES TO BE BAPTIZED--WHOM WE ARE TO RECEIVE, AND WHOM
TO REJECT.
XXXII. / also, Paul,(7) the least of the apostles,
do make the following constitutions for you, the bishops, and
presbyters, and deacons, concerning canons. Those, that first come to
the mystery of godliness, let them be brought to the bishop or to the
presbyters by the deacons, and let them be examined as to the causes
wherefore they come to the word of the Lord; and let those that bring
them exactly inquire about their character, and give them their
testimony. Let their manners and their life be inquired into, and
whether they he slaves or freemen. And if any one be a slave, let him
be asked who is his master. If he be slave to one of the faithful, let
his master be asked if he can give him a good character. If he cannot,
let him be rejected, until he show himself to be worthy to his master.
But if he does give him a good character, let him be admitted. But if
he be household slave
495
to an heathen, let him be taught to please his master, that the word be
not blasphemed. If, then, he have a wife, or a woman hath an husband,
let them be taught to be content with each other; but if they be
unmarried, let them learn not to commit fornication, but to enter into
lawful marriage. But if his master be one of the faithful, and knows
that he is guilty of fornication, and yet does not give him a wife, or
to the woman an husband, let him be separated; but if any one
hath a demon, let him indeed be taught piety, but not received into
communion before he be cleansed; yet if death be near, let him be
received. If any one be a maintainer of harlots, let him either leave
off to prostitute women, or else let him be rejected. If a harlot come,
let her leave off whoredom, or else let her be rejected. If a maker of
idols come, let him either leave off his employment, or let him
be rejected. If one belonging to the theatre(1) come, whether it be man
or woman, or charioteer, or dueller, or racer, or player of prizes, or
Olympic gamester, or one that plays on the pipe, on the lute, or on the
harp at those games, or a dancing-master or an huckster,(2) either let
them leave off their employments, or let them be rejected. If a soldier
come, let him be taught to "do no injustice, to accuse no man falsely,
and to be content with his allotted wages:"(3) if he submit to those
rules, let him be received; but if he refuse them, let him be rejected.
He that is guilty of sins not to be named, a sodomite, an effeminate
person, a magician, an enchanter, an astrologer, a diviner, an user of
magic verses, a juggler, a mountebank, one that makes amulets, a
charmer, a soothsayer, a fortune-teller, an observer of palmistry; he
that, when he meets you, observes defects in the eyes or feet of the
birds or cats, or noises, or symbolical sounds: let these be proved for
some time, for this sort of wickedness is hard to be washed away; and
if they leave off those practices, let them be received; but if they
will not agree to that, let them be rejected. Let a concubine, who is
slave to an unbeliever, and confines herself to her master alone, be
received;(4) but if she be incontinent with others, let her be
rejected. If one of the faithful hath a concubine, if she be a
bond-servant, let him leave off that way, and marry in a legal manner:
if she be a free woman, let him marry her in a lawful manner; if he
does not, let him be rejected. Let him that follows the Gentile
customs, or Jewish fables, either reform, or let him be rejected. If
any one follows the sports of the theatre, their huntings, or
horse-races, or combats, either let him leave them off, or let him be
rejected. Let him who is to be a catechumen be a catechumen for three
years; but if any one be diligent, and has a good-will to his business,
let him be admitted: for it is not the length of time, but the course
of life, that is judged. Let him that teaches, although he be one of
the laity, yet, if he be skilful in the word and grave in his
manners, teach; for "they shall be all taught of God."(5) Let all
the faithful, whether men or women,
when they rise from sleep, before they go to work, when they have
washed themselves, pray; but if any catechetic instruction be held, let
the faithful person prefer the word of piety before his work. Let the
faithful person, whether man or woman, treat servants kindly, as we
have ordained in the foregoing books, and have taught in our
epistles.(6)
UPON WHICH DAYS SERVANTS ARE NOT TO WORK.
XXXIII. I Peter and Paul do make the following
constitutions. Let the slaves work five days; but on the Sabbath-day
and the Lord's day let them have leisure to go to church for
instruction in piety. We have said that the Sabbath is on account of
the creation, and the Lord's day of the resurrection. Let slaves rest
from their work all the great week, and that which follows it--for the
one in memory of the passion, and the other of the
resurrection; and there is need they should be instructed who it is
that suffered and rose again, and who it is permitted Him to suffer,
and raised Him again. Let them have rest from their work on
the Ascension, because it was the conclusion of the dispensation by
Christ. Let them rest at Pentecost, because of the coming of the Holy
Spirit, which was given to those that believed in Christ. Let them rest
on the festival of His birth, because on it the unexpected favour was
granted to men, that Jesus Christ, the Logos of God, should be born of
the Virgin Mary,(7) for the salvation of the world.(8) Let them rest on
the festival of Epiphany, because on it a manifestation took place of
the divinity of Christ, for the Father bore testimony to Him at the
baptism; and the Paraclete, in the form of a dove, pointed out to the
bystanders Him to whom testimony was borne. Let them rest on the days
of the apostles: for they were appointed your teachers to bring
you to Christ, and made you worthy of the Spirit. Let them rest on the
day of the first(9) martyr Stephen, and of the other holy martyrs who
preferred Christ to their own life.
496
AT WHAT HOURS, AND WHY, WE ARE TO PRAY.
XXXIV. Offer up your prayers in the morning, at the
third hour, the sixth, the ninth, the evening, and at cock-crowing: in
the morning, returning thanks that the Lord has sent you light, that He
has brought you past the night, and brought on the day; at the third
hour, because at that hour the Lord received the sentence of
condemnation from Pilate; at the sixth, because at that hour He was
crucified;(1) at the ninth, because all things were in commotion at the
crucifixion of the Lord, as trembling at the bold attempt of the
impious Jews, and not bearing the injury offered to their Lord; in the
evening, giving thanks that He has given you the night to rest from the
daily labours; at cock-crowing, because that hour brings the good news
of the coming on of the day for the operations proper for the light.
But if it be not possible to go to the church on account of the
unbelievers, thou, O bishop, shalt assemble them in a house, that a
godly man may not enter into an assembly of the ungodly. For it is not
the place that sanctifies the man, but the man the place. And if the
ungodly possess the place, do thou avoid it, because it is profaned by
them. For as holy priests sanctify a place, so do the profane ones
defile it. If it be not possible to assemble either in the church or in
a house, let every one by himself sing, and read, and pray, or two or
three together. For "where two or three are gathered together in my
name, there all I in the midst of them."(2) Let not one of the faithful
pray with a catechumen, no, not in the house: for it is not reasonable
that he who is admitted should be polluted with one not admitted.
Let not one of the godly pray with an heretic, no, not in the house.
For "what fellowship hath light with darkness?"(3) Let Christians,
whether men or women, who have connections with slaves, either leave
them off, or let them be rejected.
THE CONSTITUTION OF JAMES THE BROTHER OF CHRIST CONCERNING
EVENING PRAYER.
XXXV. I James,(4) the brother of Christ according to
the flesh, but His servant as the only be-begotten God, and one
appointed bishop of Jerusalem by the Lord Himself, and the Apostles, do
ordain thus: When it is evening, thou, O bishop, shall assemble the
church; and after the repetition of the psalm at the lighting up the
lights, the deacon shall bid prayers for the catechumens, the
energumens, the illuminated, and the penitents, as we have formerly
said. But after the dismission of these, the deacon shall say: So many
as are of the faithful, let us pray to the Lord. And after the bidding
prayer, which is formerly set down, he shall say:--
THE BIDDING PRAYER FOR THE EVENING.
XXXVI. Save us, O God, and raise us up by Thy
Christ. Let us stand up, and beg for the mercies of the Lord, and His
compassions, for the angel of peace, for what things are good and
profitable, for a Christian departure out of this life, an evening and
a night of peace, and free from sin; and let us beg that the whole
course of our life may be unblameable. Let us dedicate ourselves
and one another to the living God through His Christ. And let the
bishop add this prayer, and say:--
THE THANKSGIVING FOR THE EVENING.
XXXVII. O God, who art without beginning and without
end, the Maker of the whole world by Christ, and the Provider for it,
but before all(5) His God and Father, the Lord(6) of the Spirit, and
the King of intelligible and sensible beings; who hast made the day for
the works of light, and the night for the refreshment of our
infirmity,--for "the day is Thine, the night also is Thine: Thou hast
prepared the light and the sun,"(7)--do Thou now, O Lord, Thou
lover of mankind, and Fountain of all good, mercifully
accept of this our evening thanksgiving. Thou who hast brought us
through the length of the day, and hast brought us to the beginnings of
the night, preserve us by Thy Christ, afford us a peaceable
evening, and a night free from sin, and vouchsafe us everlasting life
by Thy Christ, through whom glory, honour, and worship be to Thee
in(8) the Holy Spirit for ever. Amen. And let the deacon say: Bow down
for the laying on of hands. And let the bishop say: O God of our
fathers, and Lord of mercy, who didst form man of Thy wisdom a
rational creature, and be loved of God more than the other beings
upon this earth, and didst give him authority to rule over the
creatures upon the earth, and didst or dain by Thy will rulers and
priests--the former for the security of life, the latter for a regular
worship,--do Thou now also look down, O Lord Almighty, and cause Thy
face to shine upon Thy people, who bow down the neck of their heart,
and bless them by Christ; through whom Thou hast enlightened us with
the light of
497
knowledge, and hast revealed Thyself to us; with whom worthy adoration
is due from every rational and holy nature to Thee, and to the Spirit,
who is the Comforter, for ever. Amen. And let the deacon say: "Depart
in peace." In like manner, in the morning, after the repetition of the
morning psalm, and his dismission of the catechumens, the energumens,
the candidates for baptism, and the penitents, and after the usual
bidding of prayers, that we may not again repeat the same things, let
the deacon add after the words, Save us, O God, and raise us up by Thy
grace: Let us beg of the Lord His mercies and His compassions, that
this morning and this day may be with peace and without sin, as also
all the time of our sojourning; that He will grant us His angel of
peace, a Christian departure out of this life, and that God will be
merciful and gracious. Let us dedicate ourselves and one another to the
living God through His Only-begotten. And let the bishop add this
prayer, and say:--
THE THANKSGIVING FOR THE MORNING.
XXXVIII. O God, the God of spirits and of all flesh,
who art beyond compare, and standest in need of nothing, who hast given
the sun to have rule over the day, and the moon and the stars to have
rule over the night, do Thou now also look down upon us with gracious
eyes, and receive our morning thanksgivings, and have mercy upon us;
for we have not "spread out our hands unto a strange God;"(1) for there
is not among us any new God, but Thou, the eternal God, who art without
end, who hast given us our being through Christ, and given us our
well-being through Him. Do Thou vouchsafe us also, through Him, eternal
life; with whom glory, and honour, and worship be to Thee and to the
Holy Spirit for ever. Amen. And let the deacon say: Bow down for the
laying on of hands. And let the bishop add this prayer, saying:--
THE IMPOSITION OF HANDS FOR THE MORNING.
XXXIX. O God, who art faithful and true, who "hast
mercy on thousands and ten thousands of them that love Thee,"(2) the
lover of the humble, and the protector of the needy, of whom all things
stand in need, for all things are subject to Thee; look down upon this
Thy people, who bow down their heads to Thee, and bless them with
spiritual blessing. "Keep them as the apple of an eye,"(3) preserve
them in piety and righteousness, and vouchsafe them eternal life in
Christ Jesus Thy beloved Son, with whom glory, honour, and worship be
to Thee and to the Holy Spirit, now and always, and for ever and ever.
Amen. And let the deacon say:
"Depart in peace." And when the first-fruits are offered, the bishop
gives thanks in this manner:--
THE FORM OF PRAYER FOR THE FIRST-FRUITS.
XL. We give thanks to Thee, O Lord Almighty, the
Creator of the whole world, and its Preserver, through Thy only
begotten Son Jesus Christ our Lord, for the first-fruits which are
offered to Thee, not in such a manner as we ought, but as we are able.
For what man is there that can worthily give Thee thanks for those
things Thou hast given them to partake of? The God of Abraham, and of
Isaac, and of Jacob, and of all the saints, who madest all things
fruitful by Thy word, and didst command the earth to bring forth
various fruits for our rejoicing and our food; who hast given to the
duller and more sheepish sort of creatures juices--herbs to them that
feed on herbs, and to some flesh, to others seeds, but to us corn, as
advantageous and proper food, and many other things--some for our
necessities, some for our health, and some for our pleasure. On all
these accounts, therefore, art Thou worthy of exalted hymns of praise
for Thy beneficence by Christ, through whom(4) glory, honour, and
worship be to Thee. in the Holy Spirit, for ever. Amen. Concerning
those that are at rest in Christ: After the bidding prayer, that we may
not repeat it again, the deacon shall add as follows:--
THE BIDDING PRAYER FOR THOSE DEPARTED.
XLI. Let us pray for our brethren that are at
rest(5) in Christ, that God, the lover of mankind, who has received his
soul, may forgive him every sin, voluntary and involuntary, and may be
merciful and gracious to him, and give him his lot in the land of the
pious that are sent into the bosom of Abraham, and Isaac, and Jacob,
with all those that have pleased Him and done His will from the
beginning of the world, whence all sorrow, grief, and lamentation are
banished. Let us arise, let us dedicate ourselves and one another to
the eternal God, through that Word which was in the beginning. And let
the bishop say: O Thou who art by nature immortal, and hast no end of
Thy being, from whom every creature, whether immortal or mortal, is
derived; who didst make man a rational creature, the citizen of this
world, in his constitution mortal, and didst add the promise of a
resurrection; who didst not suffer Enoch and Elijah to taste of death:
"the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob, who art
the God of them,
498
not as of dead, but as of living persons: for the souls of all men live
with Thee, and the spirits of the righteous are in Thy hand, which no
torment can touch;"(1) for they are all sanctified under Thy hand: do
Thou now also look upon this Thy servant, whom Thou hast selected and
received into another state, and forgive him if voluntarily or
involuntarily he has sinned, and afford him merciful angels, and place
him in the bosom of the patriarchs, and prophets, and apostles, and of
all those that have pleased Thee from the beginning of the world, where
there is no grief, sorrow, nor lamentation; but the peaceable region of
the godly, and the undisturbed land of the upright, and of those that
therein see, the glory of Thy Christ; by whom(2) glory, honour, and
worship, thanksgiving, and adoration be to Thee, in the Holy Spirit,
for ever. Amen. And let the deacon say: Bow down, and receive the
blessing. And let the bishop give thanks for them, saying as follows:
"O Lord, save Thy people, and bless Thine inheritance,"(3) which Thou
hast purchased with the precious blood of Thy Christ. Feed them under
Thy right hand, and cover them under Thy wings, and grant that they may
"fight the good fight, and finish their course, and keep the faith"(4)
immutably, unblameably, and unreprovably, through our Lord Jesus
Christ, Thy beloved Son, with whom glory, honour, and worship be to
Thee and to the Holy Spirit for ever. Amen.
HOW AND WHEN WE OUGHT TO CELEBRATE THE MEMORIALS OF THE FAITHFUL
DEPARTED, AND THAT WE OUGHT THEN TO GIVE SOMEWHAT OUT OF THEIR GOODS TO
THE POOR.
XLII. Let the third day of the departed be
celebrated with psalms, and lessons, and prayers, on account of Him who
arose within the space of three days; and let the ninth day be
celebrated in remembrance of the living, and of the departed; and the
fortieth(5) day according to the ancient pattern: for so did the people
lament Moses, and the anniversary day in memory of him.(6) And let alms
be given to the poor out of his goods for a memorial of him.(7)
THAT MEMORIALS OR MANDATES DO NOT AT ALL PROFIT THE UNGODLY WHO ARE
DEAD.
XLIII. These things we say concerning the pious; for
as to the ungodly, if thou givest all the world to the poor, thou wilt
not benefit him at all. For to whom the Deity was an enemy while he was
alive, it is certain it will be so also when he is departed; for there
is no unrighteousness with Him. For "the Lord(8) is righteous, and has
loved righteousness."(9) And, "Behold the man and his work."(10)
CONCERNING DRUNKARDS.
XLIV. Now, when you are invited to their memorials,
do you feast with good order, and the fear of God, as disposed to
intercede for those that are departed. For since you are the presbyters
and deacons of Christ, you ought always to be sober, both among
yourselves and among others, that so you may be able to warn the
unruly. Now the Scripture says, "The men in power are passionate. But
let them not drink wine, lest by drinking they forget wisdom, and are
not able to judge aright."(11) Wherefore(12) both the presbyters and
the deacons are those of authority in the Church next to God Almighty
and His beloved Son.(13) We say this, not they are not to drink at all,
otherwise it would be to the reproach of what God has made for
cheerfulness, but that they be not disordered with wine. For the
Scripture does not say, Do not drink wine; but what says it? "Drink not
wine to drunkenness;" and again, "Thorns spring up in the hand of the
drunkard."(14) Nor do we say this only to those of the clergy, but also
to every lay Christian, upon whom the name of our Lord jesus Christ is
called. For to them also it is said, "Who hath woe? who hath sorrow?
who hath uneasiness? who hath babbling? who hath red eyes? who hath
wounds without cause? Do not these things belong to those that tarry
long at the wine, and that go to seek where drinking meetings are?"(15)
CONCERNING THE RECEIVING SUCH AS ARE PERSECUTED FOR CHRIST'S SAKE.
XLV. Receive ye those that are persecuted(16) on
account of the faith, and who fly from city to city,(17) as mindful of
the words of the Lord. For, knowing that though "the spirit be willing,
the flesh is weak,"(18) they fly away, and prefer the spoiling of their
goods, that they may preserve the name of Christ in themselves without
denying it. Supply them therefore with what they want, and thereby
fulfil the commandment of the Lord.
499
SEC.V.--ALL THE APOSTLES URGE THE OBSERVANCE OF THE ORDER OF THE CHURCH.
THAT EVERY ONE OUGHT TO REMAIN IN THAT RANK WHEREIN HE IS PLACED, BUT
NOT SNATCH SUCH OFFICES TO HIMSELF WHICH ARE NOT ENTRUSTED TO HIM.
XLVI. Now this we all in common do charge you, that
every one remain in that rank which is appointed him, and do not
transgress his proper bounds; for they are not ours, but God's. For
says the Lord: "He that heareth you, heareth me; and he that heareth
me, heareth Him that sent me." And, "He that despiseth you, despiseth
me; and he that despiseth me, despiseth Him that sent me."(1) For if
those things that are without life do observe good order, as the night,
the day, the sun, the moon, the stars, the elements, the seasons, the
months, the weeks, the days, and the hours, and are subservient to the
uses appointed them, according to that which is said, "Thou hast set
them a bound which they shall not pass;"(2) and again, concerning the
sea, "I have set bounds thereto, and have encompassed it with bars and
gates; and I said to it, Hitherto shalt thou come, and thou shalt go no
farther;"(3) how much more ought ye not to venture to remove those
things which we, according to God's will, have determined for you! But
because many think this a small matter, and venture to confound the
orders, and to remove the ordination which belongs to them severally,
snatching to themselves dignities which were never given them, and
allowing themselves to bestow that authority in a tyrannical manner
which they have not themselves, and thereby provoke God to anger (as
did the followers of Corah and King Uzziah,(4) who, having no
authority, usurped the high-priesthood without commission from God; and
the former were burnt with fire, and the latter was struck with a
leprosy in his forehead); and provoke Christ Jesus to anger, who has
made this constitution; and also grieve the Holy Spirit, and make void
His testimony: therefore, foreknowing the danger that hangs over those
who do such things, and the neglect about the sacrifices and
eucharistical offices which will arise from their being impiously
offered by those who ought not to offer them; who think the honour of
the high-priesthood, which is an imitation of the great High Priest
Jesus Christ our King, to be a matter of sport; we have found it
necessary to give you warning in this matter also. For some are already
turned aside after their own vanity. We say that Moses the servant of
God (" to whom God spake face to face, as if a man spake to his
friend;"(5) to whom He said, "I know thee above all men;" to whom He
spake directly, and not by obscure methods, or dreams, or angels, or
riddles),--this person, when he made constitutions and divine laws,
distinguished what things were to be performed by the high priests,
what by the priests, and what by the Levites; distributing to every one
his proper and suitable office in the divine service. And those things
which are allotted for the high priests to do, those might not be
meddled with by the priests; and what things were allotted to the
priests, the Levites might not meddle with; but every one observed
those ministrations which were written down and appointed for them. And
if any would meddle beyond the tradition, death was his punishment. And
Saul's example does show this most plainly, who, thinking he might
offer sacrifice without the prophet and high priest Samuel,(6) drew
upon himself a sin and a curse without remedy. Nor did even his having
anointed him king discourage the prophet. But God showed the same by a
more visible effect in the case of Uzziah,(7) when He without delay
exacted the punishment due to this transgression, and he that madly
coveted after the high-priesthood was rejected from his kingdom also.
As to those things that have happened amongst us, you yourselves are
not ignorant of them. For ye know undoubtedly that those that are by us
named bishops, and presbyters, and deacons, were made by prayer, and by
the laying on of hands; and that by the difference of their names is
showed the difference of their employments. For not every one that will
is ordained, as the case was in that spurious and counterfeit
priesthood of the calves under Jeroboam;(8) but he only who is called
of God. For if there were no rule or distinction of orders, it would
suffice to perform all the offices under one name. But being taught by
the Lord the series of things, we distributed the functions of the
high-priesthood to the bishops, those of the priesthood to the
presbyters, and the ministration under them both to the deacons; that
the divine worship might be performed in purity. For it is not lawful
for a deacon to offer the sacrifice, or to baptize, or to give either
the greater or the lesser blessing. Nor may a presbyter perform
ordination; for it is not agreeable to holiness to have this order
perverted. For "God is not the God of confusion,"(9) that the
subordinate persons should tyrannically assume to themselves the
functions belonging to their superiors, forming a new scheme of
laws to their own mischief, not knowing that "it is hard for them to
500
kick against the pricks;"(1) for such as these do not fight against us,
or against the bishops, but against the universal Bishop and the High
Priest of the Father, Jesus Christ our Lord.(2) High priests, priests,
and Levites were ordained by Moses,(3) the most beloved of God. By our
Saviour(4) were we apostles, thirteen in number, ordained; and by the
apostles I James, and I Clement, and others with us, were ordained,
that we may not make the catalogue of all those bishops over again. And
in common, presbyters, and deacons, and sub-deacons, and readers, were
ordained by all of us. The great High Priest therefore, who is so by
nature, is Christ the only begotten; not having snatched that honour to
Himself, but having been appointed such by the Father; who being made
man for our sake, and offering the spiritual sacrifice to His God and
Father, before His suffering gave it us alone in charge to do this,
although there were others with us who had believed in Him. But he that
believes is not presently appointed a priest, or obtains the dignity of
the high-priesthood. But after His ascension we offered, according to
His constitution, the pure and unbloody sacrifice; and ordained
bishops, and presbyters, and deacons, seven in number: one of which was
Stephen,(5) that blessed martyr, who was not inferior to us as to his
pious disposition of mind towards God; who showed so great piety
towards God, by his faith and love towards our Lord Jesus Christ, as to
give his life for Him, and was stoned to death by the Jews, the
murderers of the Lord. Yet still this so great and good a man, who was
fervent in spirit, who saw Christ on the right hand of God, and the
gates of heaven opened, does nowhere appear to have exercised functions
which did not appertain to his office of a deacon, nor to have offered
the sacrifices, nor to have laid hands upon any, but kept his order of
a deacon unto the end. For so it became him, who was a martyr for
Christ, to preserve good order. But if some do blame Philip(6) our
deacon, and Ananias(7) our faithful brother, that the one did baptize
the eunuch, and the other me Paul, these men do not understand what we
say. For we have affirmed only that no one snatches the sacerdotal
dignity to himself, but either receives it from God, as Melchisedec and
Job, or from the high priest, as Aaron from Moses. Wherefore Philip and
Ananias did not constitute themselves, but were appointed by Christ,
the High Priest of that God to whom no being is to be compared.
THE ECCLESIASTICAL CANONS OF THE SAME HOLY APOSTLES.(1)
XLVII. 1. Let a bishop be ordained by two or three
bishops.
2. A presbyter by one bishop, as also a deacon, and
the rest of the clergy.(2)
3. If any bishop or presbyter, otherwise than our
Lord has ordained concerning the sacrifice, offer other things at the
altar of God, as honey, milk, or strong beer instead of wine, any
necessaries, or birds, or animals, or pulse, otherwise than is
ordained, let him be deprived; excepting grains of new corn, or ears of
wheat, or bunches of grapes in their season.(3)
4. For it is not lawful to offer anything besides
these at the altar, and oil for the holy lamp, and incense in the time
of the divine oblation.
5. But let all other fruits be sent to the house of
the bishop, as first-fruits to him and to the presbyters, but not to
the altar. Now it is plain that the bishop and presbyters are to divide
them to the deacons and to the rest of the clergy.
6. Let not a bishop, a priest, or a deacon(4) cast
off his own wife under pretence of piety; but if he does cast her off,
let him be suspended. If he go on in it, let him be deprived.
7. Let not a bishop, a priest, or deacon undertake
the cares of this world; but if he do, let him be deprived.(5)
8. If any bishop, or presbyter, or deacon shall
celebrate the holiday of the passover before the vernal equinox with
the Jews, let him be deprived.(6)
9. If any bishop, or presbyter, or deacon, or any
one of the catalogue of the priesthood, when the oblation is over, does
not communicate, let
501
him give his reason; and if it be just, let him be forgiven; but if he
does not do it, let him be suspended, as becoming the cause of damage
to the people, and occasioning a suspicion against him that offered, as
of one that did not rightly offer.(1)
10. All those of the faithful that enter into the
holy church of God, and hear the sacred Scriptures, but do not stay
during prayer and the holy communion, must be suspended, as causing
disorder in the church.
11. If any one, even in the house, prays with a
person excommunicate, let him also be suspended.
12. If any clergyman prays with one deprived as with
a clergyman, let himself also be deprived.
13. If any clergyman or layman who is suspended, or
ought not to be received,(2) goes away, and is received in another city
without commendatory letters, let both those who received him and he
that was received be suspended. But if he be already suspended, let his
suspension be lengthened, as lying to and deceiving the Church of God.
14. A bishop ought not to leave his own parish and
leap to another, although the multitude should compel him, unless there
be some good reason forcing him to do this, as that he can contribute
much greater profit to the people of the new parish by the word of
piety; but this is not to be settled by himself, but by the judgment of
many bishops, and very great supplication.
15. If any presbyter or deacon, or any one of the
catalogue of the clergy, leaves his own parish and goes to another,
and, entirely removing himself, continues in that other parish without
the consent of his own bishop, him we command no longer to go on in his
ministry, especially in case his bishop calls upon him to return, and
he does not obey, but continues in his disorder. However, let him
communicate there as a layman.
16. But if the bishop with whom they are undervalues
the deprivation decreed against them, and receives them as clergymen,
let him be suspended as a teacher of disorder.
17. He who has been twice married after his baptism,
or has had a concubine, cannot be made a bishop, or presbyter, or
deacon, or indeed any one of the sacerdotal catalogue.(3)
18. He who has taken a widow, or a divorced woman,
or an harlot, or a servant, or one belonging to the theatre, cannot be
either a bishop, priest, or deacon, or indeed any one of the sacerdotal
catalogue.
19. He who has married two sisters, or his brother's or sister's
daughter, cannot be a clergyman.
20. Let a clergyman who becomes a surety be deprived.
21. Let an eunuch, if he be such by the injury of
men, or his virilia were taken away in the persecution, or he was born
such, and yet is worthy of episcopacy, be made a bishop.
22. Let not him who has disabled himself be made a
clergyman; for he is a self-murderer, and an enemy to the creation of
God.(4)
23. If any one who is of the clergy disables
himself, let him be deprived, for he is a murderer of himself.
24. Let a layman who disables himself be separated
for three years, for he lays a snare for his own life.(5)
25. Let a bishop, or presbyter, or deacon who is
taken in fornication, or perjury, or stealing, be deprived, but not
suspended; far the Scripture says: "Thou shall not avenge twice far the
same crime by affliction."(6)
26. In like manner also as to the rest of the clergy.
27. Of those who come into the clergy unmarried, we
permit only the readers and singers, if they have a mind, to marry
afterward.(7)
28. We command that a bishop, or presbyter, or
deacon who strikes the faithful that offend, or the unbelievers who do
wickedly, and thinks to terrify them by such means, be deprived, for
our Lord has nowhere taught us such things. On the contrary, "when
Himself was stricken, He did not strike again; when He was reviled, He
reviled not again; when He suffered, He threatened not."(8)
29. If any bishop, or presbyter, or deacon who is
deprived justly for manifest crimes, does venture to meddle with that
ministration which was once entrusted to him, let the same person be
entirely cut off from the Church.
30. If any bishop obtains that dignity by money, or
even a presbyter or deacon, let him and the person that ordained him be
deprived; and let him be entirely cut off from communion, as Simon
Magus was by me Peter.(9)
31. If any bishop makes use of the rulers of this
world, and by their means obtains to be a bishop of a church, let him
be deprived and suspended, and all that communicate with him.
502
32. If any presbyter despises his own bishop, and
assembles separately, and fixes another altar, when he has nothing to
condemn in his bishop either as to piety or righteousness, let him be
deprived as an ambitious person; for he is a tyrant, and the rest of
the clergy, whoever join themselves to him. And let the laity be
suspended. But let these things be done after one and a second, or even
a third admonition from the bishop.(1)
33. If any presbyter or deacon be put under
suspension by his bishop, it is not lawful for any other to receive
him, but for him only who put him under suspension, unless it happens
that he who put him under suspension die.
34. Do not ye receive any stranger, whether bishop,
or presbyter, or deacon, without commendatory letters; and when such
are offered, let them be examined. And if they be preachers of piety,
let them be received; but if not, supply their wants, but do not
receive them to communion: for many things are done by surprise.
35. The bishops of every country ought to know who
is the chief among them, and to esteem him as their head, and not to do
any great thing without his consent; but every one to manage only the
affairs that belong to his own parish, and the places subject to it.
But let him not do anything without the consent of all; for it is by
this means there will be unanimity, and God will be glorified by
Christ, in the Holy Spirit.
36. A bishop must not venture to ordain out of his
own bounds for cities or countries that are not subject to him. But if
he be convicted of having done so without the consent of such as
governed those cities or countries, let him be deprived, both the
bishop himself and those whom he has ordained.
37. If any bishop that is ordained does not
undertake his office, nor take care of the people committed to him, let
him be suspended until he do undertake it; and in the like manner a
presbyter and a deacon. But if he goes, and is not received, not
because of the want of his own consent, but because of the ill temper
of the people, let him continue bishop; but let the clergy of that city
be suspended, because they have not taught that disobedient people
better.
38. Let a synod of bishops be held twice in the
year, and let them ask one another the doctrines of piety; and let them
determine the ecclesiastical disputes that happen--once in the fourth
week of Pentecost, and again on the twelfth of the month Hyperberetaeus.
39. Let the bishop have the care of ecclesiastical
revenues, and administer them as in the presence of God. But it is not
lawful for him to appropriate any part of them to himself, or to give
the things of God to his own kindred. But if they be poor, let him
support them as poor; but let him not, under such pretences, alienate
the revenues of the Church.
40. Let not the presbyters and deacons do anything
without the consent of the bishop, for it is he who is entrusted with
the people of the Lord, and will be required to give an account of
their souls. Let the proper goods of the bishop, if he has any, and
those belonging to the Lord, be openly distinguished, that he may have
power when he dies to leave his own goods as he pleases, and to whom he
pleases; that, under pretence of the ecclesiastical revenues, the
bishop's own may not come short, who sometimes has a wife and children,
or kinsfolk, or servants. For this is just before God and men, that
neither the Church suffer any loss by the not knowing which revenues
are the bishop's own, nor his kindred, under pretence of the Church, be
undone, or his relations fall into lawsuits, and so his death be liable
to reproach.(2)
41. We command that the bishop have power over the
goods of the Church; for if he be entrusted with the precious souls of
men, much more ought he to give directions about goods, that they all
be distributed to those in want, according to his authority, by the
presbyters and deacons, and be used for their support with the fear of
God, and with all reverence. He is also to partake of those things he
wants, if he does want them, for his necessary occasions, and those of
the brethren who live with him, that they may not by any means be in
straits: for the law of God appointed that those who waited at the
altar should be maintained by the altar; since not so much as a soldier
does at any time bear arms against the enemies at his own charges.
42. Let a bishop, or presbyter, or deacon who
indulges himself in dice or drinking, either leave off those practices,
or let him be deprived.(3)
43. If a sub-deacon, a reader, or a singer does the
like, either let him leave off, or let him be suspended; and so for one
of the laity.
44. Let a bishop, or presbyter, or deacon who
requires usury of those he lends to, either leave off to do so, or let
him be deprived.
45. Let a bishop, or presbyter, or deacon who only
prays with heretics, be suspended; but if he also permit them to
perform any part of the office of a clergyman, let him be deprived.(4)
503
46. We command that a bishop, or presbyter, or
deacon who receives the baptism, or the sacrifice of heretics, be
deprived: "For what agreement is there between Christ and Belial? or
what part hath a believer with an infidel?"(1)
47. If a bishop or presbyter rebaptizes him who has
had true baptism, or does not baptize him who is polluted by the
ungodly, let him be deprived, as ridiculing the cross and the death of
the Lord, and not distinguishing between real priests and counterfeit
ones.
48. If a layman divorces his own wife, and takes
another, or one divorced by another, let him be suspended.(2)
49. If any bishop or presbyter does not baptize
according to the Lord's constitution, into the Father, the Son, and the
Holy Ghost, but into three beings without beginning, or into three
Sons, or three Comforters, let him be deprived.(3)
50. If any bishop or presbyter does not perform the
three immersions of the one admission, but one immersion, which is
given into the death of Christ, let him be deprived; for the Lord did
not say, "Baptize into my death," but, "Go ye and make disciples of all
nations, baptizing them into the name of the Father, and of the Son,
and of the Holy Ghost." Do ye, therefore, O bishops, baptize thrice
into one Father, and Son, and Holy Ghost, according to the will of
Christ, and our constitution by the Spirit.(4)
51. If any bishop, or presbyter, or deacon, or
indeed any one of the sacerdotal catalogue, abstains from marriage,
flesh, and wine, not for his own exercise, but because he
abominates these things, forgetting that "all things were very
good,"(5) and that "God made man male and female,"(6) and blasphemously
abuses the creation, either let him reform, or let him be deprived, and
be cast out of the Church; and the same for one of the laity.(7)
52. If any bishop or presbyter does not receive him
that returns from his sin, but rejects him, let him be deprived;
because he grieves Christ, who says, "There is joy in heaven over one
sinner that repenteth."(8)
53. If any bishop, or presbyter, or deacon does not
on festival days partake of flesh or wine, let him be deprived, as
"having a seared conscience,"(9) and becoming a cause of scandal to
many.
54. If any one of the clergy be taken eating in a
tavern, let him be suspended, excepting when he is forced to bait at an
inn upon the road.(10)
55. If any one of the clergy abuses his bishop
unjustly, let him be deprived; for says the Scripture, "Thou shall not
speak evil of the ruler of thy people." (11)
56. If any one of the clergy abuses a presbyter or a
deacon, let him be separated.
57. If any one of the clergy mocks at a lame, a
deaf, or a blind man, or at one maimed in his feet, let him be
suspended; and the like for the laity.
58. Let a bishop or presbyter who takes no care of
the clergy or people, and does not instruct them in piety, be
separated; and if he continues in his negligence, let him be
deprived.(12)
59. If any bishop or presbyter, when any one of the
clergy is in want, does not supply his necessity, let him
be suspended; and if he continues in it, let him be deprived, as having
killed his brother.(13)
60. If any one publicly reads in the Church the
spurious books of the ungodly, as if they were holy, to the destruction
of the people and of the clergy, let him be deprived.(14)
61. If there be an accusation against a Christian
for fornication, or adultery, or any other forbidden action, and he be
convicted, let him not be promoted into the clergy.
62. If any one of the clergy for fear of men,
504
as of a Jew, or a Gentile, or an heretic, shall deny the name of
Christ, let him be suspended; but if he deny the name of a clergyman,
let him be deprived; but when he repents, let him be received as one of
the laity.(1)
63. If any bishop, or presbyter, or deacon, or
indeed any one of the sacerdotal catalogue, eats flesh with the blood
of its life, or that which is torn by beasts, or which died of itself,
let him be deprived; for this the law itself has forbidden.(2) But if
he be one of the laity, let him be suspended.(3)
64. If any one of the clergy be found to fast on the
Lord's day, or on the Sabbath-day, excepting one only, let him be
deprived; but if he be one of the laity, let him be suspended.(4)
65. If any one, either of the clergy or laity,
enters into a synagogue of the Jews or heretics to pray, let him be
deprived and suspended.(5)
66. If any one of the clergy strikes one in a
quarrel, and kills him by that one stroke, let him be deprived, on
account of his rashness; but if he be one of the laity, let him be
suspended.(6)
67. If any one has offered violence to a virgin not
betrothed, and keeps her, let him be suspended. But it is not lawful
for him to take another to wife; but he must retain her whom he has
chosen, although she be poor.(7)
68. If any bishop, or presbyter, or deacon, receives
a second ordination from any one, let him be deprived, and the person
who ordained him, unless he can show that his former ordination was
from the heretics; for those that are either baptized or ordained by
such as these, can be neither Christians nor clergymen.(8)
69. If any bishop, or presbyter, or deacon, or
reader, or singer, does not fast the fast of forty days, or the fourth
day of the week, and the day of the Preparation, let him be deprived,
except he be hindered by weakness of body. But if he be one of the
laity, let him be suspended.(9)
70. If any bishop, or any other of the clergy, fasts
with the Jews, or keeps the festivals with them, or accepts of the
presents from their festivals, as unleavened bread or some such thing,
let him be deprived; but if he be one of the laity, let him be
suspended.(10)
71. If any Christian carries oil into an heathen
temple, or into a synagogue of the Jews, or lights up lamps in their
festivals, let him be suspended.
72. If any one, either of the clergy or laity, takes
away from the holy Church an honeycomb, or oil, let him be suspended,
and let him add the fifth part to that which he took away.(11)
73. A vessel of silver, or gold, or linen, which is
sanctified, let no one appropriate to his own use, for it is unjust;
but if any one be caught, let him be punished with suspension.(12)
74. If a bishop be accused of any crime by credible
and faithful persons, it is necessary that he be cited by the bishops;
and if he comes and makes his apology, and yet is convicted, let his
punishment be determined. But if, when he is cited, he does not obey,
let him be cited a second time, by two bishops sent to him. But if even
then he despises them, and will not come, let the synod pass what
sentence they please against him, that he may not appear to gain
advantage by avoiding their judgment.(13)
75. Do not ye receive an heretic in a testimony
against a bishop; nor a Christian if he be single. For the law says,
"In the mouth of two or three witnesses every word shall be
established." (14)
76. A bishop must not gratify his brother, or his
son, or any other kinsman, with the episcopal dignity, or ordain whom
he pleases; for it is not just to make heirs to episcopacy, and to
gratify human affections in divine matters. For we must not put the
Church of God under the laws of inheritance; but if any one shall do
so, let his ordination be invalid, and let him be punished with
suspension.(15)
77. If any one be maimed in an eye, or lame of his
leg, but is worthy of the episcopal dignity, let him be made a bishop;
for it is not a blemish of the body that can defile him, but the
pollution of the soul.(16)
78. But if he be deaf and blind, let him not be made
a bishop; not as being a defiled person, but that the ecclesiastical
affairs may not be hindered.
79. If any one hath a demon, let him not be made one
of the clergy. Nay, let him not pray with the faithful; but when he is
cleansed, let him be received; and if he be worthy, let him be
ordained.(17)
505
80. It is not right to ordain him bishop presently
who is just come in from the Gentiles, and baptized; or from a wicked
mode of life: for it is unjust that he who has not yet afforded any
trial of himself should be a teacher of others, unless it anywhere
happens by divine grace.(1)
81. We have said that a bishop ought not to let
himself into public administrations, but to attend on all opportunities
upon the necessary affairs of the Church.(2) Either therefore let
him agree not to do so, or let him be deprived. For, "no one can
serve two masters," (3) according to the Lord's
admonition.(4)
82. We do not permit servants to be ordained into
the clergy without their masters' consent; for this would grieve those
that owned them. For such a practice would occasion the subversion of
families. But if at any time a servant appears worthy to be ordained
into an high office, such as our Onesimus appeared to be, and if his
master allows of it, and gives him his freedom, and dismisses him from
his house, let him be ordained.(5)
83. Let a bishop, or presbyter, or deacon, who goes
to the army, and desires to retain both the Roman government and the
sacerdotal administration, be deprived. For "the things of Caesar
belong to Caesar, and the things of God to God."(6)
84. Whosoever shall abuse the king(7) or the
governor unjustly, let him suffer punishment; and if he be a clergyman,
let him be deprived; but if he be a layman, let him be suspended.
85. Let the following books be esteemed venerable
and holy by you, both of the clergy and laity. Of the Old Covenant: the
five books of Moses--Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and
Deuteronomy; one of Joshua the son of Nun, one of the Judges, one of
Ruth, four of the Kings, two of the Chronicles, two of Ezra, one of
Esther, one of Judith, three of the Maccabees, one of Job, one hundred
and fifty psalms; three books of Solomon--Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and
the Song of Songs; sixteen prophets. And besides these, take care that
your young persons learn the Wisdom of the very learned Sirach. But our
sacred books, that is, those of the New Covenant, are these: the four
Gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John; the fourteen Epistles of
Paul; two Epistles of Peter, three of John, one of James, one of Jude;
two Epistles of Clement; and the Constitutions dedicated to you the
bishops by me Clement, in eight books; which it is not fit to publish
before all, because of the mysteries contained in them; and the Acts of
us the Apostles.(8)
Let these canonical rules be established by us for
you, O ye bishops; and if you continue to observe them, ye shall be
saved, and shall have peace; but if you be disobedient, you shall be
punished, and have everlasting war one with another, and undergo a
penalty suitable to your disobedience.
Now, God who alone is unbegotten, and the Maker of
the whole world, unite you all through His peace, in the Holy Spirit;
perfect you unto every good work, immoveable, unblameable, and
unreprovable; and vouchsafe to you eternal life with us, through the
mediation of His beloved Son Jesus Christ our God and Saviour; with
whom glory be to Thee, the God over all, and the Father, in the Holy
Spirit the Comforter, now and always, and for ever and ever. Amen.
The end of the Constitutions of the Holy Apostles by
Clement, which are the Catholic doctrine.
506
ELUCIDATIONS
I.
(The Bidding Prayer, etc., p. 485.)
THE PAULINE NORM.(1)
1. Supplications.
2. Prayers, Psalms, Hymns, and Spiritual Songs.
3. Intercessions.
4. General Thanksgiving. The Kiss of Peace.
5. Anaphora.(2)
The Lord Jesus the same night in which He was
betrayed took bread: And when He had given
thanks, He brake it,
And said, Take, eat: this is my Body, which is
broken for you:
This do in remembrance of Me.
After the same manner also He took the cup, when He
had supped,
Saying, This cup is the New Testament in my Blood:
This do ye, as oft as ye drink it, in remembrance of
Me.
For as often as ye eat this Bread, and drink this
Cup, ye do show the Lord's death till He come.
6. Our Father, etc.(3)
7. Communion.
Let us note also that the Apostle had "delivered"
unto the Corinthians (1 Cor. xi. 23), as doubtless to others (vii. 17),
certain institutions which he ordained in all the churches, and for
departing from which he censures the Corinthians in this place (ver. 17
compared with ver. 2) in certain particulars. In chap. xiv. at ver. 40,
he refers to these ordinances as a <greek>taxis</greek>, in
the performance of which they were to proceed
(<greek>kosmips</greek>) with due order, becomingly; not
with mere decency, but with a beautiful decorum of service.
Finally, let me suggest that there are fragments of
the Apostle's (<greek>paradoseis</greek>) instructions
everywhere scattered through his Epistles, such as the minute canon(4)
concerning the veiling of women in acts of worship, insisting upon it
with a length of argument which in one of the Apostolic Fathers would
be considered childish. He also insisted that his
<greek>taxis</greek> is from the Lord.
507
Fragments of the primitive hymns are also scattered through the
Apostles' writings, as, e.g.,--
E<greek>geirai</greek>
<greek>o</greek>
<greek>?aqeudwn</greek>,
<greek>kai</greek>
<greek>anasta</greek>
<greek>ek</greek>
<greek>tpn</greek>
<greek>nekrpn</greek>
<greek>kai</greek>
<greek>epifausei</greek>
<greek>soi</greek>
<greek>o</greek>
X<greek>ristod</greek>
Of such passages the formula (<greek>dio</greek>
<greek>legei</greek>) "It saith" seems to be a frequent
index.
May we not conclude also that the sublime prayer and
doxology of Eph. iii. 14-21 is a quotation from the Apostle's own
eucharistic <greek>taxid</greek> for the whole state of
Christ's Church militant?
Might not the same be more constantly used in our
days as an intercession for the whole flock of the one Shepherd?
II.
(Fulfil His constitution, p. 489.)
The Pauline Norm being borne in mind, we shall best
comprehend this Clementine liturgy, as to its primitive claims, by
taking the testimony of Justin, writing in Rome to the Antonines A.D.
160. Referring to the Apology in our first volume, we observe that the
order kept up in his day was this:--
1. Prayers for all estates of men.
2. The kiss of peace.
3. Oblation of bread and wine.
4. Thanksgiving.
5. Words of institution.
6. The prayer ending with Amen.
7. Communion.
Now, a century later, we may suppose the original of
this Clementine to have taken a fuller shape; of which still later this
Clementine is the product.(2)
Bear in mind that the early Roman use was (Greek)
borrowed wholly from the East;(3) and, comparing the testimony of
Justin with the Pauline Norm, may we not suppose that this norm in Rome
was augmented by the Eastern uses, and so preserves a true name in that
of the first Bishop of Rome, who accepted it from Jerusalem or Antioch?
III.
(That He may show this bread, etc., p. 489.)
From a recent essay by Dr. Williams, the erudite
bishop of Connecticut, I am permitted to cite, as follows:--
Compare the original texts thus:--
CLEMENTINE.(4)
<greek>opwd</greek>
<greek>apofhnh</greek> <greek>ton</greek>
<greek>ar</greek><s235<greek>on</greek>
<greek>touton</greek> <greek>spma</greek>
<greek>tou</greek> X<greek>ristou</greek>
<greek>sou</greek> <greek>kai</greek>
<greek>to</greek> <greek>pothrion</greek>
<greek>touton</greek> <greek>aima</greek>
<greek>tou</greek> X<greek>ristou</greek>
<greek>sou</greek> <greek>ina</greek>
<greek>oi</greek>
<greek>metalabon</greek>-<greek>ted</greek>,
<greek>k</greek>.<greek>t</greek>.<greek>l</greek>
IRENAEUS.(5)
<greek>opwd</greek>
<greek>apofhnh</greek> <greek>thn</greek>
<greek>qusian</greek> <greek>tauthn</greek>,
<greek>kai</greek> <greek>ton</greek>
<greek>arton</greek> <greek>spma</greek>
<greek>tou</greek> X<greek>ristou</greek>,
<greek>kai</greek> <greek>to</greek>
<greek>pothrion</greek> <greek>to</greek>
<greek>aima</greek> <greek>tou</greek>
X<greek>ristou</greek> <greek>ina</greek>
<greek>oi</greek>
<greek>metala</greek>-<greek>bonted</greek>,
<greek>k</greek>.<greek>t</greek>.<greek>l</greek>.
508
Bishop Williams then proceeds to inquire:--
"How is this striking agreement to be explained?
Does Irenaeus quote from the Clementine, or the Clementine from him? Or
is it not much more likely that they are independent witnesses to
primitive uses, going back to the period of the persecutions, and
extending far beyond the limits of Syria or Palestine'?"(1)
I shall recur to these passages in the elucidations
to Early Liturgies (infra): but here I beg the reader to consult Pfaff,
to whom we owe the discovery of the fragment cited from Irenaeus; also
Grabe, in the same volume of Pfaff, whom I have already introduced to
the reader.(2)
POSTSCRIPT.
THE American editor had been promised the aid of his
beloved friend the Rev. Dr. Hobart in the elucidation of the liturgies;
but a sudden and almost fatal prostration of his health has deprived
the reader of the admirable comments with which he would have enriched
these pages, had Providence permitted.
AN ANCIENT HOMILY
COMMONLY STYLED
THE SECOND EPISTLE OF CLEMENT
511
INTRODUCTORY NOTICE
TO THE HOMILY KNOWN AS
THE SECOND EPISTLE OF CLEMENT
It is gratifying that our series is marked by tokens
of critical progress, and not less cheering tokens of scientific
research. The clearing-up of much that has perplexed us about Hermas;
the Bryennios discovery; and, not least, the completion of this
fragment, which has long been a scandal to patristic inquiry,--are
surely such tokens. They enrich the reader with definite ideas on many
collateral subjects. May they not stimulate American scholarship and
American affluence to fresh enterprises of the same character for the
advancement of learning, and the glory of the world's Redeemer and
Illuminator?
The very early date to which this homily is now
assigned makes its slightest allusions to the New-Testament canon of
very great importance. I have ventured to indicate a few such, even
where they may be mere allusions, not textual quotations: as, e.g., on
p. 517, at notes 20 and 22, slight indications of a reference to the
Second Epistle of St. Peter and to the Apocalypse.[1]
I shall have occasion to refer to this work in the
elucidation of the Liturgies which are to follow. If it be, as Bishop
Lightfoot supposes, a homily of the second century, it may lend
important retrospective aid to the student of these volumes in other
particulars; but, having entrusted this interesting relic to the
editorial care of a most competent scholar, I shall not presume to
anticipate his judgment in any matter.
512
INTRODUCTORY NOTICE BY PROFESSOR M. B. RIDDLE, D.D.
SECTION 1.--TEXT.
In this volume, pp. 372-376, will be found a brief
account of the Codex discovered by Bryennios, now Metropolitan of
Nicomedia. It remains in the library of the Jerusalem Monastery of the
Holy Sepulchre at Constantinople. While the publication of the Greek
text of the Teaching awakened unusual interest, the recovery of that
document has not been the only valuable result of this important
discovery. The Codex, as was speedily known, contains the only complete
copy of the Greek text of the two Epistles of Clement. The lacunoe
previously existing in the genuine Epistle were not extensive; but, as
now appears, the Alexandrian manuscript contains only three-fifths of
the second Epistle. The entire Greek text of both Epistles was given to
the public by Bryennios, in 1875.
This at once led to a revision of some recent
editions, notably those of Hilgenfeld,[2] and of Gebhardt and
Harnack.[3] Many monographs soon appeared. But the discovery of a new
(Syriac) source for the text in 1876, while not affecting the general
problem, gave to patristic scholars more abundant critical material.
Bishop Lightfoot's Appendix[4] contains the most convenient and
accessible collation of this material, as well as the most clear
statements on all points affected by the two discoveries. The Syriac
manuscript, containing a version of the two Epistles of Clement, was
purchased by the Cambridge University Library in 1876, from the
collection of "the late Oriental scholar M. Jules Mohl of Paris"
(Lightfoot). It embraces the entire New Testament, except the
Apocalypse, in the Harkleian recension of the Philoxenian (or later)
Syriac version; but the scribe has inserted the two Epistles of Clement
(entire) between the Catholic and Pauline Epistles. The value of the
manuscript for New-Testament criticism is great, and the phenomena it
presents interesting, as bearing on the discussion of the New-Testament
canon; but the paucity of sources for the text of the Clementine
Epistles gives special importance to the discovery of a version of
these writings so soon after the recovery of the entire Greek text. A
discussion of the textual questions is forbidden by the limits of this
Introductory Notice, but a few points may be stated:--
1. A comparison of the three authorities (the
Alexandrian, the Constantinopolitan, and the Syriac), in the parts they
in common contain, shows that the first is most trustworthy, and that
the Syriac is usually more correct than the Constantinopolitan.
2. Hence, in the recovered portions, the authority
of the Syriac is very valuable in correcting the obvious blunders of
the Greek copy. This should teach caution in accepting the text of the
Teaching, where the same Greek manuscript is our only authority.
3. The genuine Epistle of Clement, which stands next
in age to the canonical books of the New Testament, now stands next in
accuracy of text also. Doubt in regard to textual questions decreases
as the critical material increases.
513
SECTION 2.--PLACE AND DATE OF COMPOSITION; AUTHOR.
The recovery of the entire text of the Second
Epistle settles the question as to the purpose of the work. As was
previously surmised, it is a homily (comp. chaps. xvii., xix., xx.);
moreover, it was "read" by the author at public worship after the
Scripture lesson (see chap. xix). But as to place, date, and author,
there is still diversity of opinion. The three questions are closely
related. The view of Bishop Lightfoot seems, on the whole, most
tenable. He regards the homily as of Corinthian origin, delivered, in
all probability, between A.D. 120 and 140, but the work of an unknown
author, who seems to have been one of the presbyters of the
church,--possibly the bishop. The allusions to the athletic games are
in favour of Corinth. On this theory the title is thus accounted for:
The genuine Epistle of Clement was addressed to the Corinthians, and
read in the church of that city from time to time. This homily was
probably read in the same manner, and at length united in a manuscript
copy with the other. Each was "to the Corinthians:" hence it was
gradually inferred that both were Epistles of Clement. Of this
succession or movement Lightfoot finds some indications in the
manuscript authorities.
The internal evidence of an early date has been
increased by the discovery of the concluding portion, but there is
nothing to determine the exact time of composition. The distinction
made in chap. xiv. between the Old and New Testaments, as well as the
use of the Gospel of the Egyptians (at the close of chap. xii.), taken
in connection with the unmistakeable citations of New-Testament
passages as of Divine authority, point to the first half of the second
century as the probable period. The absence of all direct opposition to
Gnosticism points to an origin within the same limits. All these
considerations make against the view of Hilgenfeld, who attributes the
homily to Clement of Alexandria, thus assigning it to the latter half
of the second century.
In regard to the author, nothing further is learned
from the newly recovered portion, except the fact that he was a
preacher. Even this does not determine his ecclesiastical position,
since at that early date much freedom of utterance was permitted in
Christian assemblies. It is, however, very probable that the author was
a presbyter; and it is not improbable that he was the chief presbyter,
or local bishop.
The homily is still attributed to a person named
Clement, but there are three theories as to what Clement. (1) Bryennios
stands almost alone in claiming that the document is the work of
Clemens Romanus. The internal evidence against this view was quite
sufficient before the full text of the two Epistles was known; now it
is to be regarded as abundantly conclusive. Even the English version of
the two writings will suggest to the intelligent reader the points of
difference. (2) As intimated above, Hilgenfeld regards Clement of
Alexandria as the author; but this places the homily too late.
Moreover, the writings of the Alexandrian Father stand immensely above
this feeble, commonplace, and chaotic production. Even the citation
from the Gospel of the Egyptians, common to both,[1] is differently
used by the two authors; Clement of Alexandria opposing the
interpretation favoured in this homily, as well as objecting to the
authority of that apocryphal Gospel. Hilgenfeld's argument from the
word <greek>filosofein</greek> in chap. xix., is
invalidated by the improbability of that reading; see note in loco. (3)
The most plausible view, as Bishop Lightfoot admits, is that of
Harnack. He assigns the homily to a third Clement, referred to, as he
supposes, in the Shepherd of Hermas,[2] and living somewhat later than
Clement of Rome. In favour of this may be urged: some similarity to the
Shepherd of Hermas, the probability that at the date of the later
writing Clement of Rome was not living, and the easy explanation it
affords of the traditional title. But, while a third Clement may have
lived at Rome, we have no evidence other than the doubtful hint in the
Shepherd. The allusion in that work seems far more appropriate to the
well-known Clement of Rome. The argument from the later date of the
Shepherd proves very little; not only is the date uncertain, but the
visions are placed
514
quite early. The editor of this series, while accepting A.D. 160 as the
probable date of the Shepherd, regards it as a compilation, introducing
"Hermas and Clement to identify the times which are idealized in his
allegory."[1] The view of Bishop Lightfoot, therefore, seems to be the
safest.
SECTION 3.--CHARACTER AND CONTENTS.
The style of the homily is poor. It abounds in
connectives, which link unconnected ideas; its thought is feeble, its
theology peculiar though not false, its arrangement confused. While it
furnishes some historical data for practical theology, it is, in
homiletical method and matter, in sharp contrast with the Apostolic
writings and with the homilies of Origen. Though referring to
Scripture, it has none of the virtues of the expository discourse;
though hortatory in tone, it has little of the unity and directness of
better sermons of that class. Its chief excellence is its brevity.
It is difficult to make an analysis of the contents.
The theme is the duty of fulfilling the commands of Christ.
(1) This obedience is the true confession of Christ,
answering to the greatness of His salvation; mainly in chaps. i.-iv.
(2) Thus the Christian shows his opposition to the
world; chaps. v.-viii.
(3) This obedience will be rewarded in the future
world; chaps. ix.-xvii.
(4) The conclusion: the preacher's confession
(xviii.), justification of his exhortation (xix.); concluding word of
consolation, with doxology (xx.). But the treatment is not strictly
logical, nor are the parts clearly distinguished.
The theology shows no traces of heresy, nor does it
sharply oppose any false doctrinal views. It lacks the dogmatic
precision of a later age, but emphasizes rigid views of the relation of
the sexes. "Repentance and good works seem to be the main articles of
its creed. Of regeneration there seems to be no definite idea: to be
called is the same as to be saved. The Church is pre-existent; the
kingdom of God is in the future; no worth is left to this world or to
the life in it. The principal argument urged in favour of standing firm
in faith is the good issue of it in the next life" (C. J. H. Ropes).
The hints given in regard to public worship agree
with the famous description of Justin Martyr,[2] and there are
indications that the early freedom of exhortation had not yet
disappeared. Bishop Lightfoot aptly concludes his dissertation with
these words: "The homily itself, as a literary work, is almost
worthless. As the earliest example of its kind, however, and as the
product of an important age of which we possess only the scantiest
remains, it has the highest value. Nor will its intellectual poverty
blind us to its true grandeur, as an example of the lofty moral
earnestness and the triumphant faith which subdued a reluctant world,
and laid it prostrate at the foot of the cross."[3]
SECTION 4.--THE VERSION IN THIS VOLUME.
Greater unity would have been secured by a new
translation of the entire work. Since, however, this was not possible,
the aim of the editor has been to give the reader, as far as
practicable, the benefit of the light shed upon the whole by the
recently discovered authorities. The portion already translated in the
Edinburgh volume has been supplied with critical annotations, and a few
exegetical points have been treated. The recent editions of the Greek
text have, of course, been consulted.
The newly recovered portion has been re-translated. Bishop Lightfoot's
version is so excel-
515
lent that the temptation to use it was very great. It has, of course,
influenced the editor in many places. But the following version differs
from it mainly in two respects: (1) An effort has been made to preserve
the verbal correspondences between the language of the homily and that
of the New Testament: hence the English word used in the Revised
Version as an equivalent of a Greek term is given here as a similar
equivalent. (2) The view of the Greek tenses indicated in Lightfoot's
renderings does not always accord with that of the editor.
It may be added, that Professor C. J. H. Ropes of
Bangor, Me., kindly sent, for use in the preparation of the Epistle for
this volume, his manuscript translation and notes. These have been very
helpful, and are entitled to this acknowledgment. It will be found that
the American translation is less paraphrastic than the Edinburgh. The
new portions, both text and notes, have been printed without brackets
when they are the work of the editor. The rare additions of the general
editor are always bracketed, that the reader may readily recognise to
whom the literary responsibility in each case properly belongs.
The following is the Edinburgh Introductory Notice:--
The first certain reference which is made by any
early writer to this so-called Epistle of Clement is found in these
words of Eusebius (Hist. Eccl., iii. 38): "We must know that there is
also a second Epistle of Clement. But we do not regard it as being
equally notable with the former, since we know of none of the ancients
that have made use of it." Several critics in modern times have
endeavoured to vindicate the authenticity of this Epistle. But it is
now generally regarded as one of the many writings which have been
falsely ascribed to Clement. Besides the want of external evidence,
indicated even by Eusebius in the above extract, the diversity of style
clearly points to a different writer from that of the first Epistle. A
commonly accepted opinion among critics at the present day is, that
this is not an Epistle at all, but a fragment of one of the many
homilies falsely ascribed to Clement. There can be no doubt, however,
that in the catalogue of writings contained in the Alexandrian Ms. it
is both styled an Epistle, and, as well as the other which accompanies
it, is attributed to Clement. As the Ms. is certainly not later than
the fifth century, the opinion referred to must by that time have taken
firm root in the Church; but in the face of internal evidence, and in
want of all earlier testimony, such a fact goes but a small way to
establish its authenticity.
517
THE HOMILY(1)
CHAP. I.--WE OUGHT TO THINK HIGHLY OF
CHRIST.
BRETHREN, it is fitting that you should think of
Jesus Christ as of God,--as the Judge of the living and the dead. And
it does not become us(2) to think lightly(3) of our salvation; for if
we think little(3) of Him, we shall also hope but to obtain little from
Him. And those of us(4) who hear carelessly of these things, as if they
were of small importance, commit sin, not knowing whence we have been
called, and by whom, and to what place, and how much Jesus Christ
submitted to suffer for our sakes. What return, then, shall we make to
Him? or what fruit that shall be worthy of that which He has given to
us? For,(5) indeed, how great are the benefits(6) which we owe to Him!
He has graciously given us light; as a Father, He has called us sons;
He has saved us when we were ready to perish. What praise, then, shall
we give to Him, or what return shall we make for the things which we
have received?(7) We were deficient(8) in understanding, worshipping
stones and wood, and gold, and silver, and brass, the works of men's
hand;(9) and our whole life was nothing else than death. Involved in
blindness, and with such darkness(10) before our eyes, we have received
sight, and through His will have laid aside that cloud by which we were
enveloped. For He had compassion on us, and mercifully saved us,
observing the many errors in which we were entangled, as well as the
destruction to which we were exposed,(11) and that we had(12) no hope
of salvation except it came to us from Him. For He called us when we
were not,(13) and willed that out of nothing we should attain a real
existence.(14)
CHAP. II.--THE CHURCH, FORMERLY BARREN, IS
NOW FRUITFUL.
"Rejoice, thou barren that bearest not; break forth
and cry, thou that travailest not; for she that is desolate hath many
more children than she that hath an husband."(15) In that He said,
"Rejoice, thou barren that bearest not," He referred to us, for our
Church was barren before that children were given to her. But when He
said, "Cry out, thou that travailest not," He means this, that we
should sincerely offer up our prayers to God, and should not, like
women in travail, show signs of weakness.(16) And in that He said, "For
she that is desolate hath many more children than she that hath an
husband," He means that(17) our people seemed to be outcast from God,
but now, through believing, have become more numerous than those who
are reckoned to possess God.(18) And another Scripture saith, "I came
not to call the righteous, but sinners."(19) This means that those who
are perishing must be saved. For it is indeed a great and admirable
thing to establish, not the things which are standing, but these that
are falling. Thus also did Christ desire(20) to save the things which
were perishing,(21) and has saved many by coming and calling us when
hastening to destruction.(22)
518
CHAP. III.--THE DUTY OF CONFESSING CHRIST.
Since, then, He has displayed so great mercy towards
us, and especially in this respect, that we who are living should not
offer sacrifices to gods that are dead, or pay them worship, but should
attain through Him to the knowledge of the true Father,(1) whereby
shall we show that we do indeed know Him,(2) but by not denying Him
through whom this knowledge has been attained? For He Himself
declares,(3) "Whosoever shall confess Me before men, him will I confess
before My Father."(4) This, then, is our reward if we shall confess Him
by whom we have been saved. But in what way shall we confess Him? By
doing what He says, and not transgressing His commandments, and by
honouring Him not with our lips only, but with all our heart and all
our mind.(5) For He says(6) in Isaiah, "This people honoureth Me with
their lips, but their heart is far from Me."(7)
CHAP. IV.--TRUE CONFESSION OF CHRIST.
Let us, then, not only call Him Lord, for that will
not save us. For He saith, "Not every one that saith to Me, Lord, Lord,
shall be saved, but he that worketh righteousness."(8) Wherefore,
brethren, let us confess Him by(9) our works, by loving one another, by
not committing adultery, or speaking evil of one another, or cherishing
envy; but being continent, compassionate, and good. We ought also to
sympathize with one another, and not be avaricious. By such(10) works
let us confess Him,(11) and not by those that are of an opposite kind.
And it is not fitting that we should fear men, but rather God. For this
reason, if we should do such wicked things, the Lord hath said, "Even
though ye were gathered together to Me(12) in My very bosom, yet if ye
were not to keep My commandments, I would cast you off, and say unto
you, Depart from Me; I know you not whence ye are, ye workers of
iniquity."(13)
CHAP. V.--THIS WORLD SHOULD BE DESPISED.
Wherefore, brethren, leaving willingly our sojourn
in this present world, let us do the will of Him that called us, and
not fear to depart out of this world. For the Lord saith, "Ye shall be
as lambs in the midst of wolves."(14) And Peter answered and said unto
Him,(15) "What, then, if the wolves shall tear in pieces the lambs?"
Jesus said unto Peter, "The lambs have no cause after they are dead to
fear(16) the wolves; and in like manner, fear not ye them that kill
you, and can do nothing more unto you; but fear Him who, after you are
dead, has power over both soul and body to cast them into
hell-fire."(17) And consider,(18) brethren, that the sojourning in the
flesh in this world is but brief and transient, but the promise of
Christ is great and wonderful, even the rest of the kingdom to come,
and of life everlasting.(19) By what course of conduct, then, shall we
attain these things, but by leading a holy and righteous life, and by
deeming these worldly things as not belonging to us, and not fixing our
desires upon them? For if we desire to possess them, we fall away from
the path of righteousness.(20)
CHAP. VI.--THE PRESENT AND FUTURE WORLDS
ARE ENEMIES TO EACH OTHER.
Now the Lord declares, "No servant can serve two masters."(21) If we
desire, then, to Serve both God and mammon, it will be unprofitable for
us. "For what will it profit if a man gain the whole world, and lose
his own soul?"(22) This world and the next are two enemies. The one
urges to(23) adultery and corruption, avarice and deceit; the other
bids farewell to these things. We cannot therefore be the friends of
both; and it behoves us, by renouncing the one, to make sure(24) of the
other. Let us reckon that it is better to hate the things present,
since they are trifling, and transient, and corruptible; and to love
those which are to come, as being good and incorruptible. For if we do
the will of Christ, we shall find rest; otherwise, nothing shall
deliver us from eternal punishment, if we disobey His commandments. For
thus also saith the Scripture in Ezekiel, "If Noah, Job, and Daniel
should rise up, they should not deliver their children in
captivity."(26) Now, if men
519
so eminently righteous(1) are not able by their righteousness to
deliver their children, how can we hope to(2) enter into the royal
residence(3) of God unless we keep our baptism holy and undefiled? Or
who shall be our advocate, unless we be found possessed of works of
holiness and righteousness?(4)
CHAP. VII.--WE MUST STRIVE IN ORDER TO BE
CROWNED.
Wherefore, then, my brethren, let us struggle s with
all earnestness, knowing that the contest is in our case close at hand,
and that many undertake long voyages to strive for a corruptible
reward;(6) yet all are not crowned, but those only that have laboured
hard and striven gloriously, Let us therefore so strive, that we may
all be crowned, Let us run the straight(7) course, even the race that
is incorruptible; and let us in great numbers set out s for it, and
strive that we may be crowned, And should we not all be able to obtain
the crown, let us at least come near to it, We must remember(9) that he
who strives in the corruptible contest, if he be found acting
unfairly,(10) is taken away and scourged, and cast forth from the
lists. What then think ye? If one does anything unseemly in the
incorruptible contest, what shall he have to bear? For of those who do
not preserve the seal" unbroken, the Scripture saith,(12) "Their worm
shall not die, and their fire shall not be quenched, and they shall be
a spectacle to all flesh."(13)
CHAP. VIII.--THE NECESSITY OF REPENTANCE
WHILE WE ARE ON EARTH.
As long, therefore, as we are upon earth, let us
practise repentance, for we are as clay in the hand of the artificer.
For as the potter, if he make a vessel, and it be distorted or broken
in his hands, fashions it over again; but if he have before this cast
it into the furnace of fire, can no longer find any help for it: so let
us also, while we are in this world, repent with our whole heart of the
evil deeds we have done in the flesh, that we may be saved by the Lord,
while we have yet an opportunity of repentance. For after we have gone
out of the world, no further power of confessing or repenting will
there belong to us. Wherefore, brethren, by doing the will of the
Father, and keeping the flesh holy, and observing the commandments of
the Lord, we shall obtain eternal life. For the Lord saith in the
Gospel, "If ye have not kept that which was small, who will commit to
you the great? For I say unto you, that he that is faithful in that
which is least, is faithful also in much."(14) This, then, is what He
means: "Keep the flesh holy and the seal undefiled, that ye(15) may
receive eternal life."(16)
CHAP. IX.--WE SHALL BE JUDGED IN THE FLESH.
And let no one of you say that this very flesh shall
not be judged, nor rise again. Consider ye(17) in what state ye were
saved, in what ye received sight,(18) if not while ye were in this
flesh. We must therefore preserve the flesh as the temple of God. For
as ye were called in the flesh, ye shall also come to be judged in the
flesh. As Christ(19) the Lord who saved us, though He was first a
Spirit,(20) became flesh, and thus called us, so shall we also receive
the reward in this flesh. Let us therefore love one another, that we
may all attain to the kingdom of God. While we have an opportunity of
being healed, let us yield ourselves to God that healeth us, and give
to Him a recompense. Of what sort? Repentance out of a sincere heart;
for He knows all things beforehand, and is acquainted with what is in
our hearts. Let us therefore give Him praise,(21) not with the mouth
only, but also with the heart, that He may accept us as sons. For the
Lord has said, "Those are My brethren who do the will of My Father."(22)
CHAP. X.--VICE IS TO BE FORSAKEN, AND VIRTUE
FOLLOWED.
Wherefore, my brethren, let us do the will of the
Father who called us, that we may live; and let us earnestly(23) follow
after virtue, but forsake
520
every wicked tendency(1) which would lead into transgression; and flee
from ungodliness, lest evils overtake us. For if we are diligent in
doing good, peace will follow us. On this account, such men cannot find
it, i.e., peace, as are(2) influenced by human terrors, and prefer
rather present enjoyment to the promise which shall afterwards be
fulfilled. For they know not what torment present enjoyment incurs, or
what felicity is involved in the future promise. And if, indeed, they
themselves only did such things, it would be the more tolerable; but
now they persist in imbuing innocent souls with their pernicious
doctrines,(3) not knowing that they shall receive a double
condemnation, both they and those that hear them.
CHAP. XI.--WE OUGHT TO SERVE GOD, TRUSTING
IN HIS PROMISES.
Let us therefore serve God with a pure heart, and we
shall be righteous; but if we do not serve Him, because we believe not
the promise of God, we shall be miserable. For the prophetic word also
declares, "Wretched are those of a double mind, and who doubt in their
heart, who say, All these things have we heard even in the times of our
fathers; but though we have waited day by day, we have seen none of
them accomplished. Ye fools! compare yourselves to a tree; take, for
instance, the vine. First of all it sheds its leaves, then the bud
appears; after that the sour grape, and then the fully-ripened fruit.
So, likewise, my people have borne disturbances and afflictions, but
afterwards shall they receive their good things."(4) Wherefore, my
brethren, let us not be of a double mind, but let us hope and endure,
that we also may obtain the reward. For He is faithful who has promised
that He will bestow on every one a reward according to his works. If,
therefore, we shall do righteousness in the sight of God, we shall
enter into His kingdom, and shall receive the promises, "which ear hath
not heard, nor eye seen, neither have entered into the heart of man."(5)
CHAP. XII.--WE ARE CONSTANTLY TO LOOK FOR
THE KINGDOM OF GOD.
Let us expect, therefore, hour by hour, the kingdom
of God in love and righteousness, since we know not the day of the
appearing of God. For the Lord Himself, being asked by one when His
kingdom would come, replied, "When two shall be one, and that which is
without as that which is within, and the male with the female, neither
male nor female."(6) Now, two are one when we speak the truth one to
another, and there is unfeignedly one soul in two bodies. And "that
which is without as that which is within" meaneth this: He calls the
soul "that which is within," and the body "that which is without." As,
then, thy body is visible to sight, so also let thy soul be manifest by
good works. And "the male with the female, neither male nor female,"
this(7) ...
[The newly recovered portion follows:](8)--
... meaneth,(9) that a brother seeing a sister
should think nothing(10) about her as of a female, nor she(11) think
anything about him as of a male. If ye do these things, saith He,(12)
the kingdom of my Father shall come.
CHAP. XIII.--DISOBEDIENCE CAUSETH GOD'S NAME
TO BE BLASPHEMED.(13)
Therefore, brethren,(14) let us now at length
repent; let us be sober unto what is good; for we are full of much
folly and wickedness. Let us blot out from us our former sins, and
repenting from the soul let us be saved; and let us not become(15)
men-pleasers, nor let us desire to please only one another,(16) but
also the men that are without, by our righteousness, that the Name(17)
521
be not blasphemed on account of us.(1) For the Lord also saith
"Continually(2) My name is blasphemed among all the Gentiles,"(3) and
again, "Woe(4) to him on account of whom My name is blasphemed."
Wherein is it blasphemed? In your not doing what I desire.(5) For the
Gentiles, when they hear from our mouth the oracles of God,(6) marvel
at them as beautiful and great; afterwards, when they have learned that
our works are not worthy of the words we speak, they then turn
themselves to blasphemy, saying that it is some fable and delusion. For
when they hear from us that God saith,(7) "There is no thank unto you,
if ye love them that love you; but there is thank unto you, if ye love
your enemies and them that hate you;"(8) when they hear these things,
they marvel at the excellency of the goodness; but when they see that
we not only do not love them that hate us, but not even them that love
us, they laugh us to scorn, and the Name is blasphemed.
CHAP. XIV.--THE LIVING CHURCH IS THE BODY
OF CHRIST.
Wherefore,(9) brethren, if we do the will of God our
Father, we shall be of the first Church, that is, spiritual, that hath
been created before the sun and moon;(10) but if we do not the will of
the Lord, we shall be of the scripture that saith, "My house was made a
den of robbers."(11) So then let us choose to be of the Church of
life,(12) that we may be saved. I do not, however, suppose ye are
ignorant that the living Church is the body of Christ;(13) for the
Scripture saith, "God made man, male and female."(14) The male is
Christ, the female is the Church. And the Books(15) and the Apostles
plainly declare(16) that the Church is not of the present, but from the
beginning.(17) For she was spiritual, as our Jesus also was, but was
manifested In the last days that He(18) might save us. Now the Church,
being spiritual, was manifested in the flesh of Christ, thus signifying
to us that, if any of us keep(19) her in the flesh and do not corrupt
her, he shall receive her again so in the Holy Spirit: for this flesh
is the copy of the spirit. No one then who corrupts the copy, shall
partake of the original.(21) This then is what He meaneth, "Keep the
flesh,(22) that ye may partake of the spirit." But if we say that the
flesh is the Church and the spirit Christ,(23) then he that hath
shamefully used the flesh hath shamefully used the Church. Such a one
then shall not partake of the spirit, which is Christ. Such life and
incorruption this flesh(24) can partake of, when the Holy Spirit is
joined to it. No one can utter or speak "what the Lord hath prepared"
for His elect.(25)
CHAP. XV.--FAITH AND LOVE THE PROPER RETURN
TO GOD.
Now I do not think I have given you any light
counsel concerning self-control,(26) which if any one do he will not
repent of it, but will save both himself and me who counselled him. For
it is no light reward to turn again a wandering and perishing soul that
it may be saved.(27) For this is the recompense(28) we have to return
to God who created us, if he that speaketh and heareth both speaketh
and heareth with faith and love. Let us therefore abide in the things
which we believed, righteous and holy, that with boldness we may ask of
God who saith, "While thou art yet speaking, I will say, Lo, I am
here."(29) For this saying is the sign of a great promise; for the Lord
saith of Himself that He is more ready to give than he that asketh to
ask.(30) Being
522
therefore partakers of so great kindness, let us not be envious of one
another(1) in the obtaining of so many good things. For as great as is
the pleasure which these sayings have for them that have done them, so
great is the condemnation they have for them that have been disobedient.
CHAP. XVI.--THE EXCELLENCE OF ALMSGIVING.
Wherefore, brethren, having received no small
occasion(2) for repentance, while we have the opportunity,(3) let us
turn unto God that called us, while we still have Him as One that
receiveth us. For if we renounce(4) these enjoyments and conquer our
soul in not doing these its evil desires, we shall partake of the mercy
of Jesus. But ye know that the day of judgment even now "cometh as a
burning oven,"(5) and some "of the heavens shall melt," and all the
earth shall be as lead melting on the fire,(6) and then the hidden and
open works of men shall appear. Almsgiving therefore is a good thing,
as repentance from sin; fasting is better than prayer, but almsgiving
than both;(7) "but love covereth a multitude of sins."(8) But prayer
out of a good conscience delivereth from death. Blessed is every one
that is found full of these; for alms-giving lighteneth the burden of
sin.(9)
CHAP. XVII.--THE DANGER OF IMPENITENCE.
Let us therefore repent from the whole heart, that
no one of us perish by the way. For if we have commandments that we
should also practise this,(10) to draw away men from idols and instruct
them, how much more ought a soul already knowing God not to perish! Let
us therefore assist one another that we may also lead up those weak as
to what is good,(11) in order that all may be saved; and let us convert
and admonish one another.(12) And let us not think to give heed and
believe now only, while we are admonished by the presbyters, but also
when we have returned home,(13) remembering the commandments(14) of the
Lord; and let us not be dragged away by worldly lusts, but coming(15)
more frequently let us attempt to make advances in the commandments of
the Lord, that all being of of the same mind(16) we may be gathered
together unto life. For the Lord said," I come to gather together all
the nations, tribes, and tongues."(17) This He speaketh of the day of
His appearing, when He shall come and redeem us, each one according to
his works.(18) And the unbelievers "shall see His glory," and strength;
and they shall think it strange when they see the sovereignty(19) of
the world in Jesus, saying, Woe unto us, Thou wast He,(20) and we did
not know and did not believe, and we did not obey the presbyters when
they declared unto us concerning our salvation. And "their worm dieth
not, and their fire is not quenched, and they shall be for a spectacle
unto all flesh."(21) He speaketh of that day of judgment, when they
shall see those among us(22) that have been ungodly and acted
deceitfully with the commandments of Jesus Christ. But the righteous
who have done well and endured torments and hated the enjoyments of the
soul, when they shall behold those that have gone astray and denied
Jesus through their words or through their works, how that they are
punished with grievous torments in unquenchable fire, shall be giving
glory to God, saying, There will be hope for him that hath served God
with his whole heart.
CHAP. XVIII.--THE PREACHER CONFESSETH HIS
OWN SINFULNESS.
Let us also become of the number of them that give
thanks, that have served God, and not of the ungodly that are judged.
For I myself also, being an utter sinner,(23) and not yet escaped from
temptation, but still being in the midst of the engines(24) of the
devil, give diligence to fol-
523
low after righteousness, that I may have strength to come even near
it,(1) fearing the judgment to come.
CHAP. XIX.--HE JUSTIFIETH HIS EXHORTATION.
Wherefore, brethren and sisters,(2) after the God of truth
hath been heard,(3) I read to you an entreaty(4) that ye may give heed
to the things that are written, in order that ye may save both
yourselves and him that readeth among you. For as a reward I ask of you
that ye repent with the whole heart, thus giving to yourselves
salvation and life. For by doing this we shall set a goal(5) for all
the young who are minded to labour(6) on behalf of piety and the
goodness of God. And let us not, unwise ones that we are, be affronted
and sore displeased, whenever some one admonisheth and turneth us from
iniquity unto righteousness. For sometimes while we are practising evil
things we do not perceive it on account of the double-mindedness and
unbelief that is in our breasts, and we are "darkened in our
understanding"(7) by our vain lusts. Let us then practise righteousness
that we may be saved unto the end. Blessed are they that obey these
ordinances. Even if for a little time they suffer evil in the world,(8)
they shall enjoy the immortal fruit of the resurrection. Let not then
the godly man
be grieved, if he be wretched in the times that now are; a
blessed time waits for him. He, living again above with the fathers,
shall be joyful for an eternity without grief.
CHAP. XX.--CONCLUDING WORD OF CONSOLATION. DOXOLOGY.
But neither let it trouble your understanding, that
we see the unrighteous having riches and the servants of God
straitened. Let us therefore, brethren and sisters, be believing: we
are striving in the contest(9) of the living God, we are exercised by
the present life, in order that we may be crowned by that to come. No
one of the righteous received fruit speedily, but awaiteth it. For if
God gave shortly the recompense of the righteous, straightway we would
be exercising ourselves in business, not in godliness; for we would
seem to be righteous, while pursuing not what is godly but what is
gainful. And on this account Divine judgment surprised a spirit that
was not righteous, and loaded it with chains.(10)
To the only God invisible,(11) the Father of truth,
who sent forth to us the Saviour and Prince of incorruption,(12)
through whom also He manifested to us the truth and the heavenly life,
to Him be the glory for ever and ever. Amen.(13)
THE NICENE CREED
THE CREED
As set forth at Nicoea,(1) A.D. 325.
WE believe in one God, the Father Almighty, Maker of
all things, visible and invisible:
And in one Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God,
begotten of the Father, only begotten, that is, of the substance of the
Father;
God of God; Light of light; very God of very God;
begotten, not made; being of one substance with the Father,
By whom all things were made, both things in heaven and things
in earth:
Who for us men and for our salvation came down, and
was incarnate, and was made man:
He suffered, and rose again the third day:
And ascended into heaven:
And shall come again to judge the quick and the dead.
And in the Holy Ghost, etc.(2)
THE RATIFICATION.
And those who say There was a time when He was not,
or that Before He was begotten He was not, or that He was made out of
nothing; or who say that The Son of God is of any other substance, or
that He is changeable or unstable,--these the Catholic and Apostolic
Church anathematizes.
ADDENDA,
As authorized at Constantinople, A.D. 381.
(a) Of heaven and earth.
(b) Begotten of the Father before all worlds.
(c) By the Holy Ghost of the Virgin Mary.
(d) Was crucified also for us, under Pontius Pilate,
(e) And was buried.
(f) Sitteth on the right hand of the Father,
(g) Whose kingdom shall have no end.
(h) The Lord, the Giver of life,
Who proceedeth from the Father;(3)
Who with the Father and the Son together is worshipped and glorified;
525
Who spake by the prophets:
In one Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church.
We acknowledge one baptism for the remission of sins.
We look for the resurrection of the dead,
And the life of the world to come. Amen.
This Nicaeno-Constantinopolitan Creed was solemnly
ratified by the Council of Ephesus (A.D. 431) with the decree(1) that
"No one(2) shall be permitted to introduce, write, or compose any other
faith,(3) besides that which was defined by the holy Fathers assembled
in the city of Nice, with the presence of the Holy Ghost."
EARLY LITURGIES
537
EARLY LITURGIES(1)
THE DIVINE LITURGY OF JAMES, THE HOLY APOSTLE AND BROTHER
OF THE LORD.
I.
The Priest.(2)
1. O SOVEREIGN Lord our God, contemn me not, defiled
with a multitude of sins: for, behold, I have come to this Thy divine
and heavenly mystery, not as being worthy; but looking only to Thy
goodness, I direct my voice to Thee: God be merciful to me, a sinner; I
have sinned against Heaven, and before Thee, and am unworthy to come
into the presence of this Thy holy and spiritual table, upon which Thy
only-begotten Son, and our Lord Jesus Christ, is mystically set forth
as a sacrifice for me, a sinner, and stained with every spot. Wherefore
I present to Thee this supplication and thanksgiving, that Thy Spirit
the Comforter may be sent down upon me, strengthening and fitting me
for this service; and count me worthy to make known without
condemnation the word, delivered from Thee by me to the people, in
Christ Jesus our Lord, with whom Thou art blessed, together with Thy
all-holy, and good, and quickening, and consubstantial(3) Spirit, now
and ever, and to all eternity. Amen.
Prayer of the standing beside the altar.
II. Glory to the Father, and to the Son, and to the
Holy Spirit, the triune light of the Godhead, which is unity subsisting
in trinity, divided, yet indivisible: for the Trinity is the one God
Almighty, whose glory the heavens declare, and the earth His dominion,
and the sea His might, and every sentient and intellectual creature at
all times proclaims His majesty: for all glory becomes Him, and honour
and might, greatness and magnificence, now and ever, and to all
eternity. Amen.
Prayer of the incense at the beginning.(4)
III. Sovereign Lord Jesus Christ, O Word of God, who
didst freely offer Thyself a blameless sacrifice upon the cross to God
even the Father, the coal of double nature, that didst touch the lips
of the prophet with the tongs, and didst take away his sins, touch also
the hearts of us sinners, and purify us from every stain, and present
us holy beside Thy holy altar, that we may offer Thee a sacrifice of
praise: and accept from us, Thy unprofitable servants, this incense as
an odour of a sweet smell, and make fragrant the evil odour of our soul
and body, and purify us with the sanctifying power of Thy all-holy
Spirit: for Thou alone art holy, who sanctifiest, and art communicated
to the faithful; and glory becomes Thee, with Thy eternal Father, and
Thy all-holy, and good, and quickening Spirit, now and ever, and to all
eternity. Amen.
Prayer of the commencement.
IV. O beneficent King eternal, and Creator of the
universe, receive Thy Church, coming unto Thee through Thy Christ:
fulfil to each what is profitable; lead all to perfection, and make us
perfectly worthy of the grace of Thy sanctification, gathering us
together within Thy holy Church, which Thou hast purchased by the
precious blood of Thy only-begotten Son, and our Lord and Saviour Jesus
Christ, with whom Thou art blessed and glorified, together with Thy
all-holy, and good, and quickening Spirit, now and ever, and to all
eternity. Amen.
The Deacon.
V. Let us again pray to the Lord.
The Priest, prayer of the incense at the entrance of the congregation.
God, who didst accept the gifts of Abel, the
sacrifice of Noah and of Abram, the incense of
538
Aaron and of Zacharias, accept also from the hand of us sinners this
incense for an odour of a sweet smell, and for remission of our sins,
and those of all Thy people; for blessed art Thou, and glory becomes
Thee, the Father, and the Son, and the Holy Spirit, now and ever.
The Deacon.
Sir, pronounce the blessing.(1)
The Priest prays.
Our Lord and God, Jesus Christ, who through
exceeding goodness and love not to be restrained wast crucified, and
didst not refuse to be pierced by the spear and nails; who didst
provide this mysterious and awful service as an everlasting memorial
for us perpetually: bless Thy ministry in Christ the God, and bless our
entrance, and fully complete the presentation of this our service by
Thy unutterable compassion, now and ever, and to all eternity. Amen.
The responsive prayer from the Deacon.
VI. The Lord bless us, and make us worthy
seraphically to offer gifts, and to sing the oft-sung hymn of the
divine Trisagion, by the fulness and exceeding abundance of all the
perfection of holiness, now and ever.
Then the Deacon begins to sing in the entrance.(2)
Thou who art the only-begotten Son and Word of God,
immortal; who didst submit for our salvation to become flesh of the
holy God-mother,(3) and ever-virgin Mary; who didst immutably become
man and wast crucified, O Christ our God and didst by Thy death tread
death under foot; who art one of the Holy Trinity glorified
together with the Father and the Holy Spirit, save us.
The Priest says this prayer from the gates to the
altar.
VII. God Almighty, Lord great in glory, who hast
given to us an entrance into the Holy of Holies, through the sojourning
among men of Thy only-begotten Son, our Lord, and God, and Saviour
Jesus Christ, we supplicate and invoke Thy goodness, since we are
fearful and trembling when about to stand at Thy holy altar; send forth
upon us, O God, Thy good grace, and sanctify our souls, and bodies, and
spirits, and turn our thoughts to piety, in order that with a pure
conscience we may bring unto Thee gifts, offerings, and fruits for the
remission of our transgressions, and for the propitiation of all Thy
people, by the grace and mercies and loving-kindness of Thy
only-begotten Son, with whom Thou art blessed to all eternity. Amen.
After the approach to the altar, the Priest says:
VIII. Peace be to all.
The People.
And to thy spirit.
The Priest.
The Lord bless us all, and sanctify us for the
entrance and celebration of the divine and pure mysteries, giving rest
to the blessed souls among the good and just, by His grace and
loving-kindness, now and ever, and to all eternity. Amen.
Then the Deacon says the bidding prayer.(4)
IX. In peace let us beseech the Lord.
For the peace that is from above, and for God's love
to man, and for the salvation of our souls, let us beseech the Lord.
For the peace of the whole world, for the unity of
all the holy churches of God, let us beseech the Lord.
For the remission of our sins, and forgiveness of
our transgressions, and for our deliverance from all tribulation,
wrath, danger, and distress, and from the uprising of our enemies, let
us beseech the Lord.
Then the Singers sing the Trisagion Hymn.
Holy God, holy mighty, holy immortal, have mercy
upon us.
Then the Priest prays, bowing.
X. O compassionate and merciful, long-suffering, and
very gracious and true God, look from Thy prepared dwelling-place, and
hear us Thy suppliants, and deliver us from every temptation of the
devil and of man; withhold not Thy aid from us, nor bring on us
chastisements too heavy for our strength: for we are unable to overcome
what is opposed to us; but Thou art able, Lord, to save us from
everything that is against us. Save us, O God, from the difficulties of
this world, according to Thy goodness, in order that, having drawn nigh
with a pure conscience to Thy holy altar, we may send up to Thee
without condemnation the blessed hymn Trisagion, together with the
heavenly powers, and that, having performed the service, well pleasing
to Thee and divine, we may be counted worthy of eternal life.
(Aloud.)
Because Thou art holy, Lord our God, and dwellest
and abidest in holy places, we send up the praise and the hymn
Trisagion to Thee, the Father, and the Son, and the Holy Spirit, now
and ever, and to all eternity.
539
The People.
Amen.
The Priest.
XI. Peace be to all.
The People.
And to thy spirit.
The Singers.
Alleluia.
Then there are read in order(1) the holy oracles of
the Old Testament, and of the prophets; and the incarnation of the Son
of God is set forth, and His sufferings and resurrection from the
dead, His ascension into heaven, and His second appearing with glory;
and this takes place daily in the holy and divine service.(2)
After the reading and instruction the Deacon says:-
XII. Let us all say, Lord, be merciful.(3)
Lord Almighty, the God of our fathers;
We beseech Thee, hear us.
For the peace which is from above, and for
the salvation of our souls;
Let us beseech the Lord.
For the peace of the whole world, and the
unity of all the holy churches of God;
Let us beseech the Lord.
For the salvation and help of all the Christ-loving people;
We beseech Thee, hear us.
For our deliverance from all tribulation, wrath, danger,
distress, from captivity, bitter death, and from our iniquities;
We beseech Thee, hear us.
For the people standing round, and waiting for the rich
and plenteous mercy that is from Thee;
We beseech Thee, be merciful and gracious.
Save Thy people, O Lord, and bless Thine inheritance.
Visit Thy world in mercy and compassion.
Exalt the horn of Christians by the power of the precious
and quickening cross.
We beseech Thee, most merciful Lord, hear us praying to
Thee, and have mercy upon us.
The People (thrice).
Lord, have mercy upon us.
The Deacon.
XIII. For the remission of our sins, and forgiveness
of our transgressions, and for our deliverance from all tribulation,
wrath, danger, and distress, let us beseech the Lord.
Let us all entreat from the Lord, that we may pass
the whole day, perfect, holy, peaceful, and without sin.
Let us entreat from the Lord a messenger of peace, a
faithful guide, a guardian of our souls and bodies.
Let us entreat from the Lord forgiveness and
remission of our sins and transgressions.
Let us entreat from the Lord the things which are
good and proper for our souls, and peace for the world.
Let us entreat from the Lord, that we may spend the
remaining period of our life in peace and health.
Let us entreat that the close of our lives may be
Christian, without pain and without shame, and a good plea at the dread
and awful judg-ment-seat of Christ.
The Priest.
XIV. For Thou art the gospel and the light, Saviour
and keeper of our souls and bodies, God, and Thy only-begotten Son, and
Thy all-holy Spirit, now and ever.
The People.
Amen.(4)
The Priest.
God, who hast taught us Thy divine and saving
oracles, enlighten the souls of us sinners for the comprehension of the
things which have been before spoken, so that we may not only be seen
to be hearers of spiritual things, but also doers of good deeds,
striving after guileless faith, blameless life, and pure conversation.
(Aloud.)
In Christ Jesus our Lord, with whom Thou art
blessed, together with Thy all-holy, good, and quickening Spirit, now
and always, and for ever.
The People.
Amen.
The Priest.
XV. Peace be to all.
540
The People.
And to Thy spirit.
The Deacon.
Let us bow our heads to the Lord.
The People.
To Thee, Lord.
The Priest prays, saying:--
O Sovereign giver of life, and provider of good
things, who didst give to mankind the blessed hope of eternal life, our
Lord Jesus Christ, count us worthy in holiness, and perfect this Thy
divine service to the enjoyment of future blessedness.
(Aloud.)
So that, guarded by Thy power at all times, and led
into the light of truth, we may send up the praise and the thanksgiving
to Thee, the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit, now and ever.
The People.
Amen.
The Deacon.
XVI. Let none remain of the catechumens, none of the
unbaptized, none of those who are unable to join with us in prayer.
Look at one another.(1) The door.
All erect:(2) let us again pray to the Lord.
II.(3)
The Priest says the prayer of incense.
Sovereign Almighty, King of Glory, who knowest all
things before their creation, manifest Thyself to us calling upon Thee
at this holy hour, and redeem us from the shame of our transgressions;
cleanse our mind and our thoughts from impure desires, from worldly
deceit, from all influence of the devil; and accept from the bands of
us sinners this incense, as Thou didst accept the offering of Abel, and
Noah, and Aaron, and Samuel, and of all Thy saints, guarding us from
everything evil, and preserving us for continually pleasing, and
worshipping, and glorifying Thee, the Father, and Thy only-begotten
Son, and Thy all-holy Spirit, now and always, and for ever.
And the Readers begin the Cherubic Hymn.
Let all mortal flesh be silent, and stand with fear
and trembling, and meditate nothing earthly within itself:--
For the King of kings and Lord of lords, Christ our
God, comes forward to be sacrificed, and to be given for food to the
faithful; and the bands of angels go before Him with every power and
dominion, the many-eyed cherubim, and the six-winged seraphim, covering
their faces, and crying aloud the hymn, Alleluia, Alleluia, Alleluia.
The Priest, bringing in the holy gifts,(4) says lids
prayer:--
XVII. O God, our God, who didst send forth the
heavenly bread, the food of the whole world, our Lord Jesus Christ, to
be a Saviour, and Redeemer, and Benefactor, blessing and sanctifying
us, do Thou Thyself bless this offering, and graciously receive it to
Thy altar above the skies:
Remember in Thy goodness and love those who have
brought it, and those for whom they have brought it, and preserve us
without condemnation in the service of Thy divine mysteries: for
hollowed and glorified is Thy all-honoured and great name, Father, and
Son, and Holy Spirit, now and ever, and to all eternity.
The Priest.
Peace be to all.
The Deacon.
Sir, pronounce the blessing.
The Priest.
Blessed be God, who blesseth and sanctifieth us all
at the presentation of the divine and pure mysteries, and giveth rest
to the blessed souls among the holy and just, now and always, and
to all eternity.
The Deacon.
XVIII. Let us attend in wisdom.
The Priest begins.
I believe in one God, Father Almighty, Maker of
heaven and earth, and in one Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God: and the
rest of the Creed.
Then he prays, bowing his neck.
XIX. God and Sovereign of all, make us, who are
unworthy, worthy of this hour, lover of mankind; that being pure from
all deceit and all hypocrisy, we may be united with one another by the
bond of peace and love, being confirmed by the sanctification of Thy
divine knowledge through Thine only-begotten Son, our Lord and Saviour
Jesus Christ, with whom Thou art blessed, together with Thy all-holy,
and good, and quickening Spirit, now and ever, and to all eternity.
Amen.
541
The Deacon.
XX. Let us stand well, let us stand reverently, let
us stand in the fear of God, and with compunction of heart. In peace
let us pray to the Lord.
The Priest.
For God of peace, mercy, love, compassion, and
loving-kindness art Thou, and Thine only-begotten Son, and Thine
all-holy Spirit, now and ever.
The People.
Amen.
The Priest.
Peace be to all.
The People.
And to thy spirit.
The Deacon.
Let us salute one another with an holy kiss.(1) Let
us bow our heads to the Lord.
The Priest bows, saying this prayer:--
XXI. Only Lord and merciful God, on those who are
bowing their necks before Thy holy altar, and seeking the spiritual
gifts that come from Thee, send forth Thy good grace; and bless us all
with every spiritual blessing, that cannot be taken from us, Thou, who
dwellest on high, and hast regard unto things that are lowly.
(Aloud.)
For worthy of praise and worship and most glorious
is Thy all-holy name, Father and Son and Holy Spirit, now and always,
and to all eternity.
The Deacon.
Sir, pronounce the blessing.
The Priest.
The Lord will bless us, and minister with us all by
His grace and loving-kindness.
And again.
The Lord will bless us, and make us worthy to stand
at His holy altar, at all times, now and always, and for ever.
And again.
Blessed be God, who blesseth and sanctifieth us all
in our attendance upon, and service of, His pure mysteries, now and
always, and for ever.
The Deacon makes the Universal Litany.
XXII. In peace let us pray to the Lord.
The People.
O Lord, have mercy.
The Deacon.
Save us, have mercy upon us, pity and keep us, O
God, by Thy grace.
For the peace that is from above, and the
loving-kindness of God, and the salvation of our souls;
Let us beseech the Lord.
For the peace of the whole world, and the unity of
all the holy churches of God;
Let us beseech the Lord.
For those who bear fruit, and labour honourably in
the holy churches of God; for those who remember the poor, the widows
and the orphans, the strangers and needy ones; and for those who have
requested us to mention them in our prayers;
Let us beseech the Lord.
For those who are in old age and infirmity, for the
sick and suffering, and those who are troubled by unclean spirits, for
their speedy cure from God and their salvation;
Let us beseech the Lord.
For those who are passing their days in virginity,
and celibacy, and discipline, and for those in holy matrimony; and for
the holy fathers and brethren agonizing in mountains,(2) and dens, and
caves of the earth;
Let us beseech the Lord.
For Christians sailing, travelling, living among
strangers, and for our brethren in captivity, in exile, in prison, and
in bitter slavery, their peaceful return;
Let us beseech the Lord.
For the remission of our sins, and forgiveness of
our transgressions, and for our deliverance from all tribulation,
wrath, danger, and constraint, and uprising against us of enemies;
Let us beseech the Lord.
For favourable weather, peaceful showers, beneficent
dews, abundance of fruits, the perfect close of a good season, and for
the crown of the year;
Let us beseech the Lord.
For our fathers and brethren present, and praying
with us in this holy hour, and at every season, their zeal, labour, and
earnestness;
Let us beseech the Lord.
542
For every Christian soul in tribulation and
distress, and needing the mercy and succour of God; for the return of
the erring, the health of the sick, the deliverance of the captives,
the rest of the fathers and brethren that have fallen asleep aforetime;
Let us beseech the Lord.
For the hearing and acceptance of our prayer before
God, and the sending down on us His rich mercies and compassion.
Let us beseech the Lord.(1)
And for the offered, precious, heavenly,
unutterable, pure, glorious, dread, awful, divine gifts, and the
salvation of the priest who stands by and offers them;
Let us offer supplication to God the Lord.
The People.
O Lord, have mercy.
(Thrice.)
Then the Priest makes the sign of the cross on the gifts,(2) and,
standing, speaks separately thus:--
XXIII. Glory to God in the highest, and on earth
peace, good-will among men, etc.
(Thrice.)
Lord, Thou wilt open my lips, and my mouth shall
show forth Thy praise.
(Thrice.)
Let my mouth be filled with Thy praise, O Lord, that
I may tell of Thy glory, of Thy majesty, all the day.
(Thrice.)
Of the Father. Amen. And of the Son. Amen. And of
the Holy Spirit. Amen. Now and always, and to all eternity. Amen.
And bowing to this side and to that,(3) he says:--
XXIV. Magnify the Lord with me, and let us exalt His
name together.
And they answer, bowing:--
The Holy Ghost shall come upon thee, and the power
of the Highest shall overshadow thee.(4)
Then the Priest, at great length:--
O Sovereign Lord, who hast visited us in compassion
and mercies, and bast freely given to us, Thy humble and sinful and
unworthy servants, boldness to stand at Thy holy altar, and to offer to
Thee this dread and bloodless sacrifice for our sins, and for the
errors of the people, look upon me Thy unprofitable servant, and blot
out my transgressions for Thy compassion's sake; and purify my lips and
heart from all pollution of flesh and spirit; and remove from me every
shameful and foolish thought, and fit me by the power of Thy all-holy
Spirit for this service; and receive me graciously by Thy goodness as I
draw nigh to Thy altar.
And be pleased, O Lord, that these gifts brought by
our hands may be acceptable, stooping to my weakness; and cast me not
away from Thy presence, and abhor not my unworthiness; but pity me
according to Thy great mercy, and according to the multitude of Thy
mercies pass by my transgressions, that, having come before Thy glory
without condemnation, I may be counted worthy of the protection of Thy
only-begotten Son, and of the illumination of Thy all-holy Spirit, that
I may not be as a slave of sin cast out, but as Thy servant may find
grace and mercy and forgiveness of sins before Thee, both in the world
that now is and in that which is to come.
I beseech Thee, Almighty Sovereign, all-powerful
Lord, hear my prayer; for Thou art He who workest all in all, and we
all seek in all things the help and succour that come from Thee and Thy
only-begotten Son, and the good and quickening and consubstantial
Spirit, now and ever.
XXV. O God, who through Thy great and unspeakable
love didst send forth Thy only-begot-ten Son into the world, in order
that He might turn back the lost sheep, turn not away us sinners,
laying hold of Thee by this dread and bloodless sacrifice; for we trust
not in our own righteousness, but in Thy good mercy, by which Thou
purchasest our race.
We entreat and beseech Thy goodness that it may not
be for condemnation to Thy people that this mystery for salvation has
been administered by us, but for remission of sins, for renewal of
souls and bodies, for the well-pleasing of Thee, God and Father, in the
mercy and love of Thy only-begotten Son, with whom Thou art blessed,
together with Thy all-holy and good and quickening Spirit, now and
always, and for ever.(5)
XXVI. O Lord God, who didst create us, and bring us
into life, who hast shown to us ways to salvation, who hast granted to
us a revelation of heavenly mysteries, and hast appointed us to this
ministry in the power of Thy all-holy Spirit, grant, O Sovereign, that
we may become servants of Thy new testament, ministers of Thy pure
543
mysteries, and receive us as we draw near to Thy holy altar, according
to the greatness of Thy mercy, that we may become worthy of offering to
Thee girls and sacrifices for our transgressions and for those of the
people; and grant to us, O Lord, with all fear and a pure conscience to
offer to Thee this spiritual and bloodless sacrifice, and graciously
receiving it unto Thy holy and spiritual altar above the skies for an
odour of a sweet spiritual smell, send down in answer on us the grace
of Thy all-holy Spirit.
And, O God, look upon us, and have regard to this
our reasonable service, and accept it, as Thou didst accept the gifts
of Abel, the sacrifices of Noah, the priestly offices of Moses and
Aaron, the peace-offerings of Samuel, the repentance of David, the
incense of Zacharias. As Thou didst accept from the hand of Thy
apostles this true service, so accept also in Thy goodness from the
hands of us sinners these offered gifts; and grant that our offering
may be acceptable, sanctified by the Holy Spirit, as a propitiation(1)
for our transgressions and the errors of the people; and for the rest
of the souls(2) that have fallen asleep aforetime; that we also, Thy
humble, sinful, and unworthy servants, being counted worthy without
guile to serve Thy holy altar, may receive the reward of faithful and
wise stewards, and may find grace and mercy in the terrible day of Thy
just and good retribution.
Prayer of the veil.(3)
XXVII. We thank Thee, O Lord our God, that Thou hast
given us boldness for the entrance of Thy holy places, which Thou hast
renewed to us as a new and living way through the veil of the flesh(4)
of Thy Christ. We therefore, being counted worthy to enter into the
place of the tabernacle of Thy glory, and to be within the veil, and to
behold the Holy of Holies, cast ourselves down before Thy goodness:
Lord, have mercy on us: since we are full of fear
and trembling, when about to stand at Thy holy altar, and to offer this
dread and bloodless sacrifice for our own sins and for the errors of
the people:(5) send forth, O God, Thy good grace, and sanctify our
souls, and bodies, and spirits; and turn our thoughts to holiness, that
with a pure conscience we may bring to Thee a peace-offering, the
sacrifice of praise:
(Aloud.)
By the mercy and loving-kindness of Thy
only-begotten Son, with whom Thou art blessed, together with Thy
all-holy, and good, and quickening Spirit, now and always:
The People.
Amen.
The Priest.
Peace be to all.
The Deacon.
Let us stand reverently, let us stand in the fear of
God, and with contrition: let us attend to the holy communion service,
to offer peace to God.
The People.
The offering of peace, the sacrifice of praise.
The Priest. [A veil is now withdrawn from the oblation of bread and
wine.]
And, uncovering the veils that darkly invest in
symbol(6) this sacred ceremonial, do Thou reveal it clearly to us: fill
our intellectual vision with absolute light, and having purified our
poverty from every pollution of flesh and spirit, make it worthy of
this dread and awful approach: for Thou art an all-merciful and
gracious God, and we send up the praise and the. thanksgiving to Thee,
Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, now, and always, and for ever.
III.
THE ANAPHORA.
Then he says aloud:--
XXVIII. The love of the Lord and Father, the grace
of the Lord and Son, and the fellowship and the gift of the Holy
Spirit, be with us all.
The People.
And with thy spirit.
The Priest.
Let us lift up our minds and our hearts.(7)
The People.
It is becoming and right.
Then the Priest prays.
Verily it is becoming and right, proper and due to
praise Thee, to sing of Thee, to bless Thee, to worship Thee, to
glorify Thee, to give Thee thanks, Maker of every creature visible and
invisible, the treasure of eternal good things, the fountain of life
and immortality, God and Lord of all:
Whom the heavens of heavens praise, and all the host
of them; the sun, and the moon, and all the choir of the stars; earth,
sea, and all that is in them; Jerusalem, the heavenly assembly,
544
and church of the first-born that are written in heaven; spirits of
just men and of prophets; souls of martyrs and of apostles; angels,
archangels, thrones, dominions, principalities, and authorities, and
dread powers; and the many-eyed cherubim, and the six-winged seraphim,
which cover their faces with two wings, their feet with two, and with
two they fly, crying one to another with unresting lips, with unceasing
praises:
(Aloud.)
With loud voice singing the victorious hymn of Thy
majestic glory, crying aloud, praising, shouting, and saying:--
The People.
Holy, holy, holy, O Lord of Sabaoth, the heaven and
the earth are full of Thy glory. Hosanna in the highest; blessed is He
that cometh in the name of the Lord. Hosanna in the highest.(1)
The Priest, making the sign of the cross(2) on the
gifts, says:--
XXIX. Holy art Thou, King of eternity, and Lord and
giver of all holiness; holy also Thy only-begotten Son, our Lord Jesus
Christ, by whom Thou hast made all things; holy also Thy Holy Spirit,
which searches all things, even Thy deep things, O God: holy art Thou,
almighty, all-powerful, good, dread, merciful, most compassionate to
Thy creatures; who didst make man from earth after Thine own image and
likeness; who didst give him the joy of paradise; and when he
transgressed Thy commandment,
and fell away, didst not disregard nor desert him, O Good One, but
didst chasten him as at merciful father, call him by the law, instruct
him by the prophets; and afterwards didst send forth Thine
only-begotten Son Himself, our Lord Jesus Christ, into the world, that
He by His coming might renew and restore Thy image;
Who, having descended from heaven, and become flesh
of the Holy Spirit and Virgin Godmother(3) Mary, and having sojourned
among men, fulfilled the dispensation for the salvation of our race;
and being about to endure His voluntary and life-giving death by the
cross, He the sinless for us the sinners, in the night in which He was
betrayed, nay, rather delivered Himself up for the life and salvation
of the world,
Then the Priest holds the bread in his hand, and
says:--
XXX. Having taken the bread in His holy and pure and
blameless and immortal hands, lifting up His eyes to heaven, and
showing it to Thee, His God and Father, He gave thanks, and hallowed,
and brake, and gave it to us,(4) His disciples and apostles, saying:--
The Deacons say:(5)--
For the remission of sins and life everlasting.
Then he says aloud:--
Take, eat: this is my body, broken for you, and
given for remission of sins.
The People.
Amen.
Then he takes the cup, and says:--
In like manner, after supper, He took the cup, and
having mixed wine and water, lifting up His eyes to heaven, and
presenting it to Thee, His God and Father, He gave thanks, and hollowed
and blessed it, and filled it with the Holy Spirit, and gave it to us
His disciples, saying, Drink ye all of it; this is my blood of the new
testament shed for you and many, and distributed for the remission of
sins.
The People.
Amen.
The Priest.
This do in remembrance of me; for as often as ye eat
this bread, and drink this cup, ye do show forth the Lord's death, and
confess His resurrection, till He come.
The Deacons say:--
We believe and confess:
The People.
We show forth Thy death, O Lord, and confess Thy
resurrection.
The Priest (Oblation).
XXXI. Remembering, therefore, His life-giving
sufferings, His saving cross, His death and His burial, and
resurrection from the dead on the third day, and His ascension into
heaven, and sitting at the right hand of Thee, our God and Father, and
His second glorious and awful appearing, when He shall come with glory
to judge the quick and the dead, and render to every one according to
His works; even we, sinful men, offer unto Thee, O Lord, this dread and
bloodless sacrifice, praying that Thou wilt not deal with us after our
sins, nor reward us according to our iniquities;
But that Thou, according to Thy mercy and
545
Thy unspeakable loving-kindness, passing by and blotting out the
handwriting against us Thy suppliants, wilt grant to us Thy heavenly
and eternal gifts (which eye hath not seen, and ear hath not heard, and
which have not entered into the heart of man(1)) that thou hast
prepared, O God, for those who love Thee; and reject not, O loving
Lord, the people for my sake, or for my sin's sake:
Then he says, thrice:--
For Thy people and Thy Church supplicate Thee.
The People.
Have mercy on us, O Lord our God, Father Almighty.
Again the Priest says (Invocation):--
XXXII. Have mercy upon us, O God Almighty. Have
mercy upon us, O God our Saviour. Have mercy upon us, O God, according
to Thy great mercy, and send forth on us, and on these offered gifts,
Thy all-holy Spirit.
Then, bowing his neck, he says:--
The sovereign and quickening Spirit, that sits upon
the throne with Thee, our God and Father, and with Thy only-begotten
Son, reigning with Thee; the consubstantial(2) and co-eternal; that
spoke in the law and in the prophets, and in Thy New Testament; that
descended in the form of a dove on our Lord Jesus Christ at the river
Jordan, and abode on Him; that descended on Thy apostles in the form of
tongues of fire in the upper room of the holy and glorious Zion on the
day of Pentecost: this Thine all-holy Spirit, send down, O Lord, upon
us, and upon these offered holy gifts;
And rising up, he says aloud:--
That coming, by His holy and good and glorious
appearing, He may sanctify this bread, and make it the holy body of Thy
Christ.(3)
The People.
Amen.
The Priest.
And this cup the precious blood of Thy Christ.
The People.
Amen.
The Priest by himself standing.
XXXIII. That they may be to all that partake of them
for remission of sins, and for life everlasting, for the sanctification
of souls and of bodies, for bearing the fruit of good works, for the
stablishing of Thy Holy Catholic Church, which Thou hast founded on the
Rock of Faith,(4) that the gates of hell may not prevail against it;
delivering it from all heresy and scandals, and from those who work
iniquity, keeping it till the fulness of the time.
And having bowed, he says:--
XXXIV. We present them to Thee also, O Lord, for the
holy places, which Thou hast glorified by the divine appearing of Thy
Christ, and by the visitation of Thy all-holy Spirit; especially for
the glorious Zion, the mother of all the churches;(5) and for Thy Holy,
Catholic, and Apostolic Church throughout the world: even now, O Lord,
bestow upon her the rich gifts of Thy all-holy Spirit.
Remember also, O Lord, our holy fathers and brethren
in it, and the bishops in all the world, who rightly divide the word of
Thy truth.
Remember also, O Lord, every city and country, and
those of the true faith dwelling in them, their peace and security.
Remember, O Lord, Christians sailing, travelling,
sojourning in strange lands; our fathers and brethren, who are in
bonds, prison, captivity, and exile; who are in mines, and under
torture, and in bitter slavery.
Remember, O Lord, the sick and afflicted, and those
troubled by unclean spirits, their speedy healing from Thee, O God, and
their salvation.
Remember, O Lord, every Christian soul in affliction
and distress, needing Thy mercy and succour, O God; and the return of
the erring.
Remember, O Lord, our fathers and brethren, toiling
hard, and ministering unto us, for Thy holy name's sake.
Remember all, O Lord, for good: have mercy on all, O
Lord, be reconciled to us all: give peace to the multitudes of Thy
people: put away scandals: bring wars to an end: make the uprising of
heresies to cease: grant Thy peace and Thy love to us, O God our
Saviour, the hope of all the ends of the earth.
Remember, O Lord, favourable weather, peaceful
showers, beneficent dews, abundance of fruits, and to crown the year
with Thy goodness; for the eyes of all wait on Thee, and Thou givest
their food in due season: thou openest Thy hand, and fillest every
living thing with gladness.
Remember, O Lord, those who bear fruit, and labour
honourably in the holy(6) of Thy Church;
546
and those who forget not the poor, the widows, the orphans, the
strangers, and the needy; and all who have desired us to remember them
in
our prayers.
Moreover, O Lord, be pleased to remember those who
have brought these offerings this day to Thy holy altar, and for what
each one has brought them or with what mind, and those persons who have
just now been mentioned to Thee.
Remember, O Lord, according to the multitude of Thy
mercy and compassion, me also, Thy humble and unprofitable servant; and
the deacons who surround Thy holy altar, and graciously give them a
blameless life, keep their ministry undefiled, and purchase for them a
good degree, that we may find mercy and grace, with all the saints that
have been well pleasing to Thee since the world began, to generation
and generation--grandsires, sires, patriarchs, prophets, apostles,
martyrs, confessors, teachers, saints, and every just spirit made
perfect in the faith of Thy Christ.
XXXV.(1) Hail, Mary, highly favoured: the Lord is
with Thee; blessed art thou among women, and blessed the fruit of thy
womb, for thou didst bear the Saviour of our souls.(2)
The Deacons.
XXXVI. Remember us, O Lord God.
The Priest, bowing, says:--
Remember, O Lord God, the spirits and all flesh, of
whom we have made mention, and of whom we have not made mention, who
are of the true faith, from righteous Abel unto this day: unto them do
Thou give rest there in the land of the living, in Thy kingdom, in the
joy of paradise, in the bosom of Abraham, and of Isaac, and of Jacob,
our holy fathers; whence pain, and grief, and lamentation have fled:
there the light of Thy countenance looks upon them, and enlightens them
for ever.(3)
Make the end of our lives Christian, acceptable,
blameless, and peaceful, O Lord, gathering us together, O Lord, under
the feet of Thine elect, when Thou wilt, and as Thou wilt; only without
shame and transgressions, through Thy only-begotten Son, our Lord and
God and Saviour Jesus Christ: for He is the only sinless one who hath
appeared on the earth.
The Deacon.
And let us pray:--
For the peace and establishing of the whole world,
and of the holy churches of God, and for the purposes for which each
one made his offering, or according to the desire he has: and for the
people standing round, and for all men, and all women:
The People.
And for all men and all women. (Amen.)
The Priest says aloud:--
Wherefore, both to them and to us, do Thou in Thy
goodness and love:
The People.
Forgive, remit, pardon, O God, our transgressions,
voluntary and involuntary: in deed and in word: in knowledge and in
ignorance: by night and by day: in thought and intent: in Thy goodness
and love, forgive us them all.
The Priest.
Through the grace and compassion and love of Thy
only-begotten Son, with whom Thou art blessed and glorified, together
with the all-holy, and good, and quickening Spirit, now and ever, and
to all eternity.
The People.
Amen.
The Priest.
XXXVII. Peace be to all:
The People.
And to thy spirit.
The Deacon.
Again, and continually, in peace let us pray to the
Lord.
For the gifts to the Lord God presented and
sanctified, precious, heavenly, unspeakable, pure, glorious, dread,
awful, divine;
Let us pray.
That the Lord our God, having graciously received
them to His altar that is holy and above the heavens, rational and
spiritual, for the odour of a sweet spiritual savour, may send down in
answer upon us the divine grace and the gift of the all-holy Spirit;
Let us pray.
547
Having prayed for the unity of the faith, and the
communion of His all-holy and adorable Spirit;
Let us commend ourselves and one another, and our
whole life, to Christ our God:
The People.
Amen.
The Priest prays.
XXXVIII. God and Father of our Lord and God and
Saviour Jesus Christ, the glorious Lord, the blessed essence, the
bounteous goodness, the God and Sovereign of all, who art blessed to
all eternity, who sittest upon the cherubim, and art glorified by the
seraphim, before whom stand thousand thousands and ten thousand times
ten thousand hosts of angels and archangels: Thou hast accepted the
gifts, offerings, and fruits brought unto Thee as an odour of a sweet
spiritual smell, and hast been pleased to sanctify them, and make them
perfect, O good One, by the grace of Thy Christ, and by the presence of
Thy all-holy Spirit.
Sanctify also, O Lord, our souls, and bodies, and
spirits, and touch our understandings, and search our consciences, and
cast out from us every evil imagination, every impure feeling, every
base desire, every unbecoming thought, all envy, and vanity, and
hypocrisy, all lying, all deceit, every worldly affection, all
covetousness, all vainglory, all indifference, all vice, all passion,
all anger, all malice, all blasphemy, every motion of the flesh and
spirit that is not in accordance with Thy holy will:
(Aloud.)
And count us worthy, O loving Lord, with boldness,
without condemnation, in a pure heart, with a contrite spirit, with
unshamed face, with sanctified lips, to dare to call upon Thee, the
holy God, Father in heaven, and to say,
The People.
Our Father, which art in heaven: hollowed be Thy
name; and so on to the doxology.
The Priest, bowing, says (the Embolism(1)):--
And lead us not into temptation, Lord, Lord of
Hosts, who knowest our frailty, but deliver us from the evil one and
his works, and from all his malice and craftiness, for the sake of Thy
holy name, which has been placed upon our humility:
(Aloud.)
For Thine is the kingdom, the power, and the glory,
Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, now and for ever.
The People.
Amen.
The Priest.
XXXIX. Peace be to all.
The People.
And to thy spirit.
The Deacon.
Let us bow our heads to the Lord.
The People.
To Thee, O Lord.
The Priest prays, speaking thus:--
To Thee, O Lord, we Thy servants have bowed our
heads before Thy holy altar, waiting for the rich mercies that are from
Thee.
Send forth upon us, O Lord, Thy plenteous grace and
Thy blessing; and sanctify our souls, bodies, and spirits, that we may
become worthy communicants and partakers of Thy holy mysteries, to the
forgiveness of sins and life everlasting:
(Aloud.)
For adorable and glorified art Thou, our God, and
Thy only-begotten Son, and Thy all-holy Spirit, now and ever.
The People.
Amen.
The Priest says aloud:--
And the grace and the mercies of the holy and
consubstantial, and uncreated, and adorable Trinity, shall be with us
all.(2)
The People.
And with thy spirit.
The Deacon.
In the fear of God, let us attend.
The Priest says secretly:(3)--
O holy Lord, that abidest in holy places, sanctify
us by the word of Thy grace, and by the visitation of Thy all-holy
Spirit: for Thou, O Lord, hast said, Ye will be holy, for I am holy. O
Lord our God, incomprehensible Word of God, one in substance with the
Father and the Holy Spirit, co-eternal and indivisible, accept the pure
hymn, in Thy holy and bloodless sacrifices; with the cherubim, and
seraphim, and from me, a sinful man, crying and saying:--
He takes up the gifts and saith aloud:--
XL. The holy things unto holy.
548
The People.
One only is holy, one Lord Jesus Christ, to the
glory of God the Father, to whom be glory to all eternity.
The Deacon.
XLI. For the remission of our sins, and the
propitiation of our souls, and for every soul in tribulation and
distress, needing the mercy and succour of God, and for the return of
the erring, the healing of the sick, the deliverance of the captives,
the rest of our fathers and brethren who have fallen asleep aforetime;
Let us all say fervently, Lord, have mercy:
The People (twelve times).
Lord, have mercy.(1)
Then the Priest breaks the bread, and holds the half in his right hand,
and the half in his left, and dips that in his right hand in the
chalice, saying:--
The union of the all-holy body and precious blood of
our Lord and God and Saviour, Jesus Christ.
Then he makes the sign of the cross on that in his left hand: then with
that which has been signed the other half: then forthwith he begins to
divide, and before all to give to each chalice a single piece, saying:--
It has been made one, and sanctified, and perfected,
in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit, now
and ever.
And when he makes the sign of the cross on the bread, he says:--
Behold the Lamb of God, the Son of the Father, that
taketh away the sin of the world, sacrificed for the life and salvation
of the world.
And when he gives a single piece to each chalice he says:--
A holy portion of Christ, full of grace and truth,
of the Father, and of the Holy Spirit, to whom be the glory and the
power to all eternity.
Then he begins to divide, and to say:--
XLII. The Lord is my Shepherd, I shall not want. In
green pastures, and so on.(2)
Then,
I will bless the Lord at all times, and so an.(3)
Then,
I will extol Thee, my God, O King, and so on.(4)
Then,
O praise the Lord, all ye nations, and so on.(5)
The Deacon.
Sir, pronounce the blessing.
The Priest.
The Lord will bless us, and keep us without
condemnation for the communion of His pure gifts, now and always, and
for ever.
And when they have filled,(6) the Deacon says:--
Sir, pronounce the blessing.
The Priest says:--
The Lord will bless us, and make us worthy with the
pure touchings of our fingers to take the live coal, and place it upon
the mouths of the faithful for the purification and renewal of their
souls and bodies, now and always.
Then,
O taste and see that the Lord is good; who is parted
and not divided; distributed to the faithful and not expended; for the
remission of sins, and the life everlasting; now and always, and for
ever.
The Deacon.
In the peace of Christ, let us sing:
The Singers.
O taste and see that the Lord is good.
The Priest says the prayer before the communion.
O Lord our God, the heavenly bread, the life of the
universe, I have sinned against Heaven, and before Thee, and am not
worthy to partake of Thy pure mysteries; but as a merciful God, make me
worthy by Thy grace, without condemnation to partake of Thy holy body
and precious blood, for the remission of sins, and life everlasting.(7)
XLIII. Then he distributes to the clergy; and when
the deacons take the disks(8) and the chalices for distribution to the
people, the Deacon, who takes the first disk, says:--
Sir, pronounce the blessing.
The Priest replies:--
Glory to God who has sanctified and is sanctifying
us all.
The Deacon says:--
Be Thou exalted, O God, over the heavens, and Thy
glory over all the earth, and Thy kingdom endureth to all eternity.(9)
549
And when the Deacon is about to put it on the side-table(1) the Priest
says:--
Blessed be the name of the Lord our God for ever.
The Deacon.
In the fear of God, and in faith and love, draw nigh.
The People.
Blessed is He that cometh in the name of the Lord.(2)
And again, when he sets down the disk upon the side-table, he says:--
Sir, pronounce the blessing.
The Priest.
Save Thy people, O God, and bless Thine inheritance.
The Priest again.(3)
Glory to our God, who has sanctified us all.
And when he has put the chalice back an the holy table, the Priest
says:--
Blessed be the name of the Lord to all eternity.
The Deacons and the People say:--
Fill our mouths with Thy praise, O Lord, and fill
our lips with joy, that we may sing of Thy glory, of Thy greatness all
the day.
And again:--
We render thanks to Thee, Christ our God, that Thou
hast made us worthy to partake of Thy body and blood, for the remission
of sins, and for life everlasting. Do Thou, in Thy goodness and love,
keep us, we pray Thee, without condemnation.
The prayer of incense at the last entrance.
XLIV. We render thanks to Thee, the Saviour and God
of all, for all the good things Thou hast given us, and for the
participation of Thy holy and pure mysteries, and we offer to Thee this
incense, praying: Keep us under the shadow of Thy wings, and count us
worthy till our last breath to partake of Thy holy rites for the
sanctification of our souls and bodies, for the inheritance of the
kingdom of heaven: for Thou, O God, art our sanctification, and we send
up praise and thanksgiving to Thee, Father, Son, and Holy Spirit.
The Deacon begins in the entrance.
Glory to Thee, glory to Thee, glory to Thee, O
Christ the King, only-begotten Word of the Father, that Thou hast
counted us, Thy sinful and unworthy servants, worthy to enjoy thy pure
mysteries for the remission of sins, and for life everlasting: glory to
Thee.(4)
And when he has made the entrance, the Deacon begins to speak thus:--
XLV. Again and again, and at all times, in peace,
let us beseech the Lord.
That the participation of His Holy rites may be to
us for the turning away from every wicked thing, for our support on the
journey to life everlasting, for the communion and gift of the Holy
Spirit;
Let us pray.
The Priest prays.
Commemorating our all-holy, pure, most glorious,
blessed Lady, the God-Mother and Ever-Virgin Mary,(5) and all the
saints that have been well-pleasing to Thee since the world began, let
us devote ourselves, and one another, and our whole life, to Christ our
God:
The People.
To Thee, O Lord.
The Priest.
XLVI. O God, who through Thy great and unspeakable
love didst condescend to the weakness of Thy servants, and hast counted
us worthy to partake of this heavenly table, condemn not us sinners for
the participation of Thy pure mysteries; but keep us, O good One, in
the sanctification of Thy Holy Spirit, that being made holy, we may
find part and inheritance with all Thy saints that have been
well-pleasing to Thee since the world began, in the light of Thy
countenance, through the mercy of Thy only-begotten Son, our Lord and
God and Saviour Jesus Christ, with whom Thou art blessed, together with
Thy all-holy, and good, and quickening Spirit: for blessed and
glorified is Thy all-precious and glorious name, Father, Son, and Holy
Spirit, now and ever, and to all eternity.
The People.
Amen.
The Priest.
Peace be to all.
The People.
And to thy spirit.
The Deacon.
XLVII. Let us bow our heads to the Lord.
The Priest.
O God, great and marvellous, look upon Thy servants,
for we have bowed our heads to Thee. Stretch forth Thy hand, strong and
full of bless-
550
ings, and bless Thy people. Keep Thine inheritance, that always and at
all times we may glorify Thee, our only living and true God, the holy
and consubstantial(1) Trinity, Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, now and
ever, and to all eternity.
(Aloud.)
For unto Thee is becoming and is due praise from us
all, and honour, and adoration, and thanksgiving, Father, Son, and Holy
Spirit, now and ever.
The Deacon.
XLVIII. In the peace of Christ let us sing:
And again he says:--
In the peace of Christ let us go on:
The People.
In the name of the Lord. Sir, pronounce the
blessing.(2)
Dismission prayer, spoken by the Deacon.
Going on from glory to glory, we praise Thee,
the Saviour of our souls. Glory to Father, and Son, and Holy Spirit now
and ever, and to all eternity. We praise Thee, the Saviour of our souls.
The Priest says a prayer from the altar to the
sacristy.
XLIX. Going on from strength to strength, and having
fulfilled all the divine service in Thy temple, even now we beseech
Thee, O Lord our God, make us worthy of perfect loving-kindness; make
straight our path: root us in Thy fear, and make us worthy of the
heavenly kingdom, in Christ Jesus our Lord, with whom Thou art blessed,
together with Thy all-holy, and good, and quickening Spirit, now and
always, and for ever.
The Deacon.
L. Again and again, and at all times, in peace let
us beseech the Lord.
Prayer said in the sacristy after the dismissal.
Thou hast given unto us, O Lord, sanctification in
the communion of the all-holy body and precious blood of Thy
only-begotten Son, our Lord Jesus Christ; give unto us also the grace
of Thy good Spirit, and keep us blameless in the faith, lead us unto
perfect adoption and redemption, and to the coming joys of eternity;
for Thou art our sanctification and light, O God, and Thy only-begotten
Son, and Thy all-holy Spirit, now and ever, and to all eternity. Amen.
The Deacon.
In the peace of Christ let us keep watch.
The Priest.
Blessed is God, who blesseth and sanctifieth through
the communion of the holy, and quickening, and pure mysteries, now and
ever, and to all eternity. Amen.
Then the prayer of propitiation.
O Lord Jesus Christ, Son of the living God, Lamb and
Shepherd, who takest away the sin of the world, who didst freely
forgive their debt to the two debtors, and gavest remission of her sins
to the woman that was a sinner, who gavest healing to the paralytic,
with the remission of his sins; forgive, remit, pardon, O God, our
offences, voluntary and involuntary, in knowledge and in ignorance, by
transgression and by disobedience, which Thy all-holy Spirit knows
better than Thy servants do:
And if men, carnal and dwelling in this world, have
in aught erred from Thy commandments, either moved by the devil,
whether in word or in deed, or if they have come under a curse, or by
reason of some special vow, I entreat and beseech Thy unspeakable
loving-kindness, that they may be set free from their word, and
released from the oath and the special vow, according to Thy goodness.
Verily, O Sovereign Lord, hear my supplication on
behalf of Thy servants, and do Thou pass by all their errors,
remembering them no more; forgive them every transgression, voluntary
and involuntary; deliver them from everlasting punishment: for Thou art
He that hast commanded us, saying, Whatsoever things ye bind upon
earth, shall be bound in heaven; and whatsoever things ye loose upon
earth, shall be loosed in heaven: for, thou art our God, a God able to
pity, and to save and to forgive sins; and glory is due unto Thee, with
the eternal Father, and the quickening Spirit, now and ever, and to all
eternity. Amen.
551
THE DIVINE LITURGY OF THE HOLY APOSTLE AND EVANGELIST MARK,(1)
THE DISCIPLE OF THE HOLY PETER.(2)
The Priest.
1. Peace be to all.
The People.
And to thy spirit.
The Deacon.
Pray.
The People.
Lord, have mercy; Lord, have mercy; Lord, have mercy.
The Priest prays secretly.(3)
We give Thee thanks, yea, more than thanks, O Lord
our God, the Father of our Lord and God and Saviour Jesus Christ, for
all Thy goodness at all times and in all places, because Thou hast
shielded, rescued, helped, and guided us all the days of our lives, and
brought us unto this hour, permitting us gain to stand before Thee in
Thy holy place, that we may implore forgiveness of our sins and
propitiation to all Thy people. We pray and beseech Thee, merciful God,
to grant in Thy goodness that we may spend this holy day(4) and all the
time of our lives without sin, in fulness of joy, health, safety,
holiness, and reverence of Thee. But all envy, all fear, all
temptation, all the influence of Satan, all the snares of wicked men,
do Thou, O Lord, drive away from us, and from Thy Holy Catholic and
Apostolic Church. Bestow upon us, O Lord, what is good and meet.
Whatever sin we commit in thought, word, or deed, do Thou in Thy
goodness and mercy be pleased to pardon. Leave us not, O Lord, while we
hope in Thee; nor lead us into temptation, but deliver us from the evil
one and from his works, through the grace, mercy, and love of Thine
only-begotten Son.
(In a loud voice.)
Through whom and with whom be glory and power to
Thee, in Thy most holy, good, and life-giving Spirit, now, henceforth,
and for evermore.
The People.
Amen.
The Priest.
II. Peace be to all.
The People.
And to thy spirit.
The Deacon.
Pray for the king.(5)
The People.
Lord, have mercy;(6) Lord, have mercy; Lord, have
mercy.
The Priest prays.
O God, Sovereign Lord, the Father of our Lord and
God and Saviour Jesus Christ, we pray and beseech Thee to grant that
our king may enjoy peace, and be just and brave. Subdue under him, O
God, all his adversaries and enemies. Gird on thy shield and armour,
and rise to his aid. Give him the victory, O God, that his heart may be
set on peace and the praise of Thy holy name, that we too(7) in his
peaceful reign(8) may spend a calm and tranquil life in all reverence
and godly fear, through the grace, mercy, and love of Thine
only-begotten Son:
(In a loud voice.)
Through whom and with whom be glory and power to
Thee, with Thy most holy, good, and life-giving Spirit, now,
henceforth, and for evermore.
The People.
Amen.
The Priest.
III. Peace be to all.
The People.
And to thy spirit.
The Deacon.
Pray for the papas(9) and the bishop.
The People.
Lord, have mercy; Lord, have mercy; Lord, have mercy.
552
The Priest.
O Sovereign and Almighty God, the Father of our
Lord, God, and Saviour Jesus Christ, we pray and beseech Thee to defend
in Thy good mercy our most holy and blessed high priest our Father in
God <greek>D</greek>, and our most reverend Bishop
<greek>D</greek>. Preserve them for us through many years
in peace, while they according to Thy holy and blessed will fulfil the
sacred priesthood committed to their care, and dispense aright the word
of truth; with all the orthodox bishops, elders, deacons, sub-deacons,
readers, singers, and laity, with the entire body of the Holy and only
Catholic Church. Graciously bestow upon them peace, health, and
salvation. The prayers they offer up for us, and we for them, do Thou,
O Lord, receive at Thy holy, heavenly, and reasonable altar. But all
the enemies of Thy Holy Church put Thou speedily under their feet,
through the grace, mercy, and love of Thine only-begotten Son:
(Aloud.)
Through whom and with whom be glory and power to
Thee, with Thy all-holy, good, and life-giving Spirit, now, henceforth,
and for evermore.
The People.
Amen.
The Priest.
IV. Peace be to all.
The People.
And to thy spirit.
The Deacon.
Stand(1) and pray.
The People.
Lord have mercy (thrice).
The Priest offers up the prayer of entrance,(2) and
for incense.
The Priest.
O Sovereign Lord our God, who hast chosen the lamp
of the twelve apostles with its twelve lights, and hast sent them forth
to proclaim throughout the whole world and teach the Gospel of Thy
kingdom, and to heal sickness and every weakness among the people, and
hast breathed upon their faces and said unto them, Receive the Holy
Spirit the Comforter: whose-soever sins ye remit, they are remitted
unto them; and whosesoever sins ye retain, they are retained: Breathe
also Thy Holy Spirit upon us Thy servants, who, standing around, are
about to enter on Thy holy service,(3) upon the bishops, elders,
deacons, readers, singers, and laity, with the entire body of the Holy
Catholic and Apostolic Church.
From the curse and execration, from condemnation,
imprisonment, and banishment, and from the portion of the adversary; O
Lord, deliver us.
Purify our lives and cleanse our hearts from all
pollution and from all wickedness, that with pure heart and conscience
we may offer to Thee this incense for a sweet-smelling savour, and for
the remission of our sins and the sins of all Thy people, through the
grace, mercy, and love of Thine only-begotten Son:
(Aloud.)
Through whom and with whom be the glory and the
power to Thee, with Thy all-holy, good, and life-giving Spirit, now,
henceforth, and for evermore.
The People.
Amen.
The Deacon.
v. Stand.
They sing:--
Only-begotten Son and Word,(4) etc.
The Gospel is carried in, and the Deacon says:--
Let us pray.
The Priest.
Peace be to all.
The People.
And to thy spirit.
The Deacon.
Let us pray.
The People.
Lord, have mercy.
The Priest says the prayer of the Trisagion.
O Sovereign Lord Christ Jesus, the co-eternal Word
of the eternal Father, who wast made in all things like as we are, but
without sin, for the salvation of our race; who hast sent forth Thy
holy disciples and apostles to proclaim and teach the Gospel of Thy
kingdom, and to heal all disease, all sickness among Thy people, be
pleased now, O Lord, to send forth Thy light and Thy truth. Enlighten
the eyes of our minds, that we may understand Thy divine oracles. Fit
us to become hearers, and not only hearers, but doers of Thy word, that
we, becoming fruitful, and yielding good fruit from thirty to an
hundred fold, may be deemed worthy of the kingdom of heaven.
553
(Aloud.)
Let Thy mercy speedily overtake us, O Lord. For Thou
art the bringer of good tidings, the Saviour and Guardian of our souls
and bodies and we offer glory, thanks, and the Trisagion to Thee, the
Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, now, henceforth, and for evermore.
The People.
Amen. Holy God, holy mighty, holy immortal. Holy,
holy, holy,(1) etc.
VI. After the Trisagion the Priest makes the sign of
the cross over the people, and says:--Peace be to all.
The People.
And to thy spirit.
Then follow the Let us attend;(2) The Apostle and Prologue of the
Hallelujah.(3) The Deacons, after a prescribed form, say:--Lord, bless
us.(4)
The Priest says:--
May the Lord(5) in His mercy bless and help us, now,
henceforth, and for evermore.
The Priest, before the Gospel is read, offers
incense,(6) and says:--
Accept at Thy holy, heavenly, and reasonable altar,
O Lord, the incense we offer in presence of Thy sacred glory. Send down
upon us in return the grace of Thy Holy Spirit, for Thou art blessed,
and let Thy glory encircle us.
VII. The Deacon, when he is about to read the Gospel, says:--
Lord, bless us.
The Priest.
May the Lord, who is the blessed God, bless and
strengthen us, and make us hearers of His holy Gospel, now, henceforth,
and for evermore.
Amen.
The Deacon.
Stand and let us hear the holy Gospel.
The Priest.
Peace be to all.
The People.
And to thy spirit.
VIII. The Deacon reads the Gospel, and the Priest says the prayer of
the Collect.(7)
Look down in mercy and compassion, O Lord, and heal
the sick among Thy people.
May all our brethren who have gone or who are about
to go abroad, safely reach their destination in due season.
Send down the gracious rain upon the thirsty lands,
and make the rivers(8) flow in full stream, according to Thy grace.
The fruits of the land do Thou, O Lord, fill with
seed and make ripe for the harvest.
In peace, courage, justice, and tranquillity
preserve the kingdom of Thy servant, whom Thou hast deemed worthy to
reign over this land.
From evil days, from famine and pestilence, from the
assault of barbarians, defend, O Lord, this Christ-loving city, lowly
and worthy of Thy compassion, as Thou didst spare Nineveh of old.
For Thou art full of mercy and compassion, and
rememberest not the iniquities of men against them.
Thou hast said through Thy prophet Isaiah,--I will
defend this city, to save it for mine own sake, and for my servant
David's sake.
Wherefore we pray and beseech Thee to defend in Thy
good mercy this city, for the sake of the martyr and evangelist Mark,
who has shown us the way of salvation through the grace, mercy, and
love of Thine only-begotten Son.
(Aloud.)
Through whom and with whom be glory and power to
Thee, with Thy all-holy, good, and life-giving Spirit.
The Deacon.
IX. Begin.
Then they say the verse.(9) The Deacon says--
The three.(10)
The Priest.
O Sovereign and Almighty God, the Father of our Lord
Jesus Christ, we pray and beseech Thee to fill our hearts with the
peace of heaven, and to bestow moreover the peace of this life.
Preserve for us through many years our most holy and blessed Papas
<greek>D</greek>,(11) and our most pious Bishop
<greek>D</greek>, while they, according to Thy holy and
blessed will, peacefully fulfil the holy priesthood committed to their
care, and dispense aright the word of truth, with all the orthodox
bishops, elders, deacons, sub-deacons,(12) readers, singers, with the
entire body of the holy Catholic and Apostolic Church. Bless our
meetings, O Lord.
554
Grant that we may hold them without let or hindrance, according to Thy
holy will. Be pleased to give to us, and Thy servants after us for
ever, houses of praise and prayer. Rise, O Lord, and let Thine enemies
be scattered. Let all who hate Thy holy name be put to flight. Bless
Thy faithful and orthodox people. Multiply them by thousands and tens
of thousands.
Let no deadly sin prevail against them, or against
Thy holy people, through the grace, mercy, and love of Thine
only-begotten Son.
(Aloud.)
Through whom and with whom be glory and power to
Thee, with Thy all-holy, good, and life-giving Spirit.
The People.
Amen.
The Priest.
Peace be to all.
The People.
And to thy spirit.
The Deacon.
Take care that none of the catechumens(1)--
II.
Then they sing the Cherubic hymn.(2)
X. The Priest offers incense at the entrance,(3) and
prays:--
O Lord our God, who lackest nothing, accept this
incense offered by an unworthy hand, and deem us all worthy of Thy
blessing, for Thou art our sanctification, and we ascribe glory to Thee.
The holy things are carried to the altar, and the
Priest prays thus:--
O holy, highest, awe-inspiring God, who dwellest
among the saints, sanctify us, and deem us worthy of Thy reverend
priesthood. Bring us to Thy precious altar with a good conscience, and
cleanse our hearts from all pollution. Drive away from us all unholy
thoughts, and sanctify our souls and minds. Grant that, with reverence
of Thee, we may perform the service of our holy fathers, and propitiate
Thy presence through all time; for Thou art He who blesseth and
sanctifieth all things, and to Thee we ascribe glory and thanks.
The Deacon.
XI. Salute one another.
The Priest says the prayer of salutation.
O Sovereign and Almighty Lord, look down from heaven
on Thy Church, on all Thy people, and on all Thy flock. Save us all,
Thy unworthy servants, the sheep of Thy fold. Give us Thy peace, Thy
help, and Thy love, and send to us the gift of Thy Holy Spirit, that
with a pure heart and a good conscience we may salute one another with
an holy kiss, without hypocrisy, and with no hostile purpose, but
guileless and pure in one spirit, in the bond of peace and love, one
body and one spirit, in one faith, even as we have been called in one
hope of our calling, that we may all meet in the divine and boundless
love, in Christ Jesus our Lord, with whom Thou art blessed.
Then the Priest offers the incense, and says:--
The incense is offered to Thy name. Let it ascend,
we implore Thee, from the hands of Thy poor and sinful servants to Thy
heavenly altar for a sweet-smelling savour, and the propitiation of all
Thy people. For all glory, honour, adoration, and thanks are due unto
Thee, the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, now, henceforth, and for
evermore. Amen.
After the Salutation,(4) the Deacon in a loud voice
says:--
XII. Stand and make the offering duly.(5)
The Priest, making the sign of the cross over the disks and chalices,
says in a loud voice (the Nicene Creed):--
I believe in one God, etc.
The Deacon.
Stand for prayer.
The Priest.
Peace be to all.
The Deacon.
Pray for those who present the offering.
The Priest says the prayer of the Oblation.(6)
O Sovereign Lord, Christ Jesus the Word, who art
equal in power with the Father and the Holy Spirit, the great high
priest; the bread that came down from heaven, and saved our souls from
ruin; who gavest Thyself, a spotless Lamb, for the life of the world ...
We pray and beseech Thee, O Lord, in Thy mercy, to
let Thy presence rest upon this bread and these chalices(7) on the
all-holy table, while angels, archangels, and Thy holy priests stand
round and minister for Thy glory and the renewing of our souls, through
the grace, mercy, and love of Thine only-begotten Son, through
555
whom and with whom be glory and power to Thee.
And when the People say,
And from the Holy Spirit was He made flesh;
The Priest makes the sign of the cross,(1) and
says:--
And was crucified for us.
The Priest makes the sign of the cross again,(1)
and says:--
And to the Holy Spirit.
III.
XIII.(2) In like manner also, as after the Creed,(3) he makes the sign
of the cross upon the People, and says aloud:--
The Lord be with all.
The People.
And with thy spirit.
The Priest.
Let us lift up our hearts.
The People.
We lift them up to the Lord.
The Priest.
Let us give thanks to the Lord.
The People.
It is meet and right.(4)
The Priest begins the Anaphoral prayer.
O Lord God, Sovereign and Almighty Father, truly it
is meet and right, holy and becoming, and good for our souls, to
praise, bless, and thank Thee; to make open confession to Thee by day
and night with voice, lips, and heart without ceasing;
To Thee who hast made the heaven, and all that is
therein; the earth, and all that is therein;
The sea, fountains, rivers, lakes, and all that is
therein;
To Thee who, after Thine own image and likeness,
hast made man, upon whom Thou didst also bestow the joys of Paradise;
And when he trespassed against Thee, Thou didst
neither neglect nor forsake him, good Lord,
But didst recall him by Thy law, instruct him by Thy
prophets, restore and renew him by this awful, life-giving, and
heavenly mystery.
And all this Thou hast done by Thy Wisdom and the
Light of truth, Thine only-begotten Son, our Lord, God, and Saviour
Jesus Christ,
Through whom, thanking Thee with Him and the Holy
Spirit,
We offer this reasonable and bloodless sacrifice,
which all nations, from the rising to the setting of the sun, from the
north and the south, present to Thee, O Lord; for great is Thy name
among all peoples, and in all places are incense, sacrifice, and
oblation offered to Thy holy name.(5)
XIV. We pray and beseech Thee, O lover of men, O
good Lord,(6) remember in Thy good mercy the Holy and only Catholic and
Apostolic
Church throughout the whole world, and all Thy people, and all
the sheep of this fold.(7) Vouchsafe to the hearts of all of us the
peace of heaven, but grant us also the peace of this life.
Guide and direct in all peace the king,(8) army,
magistrates, councils,(9) peoples, and neighbour-hoods, and all our
outgoings and incomings.
O King of Peace, grant us Thy peace in unity and love. May we be
Thine, O Lord; for we know no other God but Thee, and name no other
name but Thine. Give life unto the souls of all of us, and let no
deadly sin prevail against us, or against all Thy people.
Look down in mercy and compassion, O Lord, and heal
the sick among Thy people. Deliver them and us, O Lord, from sickness
and disease, and drive away the spirit of weakness.
Raise up those who have been long afflicted, and
heal those who are vexed with unclean spirits.
Have mercy on all who are in prison, or in mines, or
on trial, or condemned, or in exile, or crushed by cruel bondage or
tribute. Deliver them, O Lord, for Thou art our God, who settest the
captives free; who raisest up the downtrodden; who givest hope to the
hopeless, and help to the helpless; who liftest up the fallen; who
givest refuge to the shipwrecked, and vengeance to the oppressed.
Pity, relieve, and restore every Christian soul that
is afflicted or wandering.
But do Thou, O Lord, the physician of our souls and
bodies, the guardian of all flesh, look down, and by Thy saving power
heal all the diseases of soul and body.
Guide and prosper our brethren who have gone or who
are about to go abroad. Whether they travel by land, or river, or lake,
by public road, or in whatever way journeying, bring them everywhere to
a safe and tranquil haven. Be pleased to be with them by land and sea,
and restore them in health and joy to joyful and healthful homes.
556
Ever defend, O Lord, our journey through this life
from trouble and storm.
Send down rich and copious showers on the dry and
thirsty lands.
Gladden and revive the face of the earth, that it
may spring forth and rejoice in the raindrops.
Make the waters of the river flow in full stream.
Gladden and revive the face of the earth with the
swelling waters.
Fill all the channels of the streams, and multiply
the fruits of the earth.
Bless, O Lord, the fruits of the earth, and keep
them safe and unharmed. Fill them with seed, and make them ripe for the
harvest.
Bless even now, O Lord, Thy yearly crown of blessing
for the sake of the poor of Thy people, the widow, the orphan, and the
stranger, and for the sake of all of us who have our hope in Thee and
call upon Thy holy name; for the eyes of all are upon Thee, and Thou
givest them bread in due season.
O Thou who givest food to all flesh, fill our hearts
with joy and gladness, that at all times, having all sufficiency, we
may abound to every good work in Christ Jesus our Lord.
O King of kings and Lord of lords, defend the
kingdom of Thy servant, our orthodox and Christ-loving sovereign,(1)
whom Thou hast deemed worthy to reign over this land in peace, courage,
and justice.
Subdue under him, O Lord, every enemy and adversary,
whether at home or abroad. Gird on Thy shield and armour, and rise to
his aid. Draw Thy sword, and help him to fight against them that
persecute him. Shield him in the day of battle, and grant that the
fruit of his loins may sit upon his throne.
Be kind to him, O Lord, for the sake of Thy Holy and
Apostolic Church, and all Thy Christ-loving people, that we too in his
peaceful reign may live a calm and tranquil life, in all reverence and
godliness.
O Lord our God, give peace to the souls of our
fathers and brethren who have fallen asleep in Jesus, remembering our
forefathers of old, our fathers, patriarchs, prophets, apostles,
martyrs, confessors, bishops, and the souls of all the holy and just
men who have died in the Lord.
Especially remember those whose memory we this day
celebrate, and our holy father Mark,(2) the apostle and evangelist, who
has shown us the way of salvation.(3)
The Deacon.
Lord, bless us.
The Priest.
The Lord will bless thee in His grace, now,
henceforth, and for evermore.
The Deacon reads the record of the dead.(4)
The Priest bows and prays.
XV. Give peace, O Sovereign Lord our God, to the
souls of all who dwell in the tabernacles of Thy saints. Graciously
bestow upon them in Thy kingdom Thy promised blessing, which eye hath
not seen, and ear hath not heard, nor has it entered into the heart of
man what Thou, O God, hast prepared for those who love Thy holy name.
Give peace to their souls, and deem them worthy of the kingdom of
heaven.(5)
Grant that we may end our lives as Christians,
acceptable unto Thee and without sin, and be pleased to give us part
and lot with all Thy saints.
Accept, O God, by Thy ministering archangels at Thy
holy, heavenly, and reasonable altar in the spacious heavens, the
thank-offerings of those who offer sacrifice and oblation, and of those
who desire to offer much or little, in secret or openly, but have it
not to give.
Accept the thank-offerings of those who have
presented them this day, as Thou didst accept the gifts of Thy
righteous Abel:
The Priest offers incense, and says:(6)--
As Thou didst accept the sacrifice of our father
Abraham, the incense of Zacharias, the alms of Cornelius, and the
widow's two mites, accept also the thank-offerings of these, and give
them for the things of time the things of eternity, and for the things
of earth the things of heaven. Defend, O Lord, our most holy and
blessed Papas(7) <greek>D</greek>, whom Thou hast
fore-ordained to rule over Thy Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church, and
our most pious Bishop <greek>D</greek>, that they through
many years of peace may, according to Thy holy and blessed will, fulfil
the sacred priesthood committed to their care, and dispense aright the
word of truth.
Remember the orthodox bishops everywhere, the
elders, deacons, sub-deacons, readers, singers, monks,(8) virgins,
widows, and laity.
Remember, O Lord, the holy city(9) of our God, Jesus
Christ; and the imperial city;(10) and this city of ours, and all
cities and all lands, and the peace and safety of those who dwell
therein in the orthodox faith of Christ.
557
Be mindful, O Lord, of the return of the
back-sliding, and of every Christian soul that is afflicted and
oppressed, and in need of Thy divine mercy and help.
Be mindful, O Lord, of our brethren in captivity.
Grant that they may find mercy and compassion with those who have led
them captive.
Be mindful also of us, O Lord, Thy sinful and
unworthy servants, and blot out our sins in Thy goodness and mercy.
Be mindful also of me, Thy lowly, sinful, and
unworthy servant, and in Thy mercy blot out my sins.
Be with us, O Lord, who minister unto Thy holy name.
Bless our meetings, O Lord.
Utterly uproot idolatry from the world.(1)
Crush under our feet Satan, and all his wicked
influence.
Humble now, as at all times, the enemies of Thy
Church.
Lay bare their pride.
Speedily show them their weakness.
Bring to naught the wicked plots they contrive
against us.
Arise, O Lord, and let Thine enemies be scattered,
and let all who hate Thy holy name be put to flight.
Do Thou bless a thousand times ten thousand Thy
faithful and orthodox people while they do Thy holy will.
The Deacon.
Let those who are seated stand.
The Priest says the following prayer:--
Deliver the captive; rescue the distressed feed the
hungry; comfort the faint-hearted, convert the erring; enlighten the
darkened; raise the fallen; confirm the wavering; heal the sick; and
guide them all, good Lord, into the way of salvation, and into Thy
sacred fold. Deliver us from our iniquities; protect and defend us at
all times.
The Deacon.
Turn to the east.
The Priest bows and prays.
For Thou art far above all principality, and power,
and might, and dominion, and every name that is named, not only in this
world, but in that which is to come. Round Thee stand ten thousand
times ten thousand, and thousands of thousands of holy angels and hosts
of archangels; and Thy two most honoured creatures, the many-eyed
cherubim and the six-winged seraphim. With twain they cover their
faces, and with twain they cover their feet, and with twain they do
fly; and they cry one to another for ever with the voice of praise, and
glorify Thee, O Lord, singing aloud the triumphal and thrice-holy(2)
hymn to Thy great glory:--
Holy, holy, holy, Lord God of Sabaoth. Heaven and
earth are full of Thy glory.
(Aloud.)
Thou dost ever sanctify all men; but with all who
glorify Thee, receive also, O Sovereign Lord, our sanctification, who
with them celebrate Thy praise, and say:--
The People.
Holy, holy, holy Lord.
The Priest makes the sign of the cross over the sacred mysteries.
XVI. For truly heaven and earth are full of Thy
glory, through the manifestation of our Lord and God and Saviour Jesus
Christ. Fill, O God, this sacrifice with Thy blessing, through the
inspiration of Thy all-holy Spirit. For the Lord Himself, our God and
universal King, Christ Jesus, reclining at meat the same night on which
He delivered Himself up for our sins and died in the flesh for all,
took bread in His holy, pure, and immaculate hands, and lifting His
eyes to His Father, our God, and the God of all, gave thanks; and when
He had blessed, hallowed, and broken the bread, gave it to His holy and
blessed disciples and apostles, saying:--
(Aloud.)
Take, eat.
The Deacon.
Pray earnestly.
The Priest (aloud).
For this is my body, which is broken for you, and
divided for the remission of sins.
The People.
Amen.
The Priest prays.
After the same manner also, when He had supped, He
took the cup of wine mingled with water, and lifting His eyes to Thee,
His Father, our God, and the God of all, gave thanks; and when He had
blessed and filled it with the Holy Spirit, gave it to His holy and
blessed disciples and apostles, saying:--
(Aloud.)
Drink ye all of it.
The Deacon.
Pray earnestly again.
558
The Priest (aloud).
For this is my blood of the new testament which is
shed for you and for many, and distributed among you for the remission
of sins.
The People.
Amen.
The Priest prays thus:--
This do ye in remembrance of me; for as often as ye
eat this bread and drink this cup, ye do show forth my death and
acknowledge my resurrection and ascension until I come. O Sovereign and
Almighty Lord, King of heaven, while we show forth(1) the death of
Thine only-begotten Son, our Lord, God, and Saviour Jesus Christ, and
acknowledge His blessed resurrection from the dead on the third day, we
do also openly declare His ascension into heaven, and His sitting on
the right hand of Thee, God and Father, and await His second terrible
and dreadful coming, in which He will come to judge righteously the
quick and the dead, and to render to each man according to his works.
XVII. O Lord our God, we have placed before Thee
what is Thine from Thine own mercies. We pray and beseech Thee, O good
and merciful God, to send down from Thy holy heaven, from the mansion
Thou hast prepared, and from Thine infinite bosom, the Paraclete
Himself,(2) holy, powerful, and life-giving, the Spirit of truth, who
spoke in the law, the apostles, and prophets; who is everywhere
present, and filleth all things, freely working sanctification. in whom
He will with Thy good pleasure; one in His nature; manifold in His
working; the fountain of divine blessing; of like substance(3) with
Thee, and proceeding from Thee; sitting with Thee on the throne of Thy
kingdom, and with Thine only-begotten Son, our Lord and God and Saviour
Jesus Christ. Send down upon us also and upon this bread and upon these
chalices Thy Holy Spirit, that by His all-powerful and divine influence
He may sanctify and consecrate them, and make this bread the body.(2)
The People.
Amen.
The Priest (aloud).
And this cup the blood of the new testament, of the
very Lord, and God, and Saviour, and universal King Christ Jesus.
The Deacon.
Deacons, come down.
The Priest (aloud).
That to all of us who partake thereof they may tend
unto faith, sobriety, healing, temperance, sanctification, the renewal
of soul, body, and spirit, participation in the blessedness of eternal
life and immortality, the glory of Thy most holy name, and the
remission of sins, that Thy most holy, precious, and glorious name may
be praised and glorified in this as in all things.
The People.
As it was and is.
The Priest.
XVIII. Peace be to all.
The Deacon.
Pray.
The Priest prays in secret.
O God of light, Father of life, Author of grace,
Creator of worlds, Founder of knowledge, Giver of wisdom, Treasure of
holiness, Teacher of pure prayers, Benefactor of our souls, who givest
to the faint-hearted who put their trust in Thee those things into
which the angels desire to look: O Sovereign Lord, who hast brought us
up from the depths of darkness to light, who hast given us life from
death, who hast graciously bestowed upon us freedom from slavery, who
hast scattered the darkness of sin within us, through the presence of
Thine only-begotten Son, do Thou now also, through the visitation of
Thy all-holy Spirit, enlighten the eyes of our understanding, that we
may partake without fear of condemnation of this heavenly and immortal
food, and sanctify us wholly in soul, body, and spirit, that with Thy
holy disciples and apostles we may say this prayer to Thee: Our Father
who art in heaven, etc.
(Aloud.)
And grant, O Sovereign Lord, in Thy mercy, that we
with freedom of speech, without fear of condemnation, with pure heart
and enlightened soul, with face that is not ashamed, and with hollowed
lips, may venture to call upon Thee, the holy God who art in heaven, as
our Father, and say:--
The People.
Our Father who art in heaven, etc.
The Priest prays:(4)--
Verily, Lord, Lord, lead us not into temptation, but
deliver us from evil; for Thy abundant mercy showeth that we through
our great infirmity are unable to resist it.
Grant that we may find a way whereby we may be able
to withstand temptation; for Thou hast given us power to tread upon
serpents, and scorpions, and all the power of the enemy.
559
(Aloud.)
For Thine is the kingdom and power.
The People.
Amen.
The Priest.
xix. Peace be to all.
The Deacon.
Bow your heads to Jesus.(1)
The People.
Thou, Lord.
The Priest prays.
O Sovereign and Almighty Lord,(2) who sittest upon
the cherubim, and art glorified by the seraphim; who hast made the
heaven out of waters, and adorned it with choirs of stars; who hast
placed an unbodied host of angels in the highest heavens to sing Thy
praise for ever; before Thee have we bowed our souls and bodies in
token of our bondage. We beseech Thee to repel the dark assaults of sin
from our understanding, and to gladden our minds with the divine
radiance of Thy Holy Spirit, that, filled with the knowledge of Thee,
we may worthily partake of the mercies set before us, the pure body and
precious blood of Thine only-begotten Son, our Lord and God and Saviour
Jesus Christ. Pardon all our sins in Thy abundant and unsearchable
goodness, through the grace, mercy, and love of Thine only-begotten
Son:(3)
(Aloud.)
Through whom and with whom be glory and power to
Thee, with the all-holy, good, and life-giving Spirit.
The Priest.
xx. Peace be to all.
The Deacon.
With the fear of God.
The Priest prays.
O holy, highest, awe-inspiring God, who dwellest
among the saints, sanctify us by the word of Thy grace and by the
inspiration of Thy all-holy Spirit; for Thou hast said, O Lord our God,
Be ye holy; for I am holy. O Word of God, past finding out,
consubstantial(4) and co-eternal with the Father and the Holy Spirit,
and sharer of their sovereignty, accept the pure song which cherubim
and seraphim, and the unworthy lips of Thy sinful and unworthy servant,
sing aloud.
The People.
Lord, have mercy; Lord, have mercy; Lord, have mercy.
The Priest (aloud).
Holy things for the holy.(5)
The People.
One Father holy, one Son holy, one Spirit holy, in the
unity of the Holy Spirit. Amen.(6)
The Deacon.
For salvation and help.
The Priest makes the sign of the cross upon the
people, and saith in a loud
voice:--
The Lord be with all.
The Priest breaks the bread, and saith:--
Praise ye God.
The Priest divides it among those present, and
saith:--
The Lord will bless and help you through Hi great
mercy.
The Priest says:--
Command.
The Clergy say:--
The Holy Spirit commands and sanctifies.
The Priest.
Lo, they are sanctified and consecrated.
The Clergy.
One holy(7) Father, etc. (thrice).
The Priest says:--
The Lord be with all.
The Clergy.
And with thy spirit.
The Priest says:--
The Lord Himself hath blessed it.
The Priest partakes, and prays.
According to Thy loving-kindness,(8) etc.
Or,
As the hart panteth after the water-brooks,(9) etc.
When he gives the bread to the clergy, he says:--
The holy body.
And when he gives the
chalice, he says:--
The precious blood of our Lord, and God, and Saviour.
560
IV.
After the service is completed, the Deacon says:--
XXI. Stand for prayer.(1)
The Priest.
Peace be to all.
The Deacon.
Pray.
The Priest says the prayer of thanksgiving.
O Sovereign Lord our God, we thank Thee that we have
partaken of Thy holy, pure, immortal, and heavenly mysteries, which
Thou hast given for our good, and for the sanctification and salvation
of our souls and bodies. We pray and beseech Thee, 0 Lord, to grant in
Thy good mercy, that by partaking of the holy body and precious blood
of Thine only-begotten Son, we may have faith that is not ashamed, love
that is unfeigned, fulness of holiness, power to eschew evil and keep
Thy commandments, provision for eternal life, and an acceptable defence
before the awful tribunal of Thy Christ:
In a loud voice.
Through whom and with whom be glory and power to
Thee, with Thy all-holy, good, and life-giving Spirit.
The Priest then turns to the people, and says:--
XXII. O mightiest King, co-eternal with the Father,
who by Thy might hast vanquished hell and trodden death trader foot,
who hast bound the strong man, and by Thy miraculous power and the
enlightening radiance of Thy unspeakable Godhead hast raised Adam from
the tomb, send forth Thy invisible right hand, which is full of
blessing, and bless us all.
Pity us, O Lord, and strengthen us by Thy divine
power.
Take away from us the sinful and wicked influence of
carnal desire.
Let the light shine into our souls, and dispel the
surrounding darkness of sin.
Unite us to the all-blessed assembly that is
well-pleasing unto Thee; for through Thee and with Thee, all praise,
honour, power, adoration, and thanksgiving are due unto the Father and
the Holy Spirit, now, henceforth, and for evermore.
The Deacon.
Depart in peace:
The People.
In the name of the Lord.
The Priest (aloud).
XXIII. The love of God the Father; the grace of the
Son, our Lord Jesus Christ; the communion and gift of the All-holy
Spirit, be with us all, now, henceforth, and for evermore.
The People.
Amen. Blessed be the name of the Lord.
The Priest prays in the sacristy, and says:--
O Lord, Thou hast given us sanctification by
partaking of the all-holy body and precious blood of Thine
only-begotten Son; give us the grace and gift of the All-holy Spirit.
Enable us to lead blameless lives; and guide us unto the perfect
redemption, and adoption, and the everlasting joys of the world to
come. For Thou art our sanctification, and we ascribe glory unto Thee,
the Father, and the Son, and the All-holy Spirit, now, henceforth, and
for evermore.
The People.
Amen.
The Priest.
Peace be to all.
The People.
And to thy spirit.
The Priest dismisses them, and says:--
May God bless, who blesseth and sanctifieth, who
defendeth and preserveth us all through the partaking of His holy
mysteries; and who is blessed for ever. Amen.
561
THE LITURGY OF THE BLESSED APOSTLES.
COMPOSED BY ST. ADAEUS AND ST. MARIS, TEACHERS OF THE EASTERNS.(1)
1.(2) First: Glory to God in the highest, etc.
Our Father which art in heaven.
Prayer.
Strengthen, O our Lord and God, our weakness through
Thy mercy, that we may administer the holy mystery which has been given
for the renovation and salvation of our degraded nature, through the
mercies of Thy beloved Son the Lord of all.
On common days.
Adored, glorified, lauded, celebrated, exalted, and
blessed in heaven and on earth, be the adorable and glorious name of
Thine ever-glorious Trinity, O Lord of all.
On common days they sing the Psalm (xv.), Lord, who
shall dwell in Thy tabernacle? entire with its canon,(3) of the mystery
of the sacraments.
(Aloud.)
Who shall shout with joy? etc.
Prayer.
11. Before the resplendent throne of Thy majesty, O
Lord, and the exalted and sublime throne of Thy glory, and on the awful
seat of the strength of Thy love and the propiatory altar which Thy
will hath established, in the region of Thy pasture,(4) with thousands
of cherubim praising Thee, and ten thousands of seraphim sanctifying
Thee, we draw near, adore, thank, and glorify Thee always, O Lord of
all.
On commemorations and Fridays.
Thy name, great and holy, illustrious and blessed,
the blessed and incomprehensible name of Thy glorious Trinity, and Thy
kindness to our race, we ought at all times to bless, adore, and
glorify, O Lord of all.
Responsory(5) at the chancel, as above.
Who commanded, etc.
To the priest, etc.
Prayer.
How breathes in us, O our Lord and God, the sweet
fragrance of the sweetness of Thy love; illumined are our souls,
through the knowledge of Thy truth: may we be rendered worthy of
receiving the manifestation of Thy beloved from Thy holy heavens: there
shall we render thanks unto Thee, and, in the meantime, glorify Thee
without ceasing in Thy Church, crowned and filled with every aid and
blessing, because Thou art Lord and Father, Creator of all.
III. Prayer of Incense.
We shall repeat the hymn to Thy glorious Trinity, O
Father, Son, and Holy Ghost.
On fast-days.
And on account, etc.
At the commemoration of saints.
Thou, O Lord, art truly the raiser up of our bodies:
Thou art the good Saviour of our souls, and the secure preserver of our
life; and we ought to thank Thee continually, to adore and glorify
Thee, O Lord of all.
At the lessons.(6)
Holy art Thou, worthy of praise, mighty, immortal,
who dwellest in the holies, and Thy will resteth in them: have regard
unto us, O Lord; be merciful unto us, and pity us, as Thou art our
helper in all circumstances, O Lord of all.
IV. At the apostle.(7)
Enlighten, O our Lord and God, the movements of our
meditations to hear and understand the sweet listenings to Thy
life-giving and divine
562
commands; and grant unto us through Thy grace and mercy to gather from
them the assurance of love, and hope, and salvation suitable to soul
and body, and we shall sing to Thee everlasting glory without ceasing
and always, O Lord of all.
On fast-days.
To Thee, the wise governor, etc.
v. Descending, he shall salute the Gospel, saying
this
prayer before the altar.
Thee, the renowned seed of Thy Father, and the image
of the person of Thy Father, who wast revealed in the body of our
humanity, and didst arise to us in the light of Thy annunciation, Thee
we thank, adore, etc.
And after the proclamation:(1)--
Thee, O Lord God Almighty, we beseech and entreat,
perfect with us Thy grace, and pour out through our hands Thy gift, the
pity and compassion of Thy divinity. May they be to us for the
propitiation of the offences of Thy people, and for the forgiveness of
the sins of the entire flock of Thy pasture, through Thy grace and
tender mercies, O good friend of men, O Lord of all.
VI. The Deacons say: -Bow your heads.
The Priest says this secret prayer in the sanctuary:(2)--
O Lord God Omnipotent, Thine is the Holy Catholic
Church, inasmuch as Thou, through the great passion of Thy Christ,
didst buy the sheep of Thy pasture; and from the grace of the Holy
Spirit, who is indeed of one nature with Thy glorious divinity, are
granted the degrees of the true priestly ordination; and through Thy
clemency Thou didst vouchsafe, O Lord, to make our weakness spiritual
members in the great body of Thy Holy Church, that we might administer
spiritual aid to faithful souls. Now, O Lord, perfect Thy grace with
us, and pour out Thy gift through our hands: and may Thy tender mercies
and the clemency of Thy divinity be upon us, and upon the people whom
Thou hast chosen for Thyself.
(Aloud.)
And grant unto us, O Lord, through Thy clemency,
that we may all together, and equally every day of our life, please Thy
divinity, and be rendered worthy of the aid of Thy grace to offer Thee
praise, honour, thanksgiving, and adoration at all times, O Lord.
VII. And the Deacons ascend to the altar, and
say:--
He who has not received baptism, etc.(3)
And the Priest begins the respansory of the mysteries,(4) and
the Sacristan and Deacon place the disk and the
chalice upon the altar. The Priest crosses his
hands, and says:(5)--
We offer praise to Thy glorious Trinity at all times
and for ever.
And proceeds:--
May Christ, who was offered for our salvation, and
commanded us to commemorate His death and His resurrection, Himself
receive this sacrifice from the hands of our weakness, through His
grace and mercies for ever. Amen.
And proceeds:--
Laid are the renowned holy and life-giving mysteries
upon the altar of the mighty Lord, even until His advent, for ever.Amen.
Praise, etc.
Thy memory, etc.
Our Father, etc.
The apostles of the Father, etc.
Upon the holy altar, etc.
They who have slept, etc.
Matthew Mark, Luke, etc.(6)
THE CREED.(7)
VIII. The Priest draws near to celebrate, and
thrice bows before the altar, the middle of
which he kisses, then the right and the left horn
of the altar; and bows to the Gospel side, and
says:--
Bless, O Lord, etc.
Pray for me, my fathers, brethren, and masters, that
God may grant unto me the capability and power to perform this service
to which I have drawn near, and that this oblation may be accepted from
the hands of my weakness, for myself, for you, and for the whole body
of the Holy Catholic Church, through His grace and mercies for ever.
Amen.
And they respond:--
May Christ listen to thy prayers, and be pleased
with thy sacrifice, receive thy oblation, and honour thy priesthood,
and grant unto us, through thy mediation,(8) the pardon of our
offences, and the forgiveness of our sins, through His grace and
mercies for ever.
563
Presently he bows at the other side, uttering the same words; and they
respond in the same manner: then he bows to the altar, and says:--
God, Lord of all, be with us through His grace and
mercies for ever. Amen.
And bowing towards the Deacon, who is on the left(Epistle side), he
says:--
God, the Lord of all, confirm thy words, and secure
to thee peace, and accept this oblation from my hands for me, for thee,
for the whole body of the Holy Catholic Church, and for the entire
world, through His grace and mercies for ever.
He kneels at the altar, and says in secret:--
IX. O our Lord and God, look not on the multitude of
our sins, and let not Thy dignity be turned away on account of the
heinousness of our iniquities; but through Thine unspeakable grace
sanctify this sacrifice of Thine, and grant through it power and
capability, so that Thou mayest forget our many sins, and be merciful
when Thou shalt appear at the end of time, in the man whom Thou hast
assumed from among us, and we may find before Thee grace and mercy, and
be rendered worthy to praise Thee with spiritual(1) assemblies.
He rises, and says this prayer in secret:--
We thank Thee, O our Lord and God, for the abundant
riches of Thy grace to us:
And he proceeds:--
Us who were sinful and degraded, on account of the
multitude of Thy clemency, Thou hast made worthy to celebrate the holy
mysteries of the body and blood of Thy Christ. We beg aid from Thee for
the strengthening of our souls, that in perfect love and true faith we
may administer Thy gift to us.
Canon.
And we shall ascribe to Thee praise, glory,
thanksgiving, and adoration, now, always, and for ever and ever.
He signs himself with the sign of the cross, and
they respond:--
Amen.
x. And he proceeds:--
Peace be with you:
They respond:--
With thee and with thy spirit.
And they give the (kiss of) peace to each other,
and say:--
For all:(2)
The Deacon says:--
Let us thank, entreat, and beseech.
The
Priest says this prayer in secret:--
O Lord, mighty God, help my weakness through Thy
clemency and the aid of Thy grace; and make me worthy of offering
before Thee this oblation, as for the common aid of all, and to the
praise of Thy Trinity, O Father, Son, and Holy Ghost.
Another prayer.(3)
O our Lord and God, restrain our thoughts, that they
wander not amid the vanities of this world. O Lord our God, grant that
I may be united to the affection of Thy love, unworthy though I be.
Glory be to Thee, O Christ.
Ascend into the chamber of Thy renowned light, O
Lord; sow in me the good seed of humility; and under the wings of Thy
grace hide me through Thy mercy. If Thou wert to mark iniquities, O
Lord, who shall stand? Because there is mercy with Thee.
[The
Priest says the following prayer in
secret:(4)--
O mother of our Lord Jesus Christ, beseech for me
the only-begotten Son, who was born of thee, to forgive me my offences
and my sins, and to accept from my feeble and sinful hands this
sacrifice which my weakness offers upon this altar, through thy
intercession for me, O holy mother.]
XI. When the Deacon shall say, With watchfulness and care,
etc., immediately the Priest rises up and
uncovers the sacraments, taking away the veil
with which they were covered: he blesses the
incense, and says a canon with a loud voice:--
The grace of our Lord Jesus Christ, and the love of
God the Father, and the communion of the Holy Ghost, be with us all,
now, etc.(5)
He signs the sacraments, and they respond:--
Amen.
The Priest proceeds:--
Lift up your minds:
They respond:--
They are towards Thee, O God of Abraham, Isaac, and
Israel, O glorious King.
564
The Priest.
The oblation is offered to God, the Lord of all.
They respond:--
It is meet and right.
The Deacon.
Peace be with you.
The Priest puts on the incense, and says this prayer:--
O Lord, Lord, grant me an open countenance before
Thee, that with the confidence which is from Thee we may fulfil this
awful and divine sacrifice with consciences free from all iniquity and
bitterness. Sow in us, O Lord, affection, peace, and concord towards
each other, and toward every one.
And standing, he says in secret:(1)--
Worthy of glory from every mouth, and of
thanksgiving from all tongues, and of adoration and exaltation from all
creatures, is the adorable and glorious name of Father, Son, and
Holy Ghost, who created the world through His grace, and its
inhabitants through His clemency, who saved men through His mercy, and
showed great favour towards mortals. Thy majesty, O Lord, thousands of
thousands of heavenly spirits, and ten thousand myriads of holy angels,
hosts of spirits, ministers of fire and spirit, bless and adore; with
the holy cherubim and the spiritual seraphim they sanctify and
celebrate Thy name, crying and praising, without ceasing crying unto
each other.
They say with a loud voice:--
Holy, holy, holy, Lord God Almighty; full are the
heavens and the earth of His glory.
The Priest in secret:--
Holy, holy, holy art Thou, O Lord God Almighty; the
heavens and the earth are full of His glory and the nature of His
essence, as they are glorious with the honour of His splendour; as it
is written, The heaven and the earth are full of me, saith the mighty
Lord.
Holy art Thou, O God our Father, truly the only one,
of whom the whole family in heaven and earth is named. Holy art Thou,
Eternal Son, through whom all things were made. Holy art Thou, Holy,
Eternal Spirit, through whom all things are sanctified.
Woe to me, woe to me, who have been astonied,
because I am a man of polluted lips, and dwell among a people of
polluted lips, and my eyes have seen the King, the mighty Lord.
How terrible to-day is this place! For this is none other than the
house of God and the gate of heaven; because Thou hast been seen eye to
eye, O Lord.
Now, I pray, may Thy grace be with us, O Lord; purge
away our impurities, and sanctify our lips; unite the voices of our
insignificance with the sanctification of seraphim and archangels.
Glory be to Thy tender mercies, because Thou hast associated the
earthly with the heavenly.(2)
And he proceeds, saying in secret this prayer, in a bowing posture:--
XII. And with those heavenly powers we give Thee
thanks, even we, Thine insignificant, pithless, and feeble servants;
because Thou hast granted unto us Thy great grace which cannot be
repaid. For indeed Thou didst take upon Thee our human nature, that
Thou mightest bestow life on us through Thy divinity; Thou didst exalt
our low condition; Thou didst raise our ruined state; Thou didst rouse
up our mortality; Thou didst wash away our sins; Thou didst blot out
the guilt of our sins; Thou didst enlighten our intelligence, and Thou
didst condemn our enemy, O Lord our God; and Thou didst cause the
insignificance of our pithless nature to triumph.
Here follow the words of institution,(3) after which:--
Through the tender mercies of Thy grace poured out,
O clement One, pardon our offences and sins; blot out my offences in
the judgment. And on account of all Thy aids and Thy favours to us, we
shall ascribe unto Thee praise,(4) honour, thanksgiving, and adoration,
now, always, and for ever and ever.
The Priest signs the sacraments. The response is made.
Amen.
The Deacon.
In your minds. Pray for peace with us.
The Priest says this prayers bowing, and in a law voice:--
O Lord God Almighty, accept this oblation for the
whole Holy Catholic Church, and for all
565
the pious and righteous fathers who have been pleasing to Thee, and for
all the prophets and apostles, and for all the martyrs and confessors,
and for all that mourn, that are in straits, and are sick, and for all
that are under difficulties and trials, and for all the weak and the
oppressed, and for all the dead that have gone from amongst us; then
for all that ask a prayer from our weakness, and for me, a degraded and
feeble sinner. O Lord our God, according to Thy mercies and the
multitude of Thy favours, look upon Thy people, and on me, a feeble
man, not according to my sins and my follies, but that they may become
worthy of the forgiveness of their sins through this holy body, which
they receive with faith, through the grace of Thy mercy for ever and
ever. Amen.
The Priest says this
prayer of inclination in secret:--
XIII. Do Thou, O Lord, through Thy many and
ineffable mercies, make the memorial good and acceptable with that
of(1) all the pious and righteous fathers who have been pleading before
Thee in the commemoration of the body and blood of Thy Christ, which we
offer to Thee upon Thy pure and holy altar, as Thou hast taught us; and
grant unto us Thy rest all the days of this life.
He proceeds with the Great Oblation:--
O Lord our God, bestow on us Thy rest and peace all
the days of this life, that all the inhabitants of the earth may know
Thee, that Thou art the only true God the Father, and Thou didst send
our Lord Jesus Christ, Thy Son and Thy beloved; and He Himself our Lord
and God came and taught us all purity and holiness. Make remembrance of
prophets, apostles, martyrs, confessors, bishops, doctors, priests,
deacons, and all the sons of the Holy Catholic Church who have been
signed with the sign of life, of holy baptism. We also, O Lord:
Hie proceeds:--
We, Thy degraded, weak, and feeble servants who are
congregated in Thy name, and now stand before Thee, and have received
with joy the form which is from Thee, praising, glorifying, and
exalting, commemorate and celebrate this great, awful, holy, and divine
mystery of the passion, death, burial, and resurrection of our Lord and
Saviour Jesus Christ.
And may Thy Holy Spirit come, O Lord,(2) and rest
upon this oblation of Thy servants which they offer, and bless and
sanctify it; and may it be unto us, O Lord, for the propitiation of our
offences and the forgiveness of our sins, and for a grand hope of
resurrection from the dead, and for a new life in the kingdom of the
heavens, with all who have been pleasing before Him. And on account of
the whole of Thy wonderful dispensation towards us, we shall render
thanks unto Thee, and glorify Thee without ceasing in Thy Church,
redeemed by the precious blood of Thy Christ, with open mouths and
joyful countenances:
Canon.
Ascribing praise,(3) honour, thanksgiving, and
adoration to Thy holy, loving, and life-giving name, now, always, and
for ever.
The Priest signs the mysteries with the cross, and they respond:--
Amen.
The Priest bows himself and kisses the altar, first in the middle, then
at the two sides right and left, and says this prayer:(4)--
Have mercy upon me, O God, down to the words, and
sinners shall be converted unto Thee: and unto Thee lift I up mine
eyes,(5) down to have mercy upon us, O Lord, have mercy upon us. Also
stretch forth Thy hand, and let Thy right hand save me, O Lord; may Thy
mercies remain upon me, O Lord, for ever, and despise not the works of
Thy hands.(6)
Then he says this prayer:--
XIV. O Christ, peace of those in heaven and great
rest of those below,(7) grant that Thy rest and peace may dwell in the
four parts of the world,(8) but especially in Thy Holy Catholic Church;
grant that the priesthood with the government may have peace; cause
wars to cease from the ends of the earth, and scatter the nations that
delight in wars,(9) that we may enjoy the blessing of living in
tranquillity and peace, in all temperance and fear of God. Spare the
offences and sins of the dead, through Thy grace and mercies for ever.
And to those who are around the altar he says:--
Bless, O Lord. Bless, O Lord.
And he puts on the incense with which he fumes
himself, and says:--
Sweeten, O Lord our God, the unpleasing savour(10)
of our souls through the sweetness of Thy
566
love, and through it cleanse me from the stains of my sin, and forgive
me my offences and sins, whether known or unknown to me.
A second time he takes the incense with both hands, and censes the
mysteries; presently he says:--
The clemency of Thy grace, O our Lord and God, gives
us access to these renowned, holy, life-giving, and divine mysteries,
unworthy though we be.
The Priest repeats these wards once and again, and at each interval
unites his hands over his breast in the form of a cross. fie kisses the
altar in the middle, and receives with both hands the upper oblation;
and looking up, says:--
Praise be to Thy holy name, O Lord Jesus Christ, and
adoration to Thy majesty, always and for ever. Amen.
For He is the living and life-giving bread which
cometh down from heaven, and giveth life to the whole world, of which
they who eat die not; and they who receive it are saved by it, and do
not see corruption, and live through it for ever; and Thou art the
antidote of our mortality,(1) and the resurrection of our entire
frame.(2)
XV.3 * * *
XVI. Praise to Thy holy name, O Lord. (As above.)
The Priest kisses the host(4) in the form of a cross; in such a way,
however, that his lips do not touch it, but appear to kiss it; and he
says:--
Glory to Thee, O Lord; glory to Thee, O Lord, on
account of Thine unspeakable gift to us, for ever.
Then he draws nigh to the fraction of the host,(4) which he
accomplishes with both his hands, saying:--
We draw nigh, O Lord, with true faith, and break
with thanksgiving and sign through Thy mercy the body and blood of our
Life-giver, Jesus Christ, in the name of the Father, Son, and Holy
Ghost.
And, naming the Trinity, he breaks the host,(4) which he holds in his
hands, into two parts: and the one which is in his left hand he lays
down on the disk; with the other, which he holds in his right hand, he
signs the chalice, saying:--
The precious blood is signed with the holy body of
our Lord Jesus Christ. In the name of the Father, and the Son, and the
Holy Ghost for ever.
And they respond:--
Amen.
Then he dips it even to the middle in the chalice, and signs with it
the body which is in the paten, sating:--
The holy body is signed with the propitiatory blood
of our Lord Jesus Christ. In the name of the Father, and of the Son,
and of the Holy Ghost for ever.
And they respond:--
Amen. And he unites the two parts, the one with the other, saying:--
Divided, sanctified, completed, perfected, united,
and commingled have been these renowned, holy, life-giving, and divine
mysteries, the one with the other, in the adorable and glorious name of
Thy glorious Trinity, O Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, that they may be
to us, O Lord, for the propitiation of our offences and the forgiveness
of our sins; also for the grand hope of a resurrection from the dead,
and of a new life in the kingdom of the heavens, for us and for the
Holy Church of Christ our Lord, here and in every place whatsoever, now
and always, and for ever.
XVII. In the meantime he signs the host(5) with his right thumb in the
form of a cross from the lower part to the upper, and from the right to
the left, and thus forms a slight fissure in it where it has been
dipped in the blood. He puts a part of it into the chalice in the farm
of a cross: the lower part is placed towards the priest, the upper
towards the chalice, so that the place of the fissure looks to the
chalice. He bows, and rising, says:--
Glory be to Thee, O Lord Jesus Christ, who hast made
me, unworthy though I be, through Thy grace, a minister and mediator of
Thy renowed, holy, life-giving, and divine mysteries: through the grace
of Thy mercy, make me worthy of the pardon of my offences and the
forgiveness of my sins.
567
He signs himself with the sign of the cross an his forehead, and does
the same to those standing round him.(1)
The Deacons approach, and he signs each one of them an the forehead,
saying:--
Christ accept thy ministry: Christ cause thy face to
shine: Christ save thy life: Christ make thy youth to grow.
And they respond:--
Christ accept thy oblation.
XVIII. All return to their own place; and the Priest, after bowing,
rises and says, in the tone of the Gospel:--
The grace of our Lord Jesus Christ, and the love of
God the Father, and the communion of the Holy Ghost, be with us all.
The Priest signs himself, and lifts up his hand over his head, so that
it should be in the air, and the people be partakers in the singing:--
The Deacon says:--
We all with fear, etc.
And at these words:--
He hath given to us His mysteries:
The Priest begins to break(2) the body, and says:--
Be merciful, O Lord, through Thy clemency to the
sins and follies of Thy servants, and sanctify our lips through Thy
grace, that they may give the fruits of glory and praise to Thy
divinity, with all Thy saints in Thy kingdom.
And, raising his voice, he says:--
And make us worthy, O Lord our God, to stand before
Thee continually without stain, with pure heart, with open countenance,
and with the confidence which is from Thee, mercifully granted to us:
and let us all with one accord invoke Thee, and say thus: Our Father,
etc.
The People say:--
Our Father, etc.
The Priest.(3)
O Lord God Almighty, O Lord and our good God, who
art full of mercy, we beg Thee, O Lord our God, and beseech the
clemency of
Thy goodness; lead us not into temptation, but deliver and save us from
the evil one and his hosts; because Thine is the kingdom, the power,
the strength, the might, and the dominion in heaven and on earth, now
and always.
He signs himself, and they respond:--
Amen.
XIX. And he proceeds:--
Peace be with you.
They respond:--
With thee and with thy spirit.
He proceeds:--
It is becoming that the holy things should be to the
holy in perfection.
And they say:--
One holy Father: one holy Son: one Holy Ghost. Glory
be to the Father, and to the Son, and to the Holy Ghost, for ever and
ever. Amen.
The Deacon.
Praise ye.
And they say the responsory. And when the Deacon comes to carry the
chalice, he says:--
Let us pray for peace with us.
The Priest says:--
The grace of the Holy Ghost be with thee, with us,
and with those who receive Him.
And he gives the chalice to the Deacon.The Deacon says:--
Bless, O Lord.
The Priest.
The gift of the grace of our Life-giver and Lord
Jesus Christ be completed, in mercies, with all.
And he signs the people with the cross. In the meantime the
responsories are said.
Brethren, receive the body of the Son, cries the
Church, and drink ye His chalice with faith in the house of His kingdom.
On feast-days.
Strengthen, O Lord, etc.
On the Lord's day.
O Lord Jesus Christ, etc.
Daily.
The mysteries which we have received, etc.
The responsories being ended, the Deacon says:--
All therefore, etc.
568
And they respond:--
Glory be to Himself on account of His ineffable gift.
The Deacon.
Let us pray for peace with us.
The Priest at the middle of the altar says this prayer:(1)--
xx. It is meet, O Lord, just and right in all days,
times, and hours, to thank, adore, and praise the awful name of Thy
majesty, because Thou hast through Thy grace, O Lord, made us, mortal
men possessing a frail nature, worthy to sanctify Thy name with the
heavenly(2) beings, and to become partakers of the mysteries of Thy
gift, and to be delighted with the sweetness of Thy oracles. And voices
of glory and thanksgiving we ever offer up to Thy sublime divinity, O
Lord.
Another.
Christ, our God, Lord, King, Saviour, and
Life-giver, through His grace has made us worthy to receive His body
and His precious and all-sanctifying blood. May He grant unto us that
we may be pleasing unto Him in our words, works, thoughts, and deeds,
so that that pledge which we have received may be to us for the pardon
of our offences, the forgiveness of our sins, and the grand hope of a
resurrection from the dead, and a new and true life in the kingdom of
the heavens, with all who have been pleasing before Him, through His
grace and His mercies for ever.
On ordinary days.
Praise, O Lord, honour, blessing, and thanksgiving
we ought to ascribe to Thy glorious Trinity for the gift of Thy holy
mysteries, which Thou hast given to us for the propitiation of our
offences, O Lord of all.
Another.
Blessed be Thy adorable honour, from Thy glorious
place, O Christ, the propitiator of our offences and our sins, and who
takest away our follies through Thy renowned, holy, life-giving, and
divine mysteries. Christ the hope of our nature always and for ever.
Amen.
Obsignation or final benediction.
May our Lord Jesus Christ, to whom we have
ministered, and whom we have seen and honoured in His renowned, holy,
life-giving, and divine mysteries, Himself render us worthy of the
splendid glory of His kingdom, and of gladness with His holy angels,
and for confidence before Him, that we may stand at His right hand.
And on our entire congregation may His mercies and
compassion be continually poured out, now and always, and ever.
On the Lord's day and on feast-days.
May He Himself who blessed us with all spiritual
blessings in the heavens, through Jesus Christ our Lord, and prepared
us for His kingdom, and called us to the desirable good things which
neither cease nor perish, as He promised to us in His life-giving
Gospel, and said to the blessed congregation of His disciples--Verily,
verily I say unto you, that every one who eateth my body and drinketh
my blood, abideth in me, and I in him, and I will raise him up at the
last day; and he cometh not to judgment, but I will make him pass from
death to eternal life:
May He Himself now bless this congregation, and
maintain our position, and render glorious our people who have come and
rejoiced in receiving His renowned, holy, life-giving, and divine
mysteries; and may ye be sealed and guarded by the holy sign of the
Lord's cross from all evils, secret and open, now and always.
ELUCIDATIONS
I.
(Disciple of the holy Peter, p. 551.)
THE early use of the originals of this liturgy in
the Alexandrian patriarchate accounts for its bearing the name of St.
Mark,--"sister's son to Barnabas," as St. Paul calls him.(1) That he
was St. Peter's pupil may be inferred from that Apostle's
language,(2)--"Marcus, my son." See Clement's testimony concerning him
(with Eusebius) in vol. ii. pp. 579, 580, this series. That he founded
the "Evangelical See," though resting on great historic authority,(3)
seems to be doubted in our times by some.
569
II.
(Our holy father Mark, p. 556.)
While St. Mark could not have written this, it may,
of course, have been added at a very early date.(1) This most touching
prayer bears marks of great antiquity, the reference to our
"Christ-loving sovereign" comporting better with the early enthusiasm
inspired by Constantine's conversion than with the disappointments
incurred under his Arianizing or apostate successors. Now, this
commemoration of St. Mark would of itself attach his name to the
liturgy.
But here is the place to note the principles of
these primitive prayers for saints departed. (1) They could only be
offered in behalf of the holy dead who had fallen asleep in full
communion with Christ and His Church; (2) They were not prayers for
their deliverance out of one place into another; (3) They recognised
the repose (not yet the triumph) of the faithful departed as
incomplete, and hence (4) invoked for them a blessed consummation of
peace and joy in the resurrection.
Now, all this is fatal to the Roman dogmas and
usages, because (1) they thus include St. Mark and the Blessed Virgin
in these commemorations; while Rome teaches, not only that these great
saints went immediately to the excellent glory, and there have reigned
with Christ ever since they died, but (2) that on this very ground, and
that of their supererogatory merits, the Pontiff holds a purse(2) of
their excessive righteousness to dispense to meaner Christians.
St. Augustine speaks of his dear Nebridius as in
Abraham's bosom,(3) but finds comfort in commemorating him and Monica
his mother, "because it is so comfortable." This is his idea, in a
word: "Et credo jam feceris quod te rogo, sed (Ps. cxix. 108)
voluntaria oris mei, approba, Domine."
III.
(Holy things for the holy, p. 559.)
Bingham(4) has so fully elucidated this by
quotations from Chrysostom (Hom. vii.) and others, that one might think
it useless to attach to it any other meaning than that which Chrysostom
understands in it; viz., "Holy things for holy persons." It occurs just
before the communicating of the faithful, and has nothing whatever to
do with the "elevation of the host,"--a Western ceremony of the
fourteenth century.(5) Yet, in an otherwise (generally) useful manual
of liturgies, an attempt is made to give it this meaning; and the
preceding prayer of "Intense Adoration," addressed to the Great High
Priest in the heavens, is debased to eke out the weak idea. Nothing
could be more averse to the primitive principle of worship;(6) but it
is sufficient to note the fact that the "elevation of the host"
revolutionized the eucharistic worship of the West as soon as it was
established. (1) It abolished the Eucharist practically as the synaxis,
or communion of the faithful, and made it only a sacrifice far them in
their behalf; (2) not to be eaten and received, but to be gazed at; (3)
not for all the faithful at all times, excluding even catechumens from
beholding it, but to be displayed to all eyes in pompous ceremonials,
carried through the streets, and dispensed only in half-communion, once
a year, to the individual communicant. All these ancient liturgies,
corrupted as they are in all the mss. we possess, are yet liturgies for
communicating the faithful, in their turns,(7) one and all; and, so
far, they are true to the Scriptures and the precepts of Christ and His
Apostles. But well does the pious Hirscher exclaim, with reference to
570
the Mass, as he was obliged to celebrate it in his own gorgeous
cathedral at Freiburg in the Breisgau: "What would an Apostle think we
were doing, should he enter during Our ceremonies?" Also, "I know all
that can be said in their favour. I know just as well that by them the
spirit is turned apart from internal godliness, and borne away; and
that, with such appeals to sense, withdrawal from things of sense
becomes impossible.... God is a Spirit: He looks to be adored in spirit
and in truth, and all ceremonial which dulls the adoration(1) of the
spirit is odious to God. To glorify self, as His minister, before the
King of kings, before the majesty of the Creator, before His Christ,
naked and crucified,--is it not an absurdity, a ceremony of
contradictions? The people no longer comprehend the ceremonial ... to
see them satisfied by mere corporal attendance, is it not deplorable?
They do not understand Latin. Is it not melancholy that they take no
real part in the touching offices of the Holy Week? Is not a deplorable
indifference the result; in France, for example? Nay, at Rome also?"(2)
His remonstrances were vain; he was cruelly
censured, yet he died in the Papal communion. Dear Hirscher! The
venerable man kissed me when I parted from him in 1851,(3) and gave me
his blessing with a primitive spirit of Christian charity. I gratefully
quote him here.
In Germany a passing stranger often sees the pious
peasantry at Mass, singing with all their hearts their beautiful German
hymns. It misleads, however. They are not attending to the Mass, but
consoling themselves by spiritual songs, while it goes on without their
assistance. The bell rings: they adore the host, but that is all their
relation to the worship of the Christian liturgies. Hirscher loved
their hymns, but bewailed the utter loss of their liturgic communion,
once common to the faithful.(4)
IV.
(Teachers of the Easterns, etc., p. 561.)
The apostle Thaddeus is called Addai in Syriac.
Maris is said to have been one of the seventy disciples, but his name
is not on the list ascribed to Hippolytus. He was the first bishop of
the people now called "Nestorians," but whom Dr. Badger(5) prefers to
call "the Christians of Assyria."
We have this liturgy in another form in Dr. Badger's
important work, Nestorians and their Rituals. He selects that called
"the Liturgy of Nestorius" from three which are in use among the
Assyrians, but criticises the translation of Renaudot as not entirely
faultless. It is selected by Dr. Badger because of its reputed
Nestorianism; while Hammond gives us what is here translated, in
Renaudot's Latin.(6) We must bear in mind, that, since the Ephesine
Council (A.D. 431), these Christians have been separated from the
communion of Eastern orthodoxy.
The Malabar Liturgy should be carefully compared
with this by the student. A convenient translation of it is to be found
in Neale and Littledale. A most important fact, by the way, is noted in
their translation;(7) viz., that in this Malabar "the invocation of the
Holy Ghost, contrary to the use of every other Oriental liturgy,
preceded the words of institution;" that is to say, in the work of the
Portuguese revisers, a work from which Dr. Neale and his colleague feel
justified in making "a considerable alteration" as to the order of the
prayers.
The words of institution are found in the Malabar,
and suggest that they belong not less to this Liturgy of the Assyrians,
though, ex summa verecundia,(8) they are omitted from the transcript,
as the Lord's Prayer is omitted in the Clementine.
571
The normal form of this corrupted liturgy is
credited with extreme antiquity by Dr. Neale. To his learned and cogent
reasoning on the subject the student should by all means refer.(1)
V.
(For all the prophets and confessors, p. 565.)
These commemorations of the dead, it will be noted,
are in behalf of the most glorious apostles and saints, and for martyrs
who go straight to glory. Obviously, as Usher has said,(2) for whatever
purpose, then, the departed were commemorated, it was not to change
their estate before the resurrection, much less to relieve them from
purgatorial penalties. This comes out in the "Liturgy of St.
Chrysostom" (so called), where it is said: "We offer to Thee this
reasonable service for those who have fallen asleep in faith, ...
patriarchs, apostles, evangelists, martyrs, ... and every just one made
perfect in the faith: especially our all-holy, undefiled, most blessed
Lady, Theotokos and ever-virgin Mary," etc. But she, they tell us, was
assumed into glory, like Christ Himself, and reigns with Him as "Queen
of Angels," etc. See Elucidation II. p. 569.
VI.
(The propitiatory blood, etc., p. 566.)
The peril of confounding the early use of this idea
of propitiation with the mediaeval theory, which is quite another, is
well pointed out and enforced by Burbidge.(3) The primitive writers and
the ancient liturgies "do not regard the Eucharist as being itself a
propitiatory offering," but it is the perpetual pleading of the blood
of propitiation once offered. Thus St. Chrysostom: "We do not offer
another sacrifice, but always the same." So far, his words might be
quoted to favour the Middle-Age doctrine; but he guards himself, and
adds:(4) "or, rather, we make a memorial of the sacrifice."
The rhetoric of the liturgies and of the Fathers was
unhappily made into the logic of the Schoolmen, and hence the
stupendous system of propitiatory Masses, with Masses for the dead, and
that traffic in Masses which so fearfully defiles the priesthood of
Western Europe and the Spanish and Portuguese colonies in America. In
vain does the pious Hirscher complain:(5) "The rich, then, are the
happy sinners in this respect: they can buy innumerable Masses, and
establish them in perpetuity; their privileges have no limit, and their
advantages over the poor extend through all eternity."His book was put
into the Index (Acts xvi. 19, xix. 27), but it was never answered.
VII.
Let me now recur to Elucidation III. on p. 507, to
which I would here add the following from Bishop Williams, as there
quoted:--
"In both the Mozarabic and the Gallican Liturgies
there was an invocation as well as an oblation. Irenaeus(6) says (and
he, writing at Lyons, must have in mind the Gallican Liturgy), ' The
bread which is of the earth, having received the invocation of God, is
no longer common bread, but the Eucharist.' The word translated
'invocation' is <greek>epiklhsin</greek>; and it is worthy
of notice that Basil and Cyril of Jerusalem use the same word in
evidently the same technical sense (Harvey's Irenaeus, vol. ii. pp.
205-207 and notes). In another passage Irenaeus(7) speaks even more
distinctly: ' We offer to God the bread and the cup of blessing, giving
thanks to Him for that He hath commanded the earth to bring forth these
fruits for our nourishment; and, having finished the offering.
572
we invoke the Holy Spirit that He may exhibit (or declare,
<greek>apofhnh</greek>) this sacrifice and bread the body
of Christ, and the cup the blood of Christ, that they who shall receive
these antitypes may obtain remission of sins and everlasting life'
(Harvey's Irenaeus, vol. ii. p. 502). This passage is a remarkable one.
It proves beyond question, that, in the time of Irenaeus d. A.D. 202 or
208), the Liturgy of Gaul contained an invocation of the Holy Ghost
following the oblation of the bread and cup. Moreover, when we compare
the words of Irenaeus with those of the Clementine Liturgy, their
agreement is too clear and precise to be explained as a mere
chance-matter. The liturgy reads, ' Send down Thy Holy Spirit on this
sacrifice, the witness of the sufferings of the Lord Jesus, that He may
exhibit (<greek>apofhnh</greek>) this bread, the body of
Thy Christ, and this cup, the blood of Thy Christ, that they who shall
receive,'(1) etc. Irenaeus says as above, using the same word
(<greek>apofhnh</greek>), a word which is found, it is
believed, in no liturgy but the Clementine."
Now I humbly suggest that Justin Martyr and Irenaeus
concur in giving us evidence that the Clementine Liturgy is
substantially that which was used in Rome and Gaul in their times. The
latter may have received it from Polycarp. The use of the Roman and the
Greek churches was uniform in his day, as may be inferred from the
intercourse of Polycarp and Victor.(2)
End of Etext THE DIVINE INSTITUTES by Lactantius